nisi • •••''. i' I m m tvr."-.' - gw»g ■ Hrl 1 1 ■ ■ 1 1 fmEtSxk ■ ■ •.'■■:.: 7: Uf K A STUDENT'S PASTIME HLNRY FKOWDE, M.A. PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD LONDON, EDINBURGH, AND NEW YORK A STUDENT'S PASTIME BEING A SELECT SERIES OF ARTICLES REPRINTED FROM '(ttofee an* Queriee' BY THE Rev. WALTER W. SKEAT, Litt.D. D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D. Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon and Fellow of Chrisfs College, Cambridge ' The greatest corasive that you can give unto the ignoraunte, is to prosper in knowledge ; the greatest commoditie that you can yeelde unto your countrey, is with wisedome to bestowe that talent, that by grace was given you.' — Lyly, Euphnes and his Epliabus. O*fovfc AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1896 [All rights reserved] Z130</0 ©xforb PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS BY HORACE HART PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY CONTENTS Introduction Bibliography Select Extracts from 'Notes and Queries' The Third Series (1866-1867) . The Fourth Series (1S68-1873) The Fifth Series (1874-1879) . The Sixth Series (1880-1885) . The Seventh Series (1886-1891) The Eighth Series (1 892-1 896) Index PAGK vii lxxix I 31 81 129 212 316 403 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/studentspastimeOOskea ERRATA AND ADDENDA. P. xvi. 1. 14. For 1870 read i860. P: lvii. 1. 6 from bottom. For are read is. P. lxiii. 1. 21. For Wilhelm Grimm read Jacob Grimm. P. lxvi. 1. 3 from bottom. Dr. Bosworth continued to hold the rectory of Water Stratford for some time after 1858. P. 26, last line but one. For Lambert read Lambeth. P. 135, line 9 from bottom. For Rock read Lock. Appendix, p. 393 : on "Cambridge and the Cam." Dr. Chance has kindly drawn my attention to the important fact that he had already arrived at similar conclusions to those here printed, at a much earlier date. His first article on the subject appeared some twenty- seven years ago, in the pages of the Athenaeum ; and he also con- tributed valuable notes on the subject to N. and 0., 4 S. iv. 401, and 8 S. ii. 429. I willingly admit that his articles on the subject were both earlier and more complete : and I regret that, to my loss. I overlooked them. He gave authorities for the intermediate spellings Grant-bridge, Gran-bridge, Gan/e-bridge, and Crania-bridge, which I failed to find ; and suggested that the change from Gr to C (initial; was due to a confusion between the old forms of Cambridge and Catiterbnry . See the Cambridge Review. Nov. 19, 1896 ; and -V. and O., 8 S. x. 430. A Student's Pastime. O/- • INTRODUCTION Now that my attention has been definitely given to the study of English for more than thirty years (to say the least), it is high time for me to consider the question of venturing to reprint some of my scattered utterances on the subject. A good friend of mine once asked me — ' How came you to think of studying English ? ' The fact that such a question was possible suggests that to do so is an uncommon course ; and this is certainly the case, extra- ordinary as the assertion may seem to the foreigner. Under the circumstances, perhaps a few personal details are allowable. The book entitled Meti of the Time correctly gives the day of my birth as November 21, 1835; five years before that of the Princess Royal, as she was once called, on the same day. The place of it was Mount Street, Park Lane ; but, from the age of two to somewhere about fourteen, we lived at Perry Hill, Sydenham, at that time quite in the country ; and certainly a boy brought up (in holiday-time) in the country has much to be thankful for. It was then that I acquired, by help of various opportunities, some acquaintance with the dialects of West Kent, London, and Essex. But the speech which became most familiar to me vin INTRODUCTION. was that of South Shropshire, where I had many relatives, and which I often visited in company with my parents. My mother once knew the dialect well, and occasionally exemplified it. This explains why Miss Jackson's Shropshire Word-book, of which I read all the proof-sheets, was dedicated to myself; and why the lamented authoress, but lately dead, made me a present of the copyright of the work. The result is that the E?iglish Dialect Dictio?iary will be able to make very free use of it ; and this is a point of some moment, as the work in question is one of the best of its kind. It will be understood that I shall only mention such details as bear more or less directly upon my friend's question. It is of small interest to give the names of the five schools with which I was connected, but I will mention two of them. During part of the time when I was at King's College School, in the Strand, it was my singular fate to have for my class-master the Rev. Oswald Cockayne, well known to students as a careful and excellent Anglo-Saxon scholar, perhaps one of the best of those of his own date. He was an excellent and painstaking teacher, and it was, I believe, from him that I imbibed the notion of what is known as scholarship. In after life, it was my good fortune to know him personally, and I always experienced from him the greatest kindness and readiness to help. After his death, I acquired some of his books, including his well- known and useful work entitled Ang/o-Saxon Leechdoms. and some of his carefully executed transcripts. His transcript of yElfric's Lives of the Saints, in particular, has often proved useful. One of his chief objects was the preparation of a new Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, a work which he undertook because he was dissatisfied with the first edition of Bosworth, which is, in fact, little more than a translation of Lye and Manning. At the time of his death, he had HIGHGATE SCHOOL. ix actually completed, on clearly written slips, the letters A to E ; and these came into my hands with the other papers. By that time, the new edition of Bosworth had already advanced to F, so that they were not available for collation. Nevertheless, I sent them to Professor Toller, in the hope that they may afford some materials for a Supplement ; and I may add that I have since bought a copy of Somner's Dictioiiary containing a considerable number of MS. references. These are added in a most delicate handwriting resembling print, a handwriting ob- viously adopted on account of the difficulty of writing upon the old paper, which is by no means well sized. Notwith- standing this change in the style of the handwriting. I cannot doubt that these references are Cockayne's own. and should some day deserve attention. The last school that received me was that of Sir Roger Cholmeley at Highgate, founded in the reign of Elizabeth. in 1565. The three years which I spent there was a time of much profit and pleasure ; the head-master being then the Rev. John Bradley Dyne. It was in the year of the Great Exhibition of 185 1 that I obtained as a prize a copy of Steevens and Malone's Shakespeare ; and this edition was, at any rate, good enough for purposes of common use. The glossary, of course, has no references, but it was an amusement to supply them for myself. It was at this school that I gained some notion of the excellence of English literature. For it was customary to give us occasional scraps of it, on which to exercise our skill by translating them into Greek and Latin verse. Probably it is by the same curious and circuitous course that boys still have English authors brought under their notice. However this may be, it is certain that no portion of our literature was ever explained to me at any of my five schools. It was then considered as a thing altogether apart from our ordinary curriculum, and only to be seriously x INTRODUCTION. regarded when in the privacy of our own homes during holidays. And what an astounding fact this now seems to me to be ! If we really possess, as many think, one of the finest literatures in the world, why are not boys informed of its value, and why are they not shown how to approach it with profit to themselves ? There is only one thing yet more extraordinary, viz. the total disregard of the history of the English language. All wre knew of its etymology was that many English words are derived from Latin and Greek ; but I doubt if even our masters could have told us the history of such common words as home or ransom. But there were some gleams of light accorded us, which were by no means devoid of benefit. There was a school library, and one of its possessions was a glorious copy of Spenser. He must have felt rather solitary, from the dearth of brother-poets around him ; but doubtless, his isolation has long ago been remedied. Our head-master had one somewhat uncommon idea, which savoured, as it has always seemed to me, of great wisdom. Instead of invariably requiring us to turn English poetry into Latin verse, he sometimes gave us pieces of Latin poetry to turn into English verse ; a change which was delightful and refreshing. The English verse was usually poor enough, but the attempt to produce it was stimulating and valuable. And he did more than this ; for our usual holiday-task, in the longest holidays, was to produce an English poem of 200 lines on a given theme. I can conscientiously say that such tasks did me a great deal of good, and the advantages of it are obvious, namely these. In the first place, a boy who has done English verses at school soon gets to understand what genius he has in that direction. If he finds it to be very small, he has learnt a most valuable lesson, viz. to refrain, when he comes of age, from publishing a volume of ' poems.' This alone is a gain both to himself and to the public. PHILIP S. WORSLEY. xi Again, the frequent habit of writing ' verses ' is a most valuable introduction to the art of writing prose. The verse-writer soon forms a habit of considering what words will best suit the idea which he wishes to express ; so that when he has, for example, a letter to write, he does not feel quite all abroad. This is a benefit to his correspondent as well as to himself. Moreover, the experiment produced one result which was probably unexpected. One of my schoolfellows actually exhibited the true poetic faculty, and his short life was full of promise of much excellence. This was Philip Stanhope Worsley, scholar of Corpus Christi College. Oxford ; whose splendid translation of Homer's Odyssey into Spenserian stanzas has met with a fair meed of admira- tion. He afterwards attempted a translation of the Iliad, which he did not live to complete ; it was completed, as is well known, by Professor Conington. One of my treasures is his small volume of Poems and Translations, published in 1863. It is probably little known, but it contains some beautiful lines. 4 Who once hath chosen the ranks of right, With clenched resolve by his choice to stand. Saves a people oft in their own despite, And loveth wisely his native land.' I am thankful to say that, in my time, there were few (if any) ' open ' scholarships. Instead of being ' crammed ' at school for the special purpose of being examined, we honestly earned our scholarships by hard work at college during our ' first year ' ; the year which some freshmen now think they can easily afford to despise. For myself, I had the special advantage of residing in Cambridge before entering college at all ; my private tutor, in mathematics, being the Rev. Harvey Goodwin, afterwards Bishop of Carlisle. It is not many years since I again met the bishop xn INTRODUCTION. at Ely, on which occasion I reminded his lordship of his former helpfulness, when he replied with that geniality which made him so attractive — ' Well, do you know I had quite forgotten it ! ' immediately adding, to my intense surprise — 'I wish you'd teach me something!' And it turned out that he, at any rate, knew my books. He also spoke feelingly of the great interest which his deceased brother used to take in Anglo-Saxon ; this brother being Charles Wycliffe Goodwin, formerly fellow of Catharine Hall, and editor of The Life of St. Guthlac. This year of preparation for college was not wholly given to mathematics. English literature was, at all times, a delightful change and recreation j and I gained at least one special advantage at this time, fiom a careful and systematic study of the glorious Faerie Queen. I was never, to use Macaulay's phrase, ' in at the death of the Blatant Beast,' for the simple reason that he never was slain, but is still alive ; as the curious reader may discover for himself, unless he is aware of the fact already. Moreover, the Blatant Beast appears in the Sixth Book, not at the end of the extant portion of the poem ; for we must not ignore the two splendid cantos on Mutability. I early formed the habit of endeavouring to study poets by the perusal of the texts themselves, rather than by judging of their merits from accidental scraps as presented in books of extracts. I do not mean to say that in the case of Byron, for example, one is bound to read Marino Faliero and Sardanapalus along with the rest at the first time of reading ; but it is surely best to examine a considerable portion of his works at the same time, and there is no reason for neglecting Lara after perusing The Giaour. Some poets, like Keats and Campbell and Milton and Longfellow, wrote nothing that one would like to miss ; and it is no bad plan to extend one's domain of English poetry so as to include such works as Cary's Dante and Fairfax's MRS. MARKHAM'S 'HISTORY.' xm translation of Tasso. It does not take much longer to read the Paradise Regained than a second-rate three-volume novel; and, for my part, I prefer the poem. I am aware that others are of a different opinion. It will thus be seen that, in my case, a love of our splendid literature was early formed, and at no time required any external stimulus. But this does not explain how I came to take a special delight in the linguistic and philological side of it, whilst revelling in its appeals to the imagination. Some are tempted to suppose that a critical examination of language is likely to interfere with the romantic element. I have never found it so in any appreciable degree ; and I sometimes suspect that those who decry philology want to make us believe, with the fox, that the grapes are sour. Why are we to be debarred from examining a poet's language because his words are sweet and his descriptions entrancing? That is only one more reason for weighing every word that he uses. As to the charge sometimes made against philologists, that they have no real love for literature and are incapable of tracing the indebtedness of one writer to another, it is all pure assumption, cunningly put forward for the purpose of decrying philology. The philologist, on the contrary, has the larger view, and can see the value both of the language and of the ideas ; but there are some critics who care nothing for the language, and prefer to regard our great masters with but one eye. It so happens that I can even now remember how my attention was drawn to our earlier writers. As in the case of many others in my time, one of my lesson-books was Mrs. Markham's History of E?igla7id ' ; and I was of course attracted, as many others have been, by the 'Conversations' which she appended to her historical chapters. The Con- versation on the reign of Richard II is one of special interest, containing as it does, a mention of ' Chaucer, the father of English poetry,' and a quotation comprising a x»v INTRODUCTION. pretty description of a morning, which you will find intelligible. 1 The busy lark, the messenger of day, Saluteth with her song the morning gray; And fiery Phebus riseth up so bright That all the orient laugheth at the sight. And with his beames drieth in the greves The silver droppes hanging on the leves.' And when her son Richard wants to know what greves means, Mrs. M. informs him that it is the same as groves. Next, this good lady tells us something about Langland, 1 who wrote a very severe satire against persons of all pro- fessions, called the Vision of Piers Plowman, which, for the insight it gives into the manners of the times, is a very valuable relic' Asked, if it is as difficult to understand as Chaucer's poetry, she replies : ' You will find it more so.' She then gives some idea of what is meant by ' alliterative ' poetry, and selects for our instruction the following extract ] : ' I found there A hall for a high king, a household to holden, With broad boards abouten, y-benched well clean ; With windows of glass wrought as a church, And chambers with chimneys, and chapels gay.' Young as I then was, these quotations haunted me ; and I well remember making an internal resolution that, if ever I lived to grow up, I would desire better acquaintance with the originals, little dreaming that it would be my good fortune to edit both of the works which the extracts represent, as well as the Vision of Piers Plowmati, which, as we are here told, is certainly 'a very valuable relic.' Nor was this all. The words ' holden ' and ' abouten ' and ' y-benched ' seemed so quaint, that their forms irre- sistibly invited further consideration. Why and when did 1 It is not from Piers Plowman, but from Pierce Plowman's Crede, by a different author. CHRIST'S COLLEGE. xv people say 'abouten,' and what did they mean by the prefix y- in 'y-benched'? These were problems to be seriously considered ; they could not be beyond human discovery, and discovered they must some day be ! Hence it was that, throughout my college life, classics, mathematics, and theology were my more serious studies, whilst Chaucer, and Spenser, and Shakespeare were an unfailing resource in many an hour of leisure. My future was, as I then supposed, to be spent in the obscurity of a country curacy, and our great writers could be safely depended on for affording excellent companionship on a rainy day. I had come to Cambridge because I was supposed to have ' a turn ' for mathematics ; and the next question was the choice of a college. Taking counsel with a very old friend and schoolfellow, at that time an undergraduate of Peterhouse, and being desirous of entering a college which should be large enough for forming acquaintances, and not so large as to overwhelm me with competition, he suggested that Christ's College would probably suit me ; and the advice was gratefully received. No loyal student, whose affection for his own college is sincere and ineradicable, will blame me for entertaining the pious belief that it is a college of the highest merit. Milton and Darwin are great names ; and even in my own time good men were not altogether lacking. It was a treat to hear Charles Stuart Calverley, more familiarly known by his own chosen title of ' C. S. C.,' accompany himself on the pianoforte whilst singing his ' Italian ' songs. If perchance a line of La do?i?ia e mobile slipped his memory, its place was readily supplied by any other words that would suit the scansion, such as ' mezzo soprano,' or ' la piano forte,' or the English phrase ' mili potaato ' ; and even such a word as ' celery ' sounded like Italian when the c before the e was duly pronounced like the ch in chin. With John Robert xvi INTRODUCTION. Seeley, historian and true patriot, I was well acquainted ; not only during his latter years at college, but to the end of his useful life ; and none could wish for a more amiable or gentle companion. I remember the time when he began to study German seriously ; we even read Faust together. Other friends were Sir Walter Joseph Sendall, now Governor of Cyprus ; Sir Walter Besant, a familiar name throughout England's wide dominions ; Dr. John Peile, our much-revered Master of the college ; and John Wesley Hales, Professor of English Literature in King's College, London. But this is not the place for dwelling on such recollections. I was elected to a Fellowship at Christ's College, on the same day with Hales, in July, 1870 ; shortly after which my college career came to an end. The time came for my ordination, and in .December of the same year I became curate of East Dereham, in the centre of Norfolk, where the first two years of my married life were happily spent. In the north aisle of the parish church is the tomb of the poet Cowper, and in the hall of one of the principal houses in the market-place I was shown the veritable sofa which gave occasion to his Task. It was easy to acquire a good deal of the Norfolk dialect ; indeed, it surprised me to find how very well known some of the dialect words were to most of the townspeople. Nearly every one seemed to know what was meant by ' haining' a hedge, and could distinguish between a ' dor ' and a ' hodmandod.' On February 27, 1861, I ventured to give a popular lecture at East Dereham, 'On the Origin and Progress of the English Language.' It was received with some favour, and, with a few alterations, appeared in all the glory of print. This little pamphlet of forty pages, now (happily) no longer procurable, was the beginning of a long series of works on the same subject, some of which, for the present at least, are useful to students. I find, on reference, MY LECTURE AT DEREHAM. xvn that it opens with words which, in 1861, were almost prophetic : — 1 Any one who is a little acquainted with the history of philology in England must, I think, be aware that the state of that science at the present time is very different from what it was only a few years ago. We live in an age, not of progress merely, but of rapid progress.' I make no apology for transcribing a few more sentences from this extinct ' work ' : — ' It is to be hoped that the foolish custom of making out forced and far-fetched derivations has gone by ; nothing is learnt by it, because the meaning is not thereby simplified.' * It is clear that English grammar depends upon that of Anglo-Saxon almost wholly.' (This, by the way, was clean contrary to the prevalent idea in schools.) ' Our grammar has become simplified in some points, and rendered puzzling in others. We never know, for instance, whether we ought to say he sang or he sung1 ; but, according to Saxon usage, we ought to conjugate the tense thus :— I sang, thou sungest, he sang; we, ye, or they sung. Whence we see that the two forms are not to be used indifferently, but vary according to the pronoun that precedes them.' ' Most of our older grammars ignore Saxon so completely that they are of little use except for the mere beginner.' ' It was owing to a want of knowledge of Anglo-Saxon that Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary, committed some of those astounding blunders which were so ably and unmer- cifully exposed by Home Tooke in that brilliant, curious, but by no means reliable book2 which he capriciously named The Diversions of Purley. He points out, for 1 This very problem was again brought under my notice last year (1895). a The book is, practically, obsolete ; but it did good service in its time. Many of its principles are right ; but the examples are faulty and cannot be trusted. Nevertheless, I revere the author's memory. xvin INTRODUCTION. instance, a statement of Dr. Johnson's, according to which one meaning of the word down is " a valley " ; the truth being that it always means precisely the opposite, viz. "a hill," or perhaps, more strictly, an exalted table-land ; and for a very sufficient reason — that it is merely the modern form of the Anglo-Saxon word dun, which means a rolling hill, down, or dune.'1 'There is, however, a better way of studying English than by having recourse to dictionaries and grammars ; and this is, to read some good standard author of the Eliza- bethan period, such as Shakespeare or Spenser or Bacon, and to observe in them all the phrases which strike a modern reader as peculiar. Such peculiar phrases should be carefully noticed, and, if possible, remembered ; after a while, the reader will find himself gradually enabled to account for and explain some of them ; and then he will have made a considerable advance ; ... so may he come at last to be able to read and understand Chaucer, of whom Spenser says, that he is " a well of English undefiled." ' The knowledge of older English that may thus be readily acquired will be of far greater service in explaining modern English than any laborious search in dictionaries. Besides, one thus kills two birds with one stone ; whilst acquiring some knowledge of old English, one is reading books that are worthy of being read for their own sake ; and it is by far the more interesting method. ' But what is of still more importance than an acquaint- ance with languages, is a habit of careful observation. The chief aim should be to try and understand every word that occurs in common passages of standard authors. Few but those who have looked into the matter with a little care, can have any idea of the utter misconception that often prevails ' 1 Remember, this applies to 1861 ; since which a great deal has happened. MY LECTURE AT DEREHAM. xix as to the meaning of some common passages even in Shake- speare.' [I here quoted the famous passage from the Tempest. Act iv, ending — 'leave not a wreck behind,' as it was then usually cited.] . . . ' Only imagine the absurdity of talking about "a baseless fabric of a vision," or "an unsubstantial pageant faded," leaving behind them a wreck / . . . Such blunders often arise thus :— Shakespeare uses some word which, though common in his day, is now nearly obsolete, or quite so. Thereupon comes some editor who, not under- standing such a word, makes what he calls a conjectural emendation. . . . Shakespeare wrote " racke," or, as we should now spell it, " rack " ; upon which Home Tooke remarks : " Rack is a common word, and ought not to be displaced because the commentators know not its meaning " ; and he adds, with brilliant but bitter sarcasm — " If such a rule for banishing words were adopted, the commentators themselves would, most of them, become speechless ! " . . . What makes the wrong reading the more remarkable is that rack occurs elsewhere in Shakespeare, always in the sense of " drifting vapour " ; see Hamlet, ii. 2. 506 ; Antony, iv. 14. 10 ; Sonn. 33.6 [passages which were quoted at length]. But the most lamentable effect of this false reading remains to be told. The passage is inscribed upon Shakespeare's tomb in the Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey, and, as may be verified by inspection, this mistaken reading is there adopted! The monument was erected in a. d. 1740; and it is exactly the kind of blunder we should expect to be made by the critics of the reign of George the Second. Considering how Englishmen venerate Shakespeare, it is not a pleasant fact to meditate upon, that on his public monument his words have been quoted incorrectly.' After two years had been spent at East Dereham, we left that place, with much regret, to be nearer to relatives in London. My next curacy was, consequently, at Godalming, in the midst of much charming and picturesque scenery. b 2 xx INTRODUCTION. The church has lately undergone a much-needed transfor- mation, and is no longer remarkable for an almost incredible ugliness. The lower part of the central tower has been much lightened in appearance ; it was formerly an almost solid mass, with a low tunnel cut through the centre, whereby to reach the chancel from the aisle. On the north side of the chancel is the memorial tablet of Owen Manning, S.T.P., editor of Lye's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary in 1772. He is described on the title-page of that work as 1 Canon. Lincoln. Vicarius de Godelming, et Rector de Peperharow in Agro Surreiensi.' The neighbourhood was beautiful, but the climate proved unsuitable ; and at last an alarming attack, of a diphtheritic character, totally unfitted me for clerical work and rendered a long rest absolutely necessary ; and I thus found myself, in the end of 1863, at the age of twenty-eight, in the desolate con- dition of finding my chosen career brought to a sudden end, without any idea as to my future course, and even without much prospect of ever again rendering any help to my fellow-creatures, which (I can truly say) has always been my object as regards this present world. Man proposes, but God disposes. I have never doubted that the work of a country clergyman is work of the noblest kind, with abundant opportunities for unobtrusive helpful- ness, especially if he is not wholly dependent on having to eke out his subsistence by some form of additional labour. With such honest Christian work I could have been well content, and I had no ambition beyond it. But I can now believe that I was meant to labour in a different field. Each man has his appointed task ; and I have long since loyally accepted the educational duty of endeavouring to instil into the minds of Englishmen the respect in which they ought to hold their noble literature and their noble language, and the desirability of fighting against all the forms of error that beset the study of these RETURN TO CAMBRIDGE. xxi invaluable treasures. Every true scholar is in some degree a missionary ; he must hold fast to that which is good without wavering, and spare no pains to allure men to the reception of the truth. A period of enforced idleness soon gave rise to a wish for some form of employment ; and I could think of nothing better than to return to Cambridge. In October, 1864, I was appointed a mathematical lecturer at my own college, and I occasionally took a few pupils ; but this left me a good deal of leisure time. After some inquiry, I could not find that any one in Cambridge had any very accurate or extensive knowledge of Anglo-Saxon • and the idea occurred to me that, as it was obviously a useful study and in a fair way of becoming one of considerable importance, it would be a good plan to take up the subject seriously. It is fair to say that I formed this resolve with the sincere intention of assisting in the pro- motion of English scholarship, without any idea that it would afterwards fit me for doing work as a professor ; for no one could then foresee that Dr. Bosworth would, in 1867, provide means for founding a Professorship of Anglo-Saxon \ It is now time to consider the history of the Philological Society's Dictionary, with which I have, indirectly, been much concerned. At a meeting of the Philological Society of London, held on January 7, 1858, it was resolved — 'that, instead of the Supplement to the standard English Dictionaries, then in the course of preparation by the Society's Unregistered Words Committee, a New Dictionary of the English Language should be prepared under the authority of the Philological Society.' The work was placed in the hands of two Committees, the one, Literary and Historical, consisting of the Very 1 The money was left to accumulate for over ten years ; so that the actual establishment of the Professorship was put off till 1878. xxn INTRODUCTION. Rev. the Dean of Westminster (Dean R. C. Trench), F. J. Furnivall, Esq., and H. Coleridge, Esq., Secretary ; the other, Etymological, consisting of H. Wedgwood, Esq., and Professor Maiden. Soon after, Mr. Coleridge and Mr. Furnivall were appointed editors of the Dictionary. The practical results of the work of these Committees were remarkable. They soon discovered that, in both these departments, there was room for a great deal to be done. Let us first consider the historical evidence. None could doubt that our linguistic treasures were abundant, but a great number of them existed only in manuscript, or had never been printed in any accessible form. The sumptuous editions for the Maitland and Roxburghe clubs were beyond the means of students ; and it has lately been ascertained that some of the editors were not remarkable for any close acquaintance with their subjects. The publication, in 1859, of Herbert Coleridge's Glos- sarial Index to the printed English Literature of the Thirteenth Century was timely and useful ; but the practical result of it was to render it clearer than ever that the com- mencement of the publication of the Dictionary at too early a date would be disastrous, and would only demonstrate how little was known, from a philological point of view, of many of our most valuable literary monuments. There was only one course to be taken. The MSS., especially of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, had to be printed at a reasonable price, and such of them as had only been edited in an expensive form, had to be printed over again. With this end in view, and at the urgent request of Dr. Morris, Mr. Furnivall started the Early English Text Society in 1864, with a goodly list of subscribers at a guinea apiece ; and he had to look about for patriotic editors, who were willing to do the editing gratis, if the Society would pay for the printing. EARLY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY. xxiu The Society was extremely fortunate in its first editor. This was Dr. Richard Morris, who had already edited, for the Philological Society, a small book entitled Liber Cure Cocorum, as well as a more important one, viz. Hampole's Pricke of Co7iscience. Morris was gifted with a remarkable activity of mind and swiftness of comprehension, an excellent memory, and an unusual capacity for mastering minute grammatical details. In his preface to the Pricke of Conscience, he described, with great precision *, the peculiarities of the Northumbrian or Northern English Dialect ; and thus laid the foundation of a more accurate study of Middle English. In his preface to Early English Alliterative Poems (the Text Society's first volume), he brought out the peculiarities of the dialect and grammar of the West Midland district; and in 1867, viz. in the first edition of his Specimens of Early E?iglish, he clearly made out the chief characteristics of the three main dialects, Northern, Midland, and Southern. The results of his work are now common property, and almost every beginner of the study of Middle English is perfectly familiar with facts which, in 1866, were quite unknown. Every such student ought to know, further, what a debt of gratitude he owes, for this and many other lessons, to Richard Morris. At any rate, let me acknowledge, with all thankfulness, how much I learnt from him. His Specimens of Early English was, in my eyes, of such great value, that I could not rest till I had provided it with a new Glossarial Index and furnished the author with such notes and small emen- dations as it was in my power to offer. With these he 1 Morris's work was founded on a minute investigation of Middle- English poems. An earlier worker in the field was the Rev. Richard Garnett, who contributed an article on the ' Local Dialects of England' to the Quarterly Review, in Feb. 1836, and several papers to the Philological Society s Transactions in 1844-5. These were afterwards reprinted in Garnett's Philological Essays, edited by his son in 1859. xxiv INTRODUCTION. was so well satisfied that he practically put the book into my hands, and allowed my name to be added to the title-page. I also prepared an additional volume, containing extracts from our literature from 1394 to 1579; and, at a subsequent period, Morris produced a third volume, ranking as the first of the three in chronological order, as it contains 'Specimens' from 1150 to 1300. And even this was not all ; for the idea afterwards occurred to me that the very numerous references given in these three books of ' Specimens ' ought certainly to be registered under one alphabet ; an idea which was taken up by my friend Mr. A. L. Mayhew, of Oxford, and made the foun- dation of the still more comprehensive volume entitled A Concise Middle-English Dictionary, edited by Mr. Mayhew and myself. But Morris's work for the English Text Society extended far beyond his first very useful volume. It is to him that we are also indebted for an accessible reprint ' of Sir Gaiuayne and the Grene Knight (1864), a poem of great merit, written by the same unknown hand that wrote those edited in his first volume ; a Metrical Paraphrase of the Books of Genesis and Exodus (1865), a poem written about 1250; the very valuable prose work by Dan Michel of Northgate, known as The Ayenbite of Inwit, or Remorse of Conscience'1, dated 1340, and the chief source of our knowledge of the dialect of Kent ; two series of Early English Homilies of the thirteenth century (1867-8, and 1873); Legends of the Holy Rood (1871); An Old English Miscellany (1872); the long religious poem known as the 1 It had previously been edited by Sir Frederic Madden, one of the few of the earlier editors whose work was remarkable for true scholarship and accuracy. His edition of Layamon's Brut is also excellent; and he was joint-editor of the splendid Oxford edition of Wycliffe's Bible. 2 Previously edited by the Rev. J. Stevenson. HENRY BRADSHAW. xxv Cursor Jl fundi (begun in 1874); The Blickling Homilies, from a MS. dated 971 (1874-1880); and a new edition of Chaucer's Boethius, from the two best MSS. (1868). No student can afford to neglect these justly esteemed editions by Dr. Morris, if he wishes to have a correct notion of the state of the English language in the thirteenth century. The Early English Text Society being thus well started on its long and useful career, Dr. Furnivall, who has throughout been the chief source of the energy expended upon it and has himself edited considerably more than a dozen of its publications, began to cast about for more editors. My name was mentioned to him as that of one who was fond of Early English and had some leisure ; and the result was that I was entrusted with the duty of re-editing a poem of no great value, entitled Lancelot of the Laik, formerly edited by the Rev. Joseph Stevenson for the Maitland Club in 1839. My objection, that I was unable to read a MS., was over-ruled on the grounds, first, that the sole MS. was always at hand in the Cam- bridge University Library ; and secondly, that I could learn. My first inspection of the MS. was not reassuring ; in fact, any one who can thoroughly master a Scottish MS. of the end of the fifteenth century is in a fair position to be not easily daunted by MSS. of an earlier date. But there was a teacher at hand such as few men ever had. To this day I can remember the smile of amused satisfaction with which the MS. was brought to me by our justly celebrated librarian, Henry Bradshaw by name, of King's College. I much suspect that he thought he had extin- guished me ; indeed, after puzzling over the first page for a couple of hours, I was not conscious of having advanced beyond some twenty lines ; and so retreated for that time. But as I gradually gained the courage to maintain that, if the MS. was right, the printed copy was xxvi INTRODUCTION. sometimes wrong, Bradshaw became interested, authori- tatively confirmed all my emendations, and never failed to give me his most valuable aid, in every case of doubt and difficulty, from that day forward till that which brought me the unexpected and startling news that my kind teacher and most sincere friend had died of a disease of the heart. The announcement, in my preface to Lancelot, published in 1865, that the Maitland Club edition contained some strange errors — it must have been printed from a faulty transcript without any subsequent collation — created, at the time, quite a nine-days' wonder. It showed, at any rate, that the editors for the Early English Text Society really aimed at a reasonable accuracy ; and it was urged that it was incumbent upon me to take up some more important work. In particular, a new edition of Piers Plowman was suggested, for which purpose it was necessary to examine all the available MSS. The generous help afforded me on this occasion is a thing to be remembered. A particular passage of the poem was selected by Dr. Fur- nivall, and transcripts of this passage came to hand from many helpers ; from Dr. Furnivall himself, from the Rev. H. O. Coxe, Bodley's Librarian, and from Mr. W. Aldis Wright ; whilst other aid was forthcoming from many quarters. Mr. (now Dr.) E. A. Bond gave his opinion as to the age of some of the MSS.; and, at a later date, MSS. were either lent or shown to me by the Earl of Ilchester, the Duke of Westminster, Mr. Henry Yates Thompson, and Lord Ashburnham. Not the least pleasant of my experiences were some valuable hints sent me by Mr. Thomas Wright, who had made a very useful edition of this great poem on his own account. And so it came to pass that I began editing this poem in 1866, and only finished the last page of the General Introduction in 1885. A complete edition of the three principal texts, together with a sufficient reproduction of ALLITERATIVE POEMS. XXVII the Notes and Glossary, was reprinted by the Clarendon Press in 1886. My work upon this edition of Piers Plowman suggested to me the idea of endeavouring to print or reprint, in due course, all the Early English poems that have come down to us in the form of alliterative verse without rime. This intention was never wholly fulfilled, but I nevertheless made considerable progress in this direction. The poems of this character edited by me were Pierce the Ploughman's Crede, the fragmentary Romance of Joseph of Arimathea (from the Vernon MS.), Richard the Rede/ess (by the author of The Vision of Piers Plowman) ; the short piece which I have called The Croivned King : William of Pa/erne ; The Romance of Alexander and Dindimus\ and the Wars of Alexander. Nearly all these poems are of considerable service to the lexicographer owing to the abundance in them of unusual, dialectal, and obsolescent words. By the difficulties which they thus frequently present I was especially attracted. Most of these poems belong to the fourteenth century, and I was thus led to a special study of the language of this period, so that it has long been as familiar to me (as far as such a result is possible) as the language of the present day. I shall always be glad of having had a main hand in the editing and interpretation of three great authors of this period, viz. John Barbour, William Langland, and Geoffrey Chaucer. Future editors may do better ; but my work will never (I hope) become quite superfluous. It will now readily be understood that the foundation of the Early English Text Society was the first outcome of the desire of the Philological Society to provide for the publication of the New English Dictionary . But there were other results, of much importance for the study, which should be briefly mentioned. The next result was this. We had (nearly?) all been xxvm INTRODUCTION. taught at school to pronounce Latin like modern Victorian English, a statement which ought to seem ludicrous, but is rather to be accounted as a lamentable disgrace. Con- sequently, it came natural to us to pronounce Early English after the same extraordinary and chaotic fashion. Neither did the evil stop there ; for when I began the study of Anglo-Saxon, I knew no better than to pronounce the I in the A. S. r'idan like the i in the modern English ride ; whereas, like the l in Latin, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Greek, and Russian, it was pronounced like the i in i7iachine. It was obvious that this would never do. It was useless to produce texts unless we could correctly pronounce the words which they gave us ; and it was fortunate that the highly complex problem of the study of our old pronun- ciation was undertaken by the two men who were most competent to deal with it, as being intimately acquainted with the actual pronunciation of many languages. In England, men often ' spring up wherever they are wanted, capable of ruling, of conquering, of mastering difficulties 1 ' ; and the two men who mastered this particular difficulty were Alexander John Ellis and Henry Sweet. The great work by the former on Early E?iglish Pronimciation, and the History of English Sounds by the latter, have made it abundantly clear that our pronunciation has suffered many and startling alterations from time to time, and most of these changes can now be approximately dated. Anglo- Saxon was written with letters which were Celtic adaptations from the Latin alphabet, and the pronunciation of Anglo- Saxon did not greatly differ from that of Latin. Early English was respelt by Anglo-French scribes, but their pronunciation was much the same, so that it made no great difference. The vowel-sounds used by Chaucer were much 1 J. R. Seeley; in Literary Remains of C. S. Calvcrley, p. 113 STUDY OF PHONETICS. xxix the same as those used by his great Italian cotemporaries, Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. It was not till after 1400 that most of the new vowel-sounds began to arise which have been developed, in course of time, into those which we now use. The difference, in some cases, is very great ; so that it is indeed difficult for any one who is inexperienced in our older literature to realize that our a in dame was once the French a in the French dame ; that our e in deity was once the French / in de'ite '; that our diphthongal i in silence was once the French i in silence; and that our diphthongal ou in doubt was once the French on in doute. Yet such statements as these ought to be self-evident ; we cannot even conceive that a Norman noble could have pronounced dame, deity, doubt, and silence with the modern English vowels. The conclusions obtained by the labours of Ellis and Sweet have had far-reaching consequences. Englishmen are awaking to the value of phonetics generally. It is hardly too much to say that the study of etymology, in England, has been quite revolutionized by the use of newer and surer methods, based upon the careful observations of sounds and of the method of representing them by symbols. The student who understands the history of English sounds can no longer put up with the old and slovenly neglect of the history of the sounds in Latin and Greek ; he awakes to the facts that language is a living thing, and that the spoken tongue is full of information as regards the written repre- sentation of it ; he learns to listen to what he hears around him, and to make mental notes of the many varieties of pronunciation which are, literally, always in the air. In this way the subject of his study is quickened into full and active life ; forms that are written down in old manuscripts by hands that are now mere dust may be, and continually are, illustrated, as by a revealing flash, by the chance word of an unknown stranger ; and if the problems presented by xxx INTRODUCTION. the subtle changes in sounds are almost endless, we have at the same time a never-failing supply of undoubted facts ever filling the air around us, asking only for recognition, for memory, and for record. The position of learners is one of highest hope. There was a time when Greek accents were mere unmeaning marks, to be set over certain syllables because it was unreasonably esteemed a sign of scholar- ship (!) to do so ; but to-day they are being severely scrutinized, for they tell us which syllable received the pitch, and afford much valuable information as to the way in which each word was sounded. We now come to another matter altogether, though it has a close relationship to English philology, viz. the utility of a knowledge of our modern English dialects. In compiling the vocabulary of words admitted into the New English Dictionary, it was often extremely difficult to know where to draw the line. It has sometimes happened that a word which in olden times may fairly be said to have been in general use, or at any rate, in use over a large area, is now only heard in some provincial dialect, being unknown to nearly all the inhabitants of the rest of England ; and, on the other hand, a word which was once used, as it would seem from the evidence, in one dialect only, has now become familiar to everybody. It follows from this that the collection of provincial words is absolutely necessary for completing the material with which the lexicographer has to deal ; and hence Mr. Ellis and others suggested the establishment of an English Dialect Society. A letter written by Mr. Aldis Wright to Notes and Queries in March, 1870, was particularly explicit as to this necessity, and contained the ominous warning that ' in a few years it will be too late.' Being deeply impressed with the incontrovertible truth of this statement, and finding that still the work could not be done till some one would definitely undertake the trouble ENGLISH DIALECT SOCIETY. xxxi of performing all the duties of an honorary secretary, I at last resolved to follow Dr. Furnivall's example, and to write the necessary prospectus for the formation of such a society. This was the beginning of the English Dialect Society, established in 1873, and commencing with a Bibliographical List of works written in English dialects, or directly concerned with the same. The Society is now (in 1896) still in existence, and in the course of its career has issued no less than seventy-six parts or numbers, including some highly valuable special glossaries, such as those of Mr. Elworthy (West Somerset), Mr. F. K. Robinson (Whitby), Messrs. Nodal and Milner (Lancashire), Mr. C. Clough Robinson (Mid Yorkshire), Mr. E. Peacock (Lincolnshire), and many more, for which I must refer the reader to the Society's list. Indeed, the work already accomplished is so considerable that we have arrived, as it were, in sight of land, and can contemplate the probable extinction of the Society in a not very distant future without any great anxiety. We arc already beginning to gather together all the material ; and, under the able editorship of Professor Wright, a general English Dialect Dictionary is already in the press. We may fairly hope for the completion of this truly national work in the course of another eight years. As the publications of the Early English Text Society were specially designed, from the outset, for the use of future lexicographers, most of them were accompanied with glossaries, more or less complete, giving very copious and exact references to the passages which contain the harder words. But it was soon felt that something like a general Dictionary of Middle English was much needed, in order to exhibit results collected from many various sources. The two chief Dictionaries of this character were both under- taken, in the first instance, by Germans ; we are much indebted, in this respect, to Dr. Francis Henry Stratmann, of Krefeld, and to Dr. Eduard Matzner, of Berlin. xxxn INTRODUCTION. The first edition of Dr. Stratmann's Dictionary of Middle English was not wholly satisfactory. It was open to three objections, from a practical point of view. In the first place, the meanings assigned were too briefly given, and frequently rendered unintelligible by the use of provincial English words which represented the old word as to form, but not always as to sense. Secondly, many words were given under twelfth-century forms, without any recognition, in the alphabet, of forms with more usual spellings. And thirdly, which was worst of all, the author at first devoted himself solely to the explanation of words of Germanic origin, thus leaving the highly important Anglo-French element almost unrepresented. The third and latest edition, in a much improved form, was published in 1878, and an extensive supplement was issued in 1881 ; but in 1884 the author died. At the suggestion of Dr. Furnivall, the copyright of the work was purchased by the Clarendon Press, and all the materials, including the author's collections for a new edition, were placed in the hands of Mr. Henry Bradley. With almost incredible industry and perseverance, Mr. Bradley recon- structed the whole work, removing the above-mentioned obvious defects and largely increasing the vocabulary. The new edition (technically, the fourth) appeared in 189T, and is a book which every serious student of historical English keeps within easy reach, as a matter of course. A mere glance at this volume affords almost instantaneous proof that the Early English Text Society was not established in vain, and was founded none too soon. The second Middle English Dictionary, by E. Matzner, was originally planned as an accompanying glossarial volume to the Altenglische Sprachprobe7i, or Specimens of Early English, issued by Matzner and Goldbeck in 1867-9. But the work grew under the author's hands, till at length he formed the ambitious design of including in it references to all the chief works existing in our Middle English Literature. NEW ENGLISH DICTIONARY. xxxiti It was, from the first, a better planned book than that of Stratmann. The explanations are fuller, the quotations more extended, and the vocabulary more complete ; at the same time, the forms chosen as normal ones are such as very frequently occur. It had but one drawback, but that proved to be a very great one. The scale on which it was planned was such that the author could not complete it, though he lived till over eighty years of age, and was at work upon it almost to the last. The eleventh and last part appeared in 1891 ; and the last word discussed in it is the verb makien, to make. Whether it is in contemplation to continue this great work any further, I am unable to say. It thus appears that, in the quarter of a century which elapsed between 1857 and 1882, an enormous advance had been made towards providing the New English Dictionary with better materials. It must further be borne in mind that, during all this period, hundreds of readers had been employed in making suitable extracts from thousands of books j and the precaution had been taken of requesting all the readers to write out their extracts on one side only of a half-sheet of ordinary note-paper, so that they might be duly sorted out in alphabetical order and tied up in bundles for ready reference. In this way several tons in weight of most valuable materials have been accumulated by the united efforts of a small army of workers ; and though it frequently happens that, owing to imperfections in the work or a want of legibility, a given extract has to be re-compared with the source whence it was originally taken (causing much delay and trouble in the case of works that are difficult of access), yet the references alone are of infinite service, as without them the work would have remained impossible of execution in any satisfactory manner. And when all things are taken into account, viz. the establish- ment during this period of the Early English Text Society and of the Chaucer Society by Dr. Fumivall, and of the XXXiv INTRODUCTION. English Dialect Society — the numerous editions of previously unprinted MSS. which have appeared not in England only, but also in Germany and America — the numerous re- editions of pieces that had previously been edited in an unsatisfactory or insufficient manner — the splendid success of Dr. Ellis and Dr. Sweet in recovering the almost lost history of our pronunciation — and the hearty co-operation of so many readers in preparing useful extracts — it may be doubted whether any similar enterprise was ever carried out with such sustained vigour and so much practical success. It is also of great importance to observe that, during the same period, very great advances have been made, especially in Germany, in the study of comparative grammar. So far, I have spoken mainly of the historical side of the development of our venerable and venerated language. It remains to add a brief account of what has been done from a purely etymological point of view. I have no space here to explore a subject which would, I think, prove to be of great interest, viz. the history of the progress of English etymology, beginning (let us say) with Minsheu and Blount and Skinner, and so onwrards to Bailey and Johnson, with an occasional excursus on the wonderful vagaries of Richard Verstegan and the Rev. G. W. Lemon, and others like unto them. Let us begin at once with much more recent times. It must be remembered that English, considered as to its vocabulary, is as a great river derived from many rills. Setting aside such words as have been adopted from sources of less importance, we may confine our attention, at the outset, to three streams which supplied us more copiously than others, viz. the Old English (including Scandinavian), the Anglo-French or Anglo-Norman, and the 'classical,' which includes Latin and Greek. Ever since the period of the Renaissance, to the end of the last century, and even later, abundant attention has been bestowed upon the third SOMNER AND TO ORE. xxxv of these, almost as if it were all-sufficient and all-important, whilst the other two have been treated with an indifference that has often savoured of contempt. No man is a 'scholar ' unless he can account for the spelling and etymology of system ; but he is not expected to know anything of the history of such words as home or ransom, which are at once of earlier introduction and in much more extended use. It is difficult to conceive of anything more perverse. The publication, in 1659, of Somner's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary was (or rather might have been) a great step in advance; but Skinner, in 1691, failed, for the most part, to make any satisfactory use of it, owing to his want of knowledge of the grammar and phonetic laws of the oldest stage of English. Dr. Johnson trusted much to the guidance of Skinner, so that but little progress was possible. Just at the beginning of the present century appeared the remarkable work by Home Tooke entitled The Diversions of Purley. In this the author assailed the etymologies in Johnson with much smartness and pitiless logic ;' showing, with great force, the value of Anglo-Saxon and Mceso- Gothic in questions relating to words of native origin, and opening the way to a better appreciation of our old expressions. Unfortunately, however, he was led to the construction of two most grotesque and crazy theories ; the one, that conjunctions are derived from verbs in the imperative mood ; and the other, that substantives ending in -th are formed from the third person singular of indica- tives ! And so it has come to pass that his book is obsolete, though it may still be read with pleasure by a student who is curious as to the history of the study of our language. It was necessary to mention this work of Home Tooke, in order to explain the singular phenomena presented by Richardson's Dictionary, of which a new edition appeared, in two fine quarto volumes, as late as 1863. This great c 2 xxxvi INTRODUCTION. work has two chief features, viz. its etymologies and its quotations. As regards the latter, its excellence and copiousness are surpassed by the great New English Dic- tionary only ; indeed, we owe to Richardson the valuable habit of making a free use of our older authors. But when we come to investigate his etymologies, we find that he has not only adopted Tooke's theories, but carried them out with a boldness of invention that almost surpasses belief. Thus he expressly selects, for our approval and admiration, his account of the verbs till and tell (which happen to be unrelated), by repeating it complacently in his Preface : ' Again, to tell and to //'// are the same word, and mean to lift, to raise. To till with the plough is to raise (sc. the ground) with it. To tell with the tongue is to raise (sc. the voice) with it.' And all this, because Tooke had a fancy of deriving these words from the Latin tollere ; which, by Grimm's Law, is impossible. It soon became clear that this kind of roundabout reason- ing, if reasoning it can be called, enabled anybody to derive any one word from any other, if only a case could somehow be made out ; and the method had the inherent weakness of satisfying no one but the particular inventor of the guess. There was no stability or finality about such a process, and another one had to be resorted to. It has already been remarked that Mr. Wedgwood was one of the committee appointed by the Philological Society to look after etymologies. To this circumstance we owe the highly ingenious and suggestive Dictionary of English Etymology written by my fellow-collegian Hensleigh Wedgwood, late Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge ; which was undertaken at the urgent solicita- tion of Dr. Furnivall, the Society's honorary secretary. The second edition, revised and enlarged, appeared in 1872, and the third edition in 1878. The Introduction, con- taining an essay on the Origin of Language, is of great HEN SLEIGH WEDGWOOD. xxxvn interest, as the author maintains, with much skill and abundant illustrations, the theory that language took its rise from the imitation of natural sounds and cries and from expressive interjections, in opposition to the theory of Max Miiller that linguistic roots are ' phonetic types pro- duced by a power inherent in human nature,' whatever that may mean. The theory here advocated by Wedgwood is (as I believe) right in the main, and I may refer the reader to the treat- ment of it by Whitney and Sweet. Unluckily, it influenced the author far too much in his account of various words ; for in many cases the forms in use are too modern or too much altered from their primitive shape for us to be still able to trace how they first arose. In the case of the verb to plunge, for example, Wedgwood's statement that its origin, ' like that of plump, is a representation of the noise made by the fall,' is purely fanciful ; for it is merely borrowed from the F. plonger, answering to the Low Latin type *plumbicare, a derivative of plumbum, lead ; see the account of the F. word in Littre and Diez. It will be found, in fact, that several of Wedgwood's articles refer us to imitative types, where it is very doubtful if any such imitation was really intended. There is much in the book that is very useful, but the treatment of words of native origin leaves much to be desired. It is surprising that the word home should be referred to ham-let, and treated as if the a in the A. S. ham (printed ham) was a short vowel. So under horn, we are referred to the * Goth, haurn, Lat. cornu, Bret, corn, Gr. Kepar, Heb. keren ' ; without any mention of the A. S. horn as being the actual source. Very little regard is paid to the length of vowels, and the historical method is hardly pursued at all. There is no scientific treatment of the consonants, nor any recognition of the phenomena which are formulated and sum- marized in the convenient canon known as ' Grimm's Law.' xxxvill INTRODUCTION. Briefly, Wedgwood's Etymological Dictio?iary, though it represents an enormous advance beyond the methods employed by Skinner and Richardson, is sadly deficient in scientific method, and could not be regarded as approaching finality. The first English etymological dictionary in which the scientific treatment of language is sufficiently recognized was written, as might have been expected, in Germany ; and remains to this day, owing to the excellence of its method, a reasonably good authority. This is the Etymologisches Worterbuch der englischen Sprache by E. Miiller, of which the first edition was published at Cothen in 1865, and the second and much improved edition at the same place in 1878. This is a thoroughly good and sound work ; and the author took the precaution of consulting the best authorities then available. The chief English works to which he refers are the dictionaries by Johnson, Richardson, Webster (with the etymologies revised by Dr. Mahn), Worcester, and Wedg- wood : but he also availed himself of the excellent works by German authorities, such as Grimm, Koch, Fiedler, Matzner, and Stratmann. The results are presented in a brief but usually accurate form, so that most of the articles require little or no correction. But it does not seem to be much known or much used in England, owing, I suppose, to the fact that the text is written in German. The mention of the second edition of E. Miiller's Dictionary has already brought us on to the year 1878. Meanwhile, the preparations for the New English Dictionary had been much advanced, and there seemed good hope that in a few years more, the time would have arrived for commencing to print and publish it. At this stage, the idea occurred to me that, as Wedgwood's work had been printed in advance as a contribution to the labour of furnishing the etymologies, and at the same time did not present the results in a well-assorted form, it would be MY ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. xxxix helpful for some one to attempt to revise the whole of it, in a form more available for immediate use. I had the temerity to undertake this important task myself, having then hardly arrived at the age when one ceases to be infallible ; and I began to bethink me of the improvements that could be made j and I took particular note of what seemed to be the more obvious defects in the existing dictionaries. As I cannot explain the state of the case more clearly than I have already done in the Preface to the first edition (in 1882) of my Etymological Dictionary, I make no apology for citing a considerable portion of it here. Few people read a preface to a dictionary printed in a quarto form ; so that it will probably be new to most of my readers : — ' The present work was undertaken with the intention of furnishing students with materials for a more scientific study of English etymology than is commonly to be found in previous works upon the subject. It is not intended to be always authoritative, nor are the conclusions arrived at to be accepted as final. It is rather intended as a guide to future writers, showing them in some cases what ought certainly to be accepted, and in other cases, it may be, what to avoid. The idea of it arose out of my own wants. I could find no single book containing the facts about a given word which it most concerns a student to know, whilst, at the same time, there exist numerous books containing information too important to be omitted. Thus Richardson's Dictionary is an admirable store-house of quotations illustrating such words as are of no great antiquity in the language, and his selected examples are the more valuable from the fact that he in general adds the exact reference. Todd's Johnson likewise contains numerous well-chosen quotations, but perhaps no greater mistake was ever made than that of citing from authors like Dryden or Addison at large, without the slightest hint as to the xl INTRODUCTION. whereabouts of the context. But in both of these works the etymology is, commonly, of the poorest description ; and it would probably be difficult to find a worse philologist than Richardson, who adopted many suggestions from Home Tooke without enquiry, and was capable of saying that hod is " perhaps hoved, hov'd, /iod, past part, of heafan^ to heave." It is easily ascertained that the A. S. for heave is hebban, and that, being a strong verb, its past participle did not originally end in -ed. ' It would be tedious to mention the numerous other books which help to throw such light on the history of words as is necessary for the right investigation of their etymology. The great defect of most of them is that they do not carry back that history far enough, and are very weak in the highly important Middle English period. But the publications of the Camden Society, of the Early English Text Society, and of many other printing clubs, have lately materially advanced our knowledge, and have rendered possible such excellent books of reference as are exemplified in Stratmann's Old English Dictionary and in the still more admirable but (as yet) incomplete Worterbuch by Eduard Matzner. In particular, the study of phonetics, as applied to Early English pronunciation by Mr. Ellis and Mr. Sweet, and carefully carried out by nearly all students of Early English in Germany, has almost revolutionized the study of etymology as hitherto pursued in England. We can no longer consent to disregard vowel-sounds as if they formed no essential part of the word, which seems to have been the old doctrine ; indeed, the idea is by no means yet discarded even by those who ought to know better. ' On the other hand, we have, in Eduard Miiller's Etymologisches Worterbuch der englischen Sprache, an ex- cellent collection of etymologies and cognate words, but without any illustrations of the use or history of words, or any indication of the period when they first came into MY ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. xli use. We have also Webster's Dictionary, with the etymologies as revised by Dr. Mahn, a very useful and comprehensive volume ; but the plan of the work does not allow of much explanation of a purely philological character. 1 It is many years since a new and comprehensive dictionary was first planned by the Philological Society, and we have now good hope that, under the able editorship of Dr. Murray, some portion of this great work may ere long see the light. For the illustration of the history of words, this will be all-important, and the etymologies will, I believe, be briefly but sufficiently indicated. It was chiefly with the hope of assisting in this national work, that, many years ago, I began collecting materials and making notes upon points relating to etymology. The result of such work, in a modified form, and with very large additions, is here offered to the reader. My object has been to clear the way for the improvement of the etymologies by a previous dis- cussion of all the more important words, executed on a plan so far differing from that which will be adopted by Dr. Murray as not to interfere with his labours, but rather, as far as possible, to assist them. It will, accordingly, be found that I have studied brevity by refraining from any detailed account of the changes of meaning of words, except where absolutely necessary for purely etymological purposes. The numerous very curious and highly interesting examples of words which, especially in later times, took up new meanings will not, in general, be found here ; and the definitions of words are only given in a very brief and bald manner, only the more usual senses being indicated. On the other hand, I have sometimes permitted myself to indulge in comments, discussions, and even suggestions and speculations, which would be out of place in a dictionary of the usual character. Some of these, where the results are right, will, I hope, save much future discussion and investigation ; whilst others, where the results prove to be xlii INTRODUCTION. wrong, can be avoided and rejected. In one respect I have attempted considerably more than is usually done by the writers of works upon English etymology. I have en- deavoured, where possible, to trace back words to their Aryan roots, by availing myself of the latest works upon comparative philology. In doing this, I have especially endeavoured to link one word with another, and the reader will find a perfect network of cross-references enabling him to collect all the forms of any given word of which various forms exist ; so that many of the principal words in the Aryan languages can be thus traced. Instead of considering English as an isolated language, as is sometimes actually done, I endeavour, in every case, to exhibit its relation to cognate tongues ; and as, by this process, considerable light is thrown upon English by Latin and Greek, so also, at the same time, considerable light is thrown upon Latin and Greek by Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic. Thus, whilst under the word bite will be found a mention of the cognate Latin findere, conversely, under the word fissitre, is given a cross-reference to bite. In both cases, reference is also made to the root khid ; and, by referring to this root (No. 240, on p. 738), some further account of it will be found, with further examples of allied words. It is only by thus comparing all the Aryan languages together, and by considering them as one harmonious whole, that we can get a clear conception of the original forms ; a conception which must precede all theory as to how those forms came to be invented. Another great advantage of the comparative method is that, though the present work is nominally one on E?iglisJi etymology, it is equally explicit, as far as it has occasion to deal with them, with regard to the related words in other languages ; and may be taken as a guide to the etymology of many of the leading words in Latin and Greek, and to all the more important words in the various Scandinavian and Teutonic tongues. MY ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. xliii c I have chiefly been guided throughout by the results of my own experience. Much use of many dictionaries has shown me the exact points where an enquirer is often baffled, and I have especially addressed myself to the task of solving difficulties and passing beyond obstacles. Not inconsiderable has been the trouble of verifying references. A few examples will put this in a clear light. 1 Richardson has numerous references (to take a single case) to the Ro7?iannt of the Rose. He probably used some edition in which the lines are not numbered ; at any rate, he never gives an exact reference to it. The few references to it in Tyrwhitt's Glossary and in Stratmann do not help us very greatly. To find a particular word in this poem of 7700 lines is often troublesome; but, in every case where I wanted the quotation, I have found and noted it. I can recall several half-hours spent in this particular work. ' Another not very hopeful book in which to find one's place, is the Faerie Queene. References to this are usually given to the book and canto, and of these one or other is (in Richardson) occasionally incorrect; in every case, I have added the number of the stanza. 1 One very remarkable fact about Richardson's Dictionary is that, in many cases, references are given only to obscure and late authors, when all the while the word occurs in Shakespeare. By keeping Dr. Schmidt's comprehensive Shakespeare Lexicon always open before me, this fault has been easily remedied. ' To pass on to matters more purely etymological. I have constantly been troubled with the vagueness and inaccuracy of words quoted, in various books, as specimens of Old English or foreign languages. The spelling of " Anglo- Saxon " in some books is often simply outrageous. Accents are put in or left out at pleasure ; impossible combinations of letters are given ; the number of syllables is disregarded ; and grammatical terminations have to take their chance. xliv INTRODUCTION. Words taken from Ettmiiller are spelt with a and ce ; words taken from Bosworth are spelt with ce and <zl, without any hint that the a and ce of the former answer to ce and de in the latter. I do not wish to give examples of these things ; they are so abundant that they may easily be found by the curious. In many cases, writers of " etymological " dic- tionaries do not trouble to learn even the alphabets of the languages cited from, or the most elementary grammatical facts. I have met with supposed Welsh words spelt with a v, with Swedish words spelt with ce, with Danish infinitives ending in -a2, with Icelandic infinitives in -an, and so on ; the only languages correctly spelt being Latin and Greek, and commonly French and German. It is clearly assumed, and probably with safety, that most readers will not detect mis-spellings beyond this limited range. ' But this was not a matter which troubled me long. At a very early stage of my studies, I perceived clearly enough, that the spelling given by some authorities is not necessarily to be taken as the true one ; and it was then easy to make allowances for possible errors, and to refer to some book with reasonable spellings, such as E. Miiller, or Mahn's Webster, or Wedgwood. A little research revealed far more curious pieces of information than the citing of words in impossible or mistaken spellings. Statements abound which it is difficult to account for except on the supposition that it must once have been usual to manufacture words for the express purpose of deriving others from them. To take an example, I open Todd's Johtison at random, and find that under bolster is cited " Gothic bolster, a heap of hay." Now the fragments of Gothic that have reached us are very 1 Usually also printed ce, without the accent. I suspect that a is seldom provided for. J Todd's Johnson, s.v. Boll, has 'Su. Goth, bulna, Dan. bulncr.' Here bulna is the Swedish infinitive, whilst bulner is the first person ol the Danish present tense. Similar jumbles abound. MY ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. xlv precious but very insufficient, and they certainly contain no such word as bolster. Neither is bolster a Gothic spelling. Holster is represented in Gothic by hulistr, so that bolster might, possibly, be bulisir. In any case, as the word certainly does not occur, it can only be a pure invention, due to some blunder; the explanation "a heap of hay" is a happy and graphic touch, regarded in the light of a fiction, but is out of place in a work of reference. 'A mistake of this nature would not greatly matter if such instances were rare ; but the extraordinary part of the matter is that they are extremely common, owing probably to the trust reposed by former writers in such etymologists as Skinner and Junius, men who did good work in their day, but whose statements require careful verification in this nineteenth century. What Skinner was capable of, I have shown in my introduction to the reprint of Ray's Glossary published for the English Dialect Society. It is sufficient to say that the net result is this ; that words cited in etymological dictionaries (with very few exceptions) cannot be accepted without verification. Not only do we find puzzling mis-spellings, but we find actual fictions ; words are said to be " Anglo-Saxon " that are not to be found in the existing texts ; " Gothic " words are con- structed for the mere purpose of " etymology " ; Icelandic words have meanings assigned to them which are incredible or misleading : and so on of the rest. ' Another source of trouble is that, when real words are cited, they are wrongly explained. Thus, in Todd's Johnson, we find a derivation of bond from A. S. " bond, bound" Now bond is not strictly Anglo-Saxon, but an Early English form, signifying "a band," and is not a past participle at all ; the A. S. for " bound " being gebunde?i. The error is easily traced ; Dr. Bosworth cites " bond, bound, ligatus " from Somner's Dictionary, whence it was also copied into Lye's Dictionary in the form : " bond, ligatus, obligatus, xlvi INTRODUCTION. bound? Where Somner found it, is a mystery indeed, as it is absurd on the face of it. We should take a man to be a very poor German scholar who imagined that band, in German, is a past participle ; but when the same mistake is made by Somner, we find that it is copied by Lye, copied by Bosworth (who, however, marks it as Somner's), copied into Todd's Johnson, amplified by Richardson into the misleading statement that "bond is the past tense ! and past participle of the verb to bind? and has doubtless been copied by numerous other writers who have wished to come at their etymologies with the least trouble to themselves. It is precisely this continual reproduction of errors which so disgraces many English works, and renders investigation so difficult. 1 But when I had grasped the facts that spellings are often false, that words can be invented, and that explanations are often wrong, I found that worse remained behind. The science of philology is comparatively modern, so that our earlier writers had no means of ascertaining principles that are now well established, and, instead of proceeding by rule, had to go blindly by guesswork, thus sowing crops of errors which have sprung up and multiplied till it requires very careful investigation to enable a modern writer to avoid all the pitfalls prepared for him by the false suggestions which he meets with at every turn. Many derivations that have been long current and are even generally accepted will not be found in this volume, for the plain reason that I have found them to be false ; I think I may at any rate believe myself to be profoundly versed in most of the old fables of this character, and I shall only say, briefly, that the reader need not assume me to be ignorant of them because I do not mention them. The most extraordinary fact about 1 Bond is a form of the past tense in Middle English, and indeed the sb. bond is itself derived from the grade of bindan found in the A. S. pt. t. band ; but bond is certainly not ' the past participle.' MY ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. xlvi comparative philology is that, whilst its principles are well understood by numerous students in Germany and America, they are far from being well known in England, so that it is easy to meet even with classical scholars who have no notion what " Grimm's Law " really means, and who are entirely at a loss to understand why the English care has no connexion with the Latin cura, nor the English whole with the Greek 6\os, nor the French charite with the Greek xapis. Yet for the understanding of these things nothing more is needed than a knowledge of the relative values of the letters of the English, Latin, and Greek alphabets. A knowledge of these alphabets is strangely neglected at our public schools ; whereas a few hours carefully devoted to each would save scholars from innumerable blunders, and a boy of sixteen who understood them would be far more than a match, in matters of etymology, for a man of fifty who did not. In particular, some knowledge of the vowel- sounds is essential. Modern philology will, in future, turn more and more upon phonetics ; and the truth now confined to a very few will at last become -general, that the vowel is commonly the very life, the most essential part of the word, and that, just as pre-scientific etymologists frequently went wrong because they considered the consonants as being of small consequence and the vowels of none at all, the scientific student of the present day may hope to go right, if he considers the consonants as being of great consequence and the vowels as all-important. 'The foregoing remarks are, I think, sufficient to show my reasons for undertaking the work, and the nature of some of the difficulties which I have endeavoured to encounter or remove.' However far my performance has fallen short of my intentions, it was encouraging to find that my Etymological Dictionary supplied to some extent a real want, and was very well received. Indeed, I have more than once been xlviii INTRODUCTION. informed that some of the articles are quite readable, owing, no doubt, to the historical information which they contain, or to the curious changes of form which they record. As regards method, at any rate two great improvements were made ; the former of these has relation to chronology, the latter to the exact source of a word's origin. The value of chronology is insisted upon throughout. We cannot rest satisfied with any account of a word that does not give at least some approximate notion of the date when it first came into use. This is the first step towards tracing its source ; and the truth of this is so obvious that no more need be said. The New English Dictionary assumes the necessity of this principle in every case. The other improvement wras in the attempt to discriminate the exact source of a word's origin. I am not aware that this had ever been attempted before, though the utility of doing so was explicitly asserted by Trench in his First Lecture upon ' English Past and Present,' in his account of ' The English Vocabulary.' We want to know, in every case, whether the word is native or foreign. If it be adapted from French, we again want to know the source whence the word found its way into that unoriginal language ; and the like, in other cases. By taking notes of this kind in every case, it became possible to compile, for the first time, long lists showing the comparative influence upon English of various foreign languages. Another great practical advantage is that these lists can be studied and corrected by specialists, or by books which treat of special languages. The list of Malay words, for example, can be revised by help of a Malay dictionary, or by help of some one who can speak the language, without the trouble of going through the whole Dictionary in order to pick them out. The preparation for press of this rather ambitious work occupied four years j and it would have occupied a much longer time if I had not made some previous preparation ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES. xlix for work of this character, and if, on the other hand, I had exercised fuller research in some cases of unusual difficulty. I am ready to confess, with all candour, that it seemed to me more necessary that the work should be completed within a somewhat short time than that it should be delayed too long. The publication, soon afterwards, of a second edition enabled me to correct some of the more obvious errors ; and several more corrections and additions have been made, from time to time, in the successive editions of the epitome called A Concise Ety?nological Dictionary. With all its errors, the work has been of much use. The references are numerous and not often incorrect ; and, though many were taken from Richardson and Stratmann and Morris, a considerable number of them were due to my own reading. Many of the etymologies are more correct than in most of the preceding works of a similar character, and point out the immediate sources of words with a greater degree of exactness. One test of comparative success is imitation ; and of this form of compliment the work has had its fair share. Most of the Dictionaries which have appeared since 1882 have borrowed from it more or less. The increased interest now shown in etymological study of a stricter and more scientific kind is best shown by the books that have appeared of late years in foreign languages. Foremost among these is the excellent Etymologisches Worterbuch der deutschen Sprache by Friedrich Kluge, Professor in the University of Jena. In Dutch, we have not only the Etymologisch Woordenboek der Nederiandsche Taal by Dr. Johannes Franck, of Bonn, but also the Bek?iopt Etymologisch Woordenboek, by J. Vercoullie, of Ghent. Others are the Dansk Etymo/ogisk Ordbog, by E. Jessen, printed at Copenhagen, in 1893 ; the Vocabo/ario Ety?nologico fta/iano, by F. Zambaldi ; and the Greek and Persian Etymological Dictionaries, by Dr. Prellwitz and d 1 INTRODUCTION. Paul Horn respectively. These and other recent works on the subject, several of which are of much value, have greatly contributed to help the more advanced student. The highest place is taken by the valuable and erudite Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der Indogermanischen Sprachen, by Karl Brugmann, completed in 1893. I now return to the history of the New English Dictionary \ for which so much preparation had thus been made, both directly and indirectly. The net result was that a work which, in 1858, could not have been safely commenced, was, in 1878, being seriously considered. Twenty years of faithful work of various kinds had made a great difference. A fairly complete history of the whole movement is given in the Transactions of the Philological Society, the most interesting portion of it being from the year 1879 onwards. In that year, Dr. Murray had been elected President of the Society, in recognition of the fact that he had definitely undertaken the editorship of the Dictionary; and on May 16, he delivered the Presidential Address, which dealt with the subject at length. On the preceding March 1, the contracts between the Society, the Delegates of the Clarendon Press, and the Editor were signed. ' A fortnight before that day,' says Dr. Murray, ' I had commenced the erection of an iron building, detached from my dwelling-house, to serve as a Scriptoriu7?i, and to accommodate safely and con- veniently the materials. This has been fitted up with blocks of pigeon-holes, 1,029 in number, for the reception of the alphabetically arranged slips, and other conveniences for the extensive apparatus required. On Lady Day, when I was joined by my assistant, Mr. S. J. Herrtage, I received from Mr. Furnivall some ton and three-quarters of materials which had accumulated under his roof as sub-editor after sub-editor fell off in his labours. . . . One or two of the letters are in excellent order and really sub-edited, in a true sense of the word. This refers to F, K, parts of C NEW ENGLISH DICTIONARY. li and R * ; in a less degree to A, E, N, parts of 0 and U ; of others of the letters it may be said that the slips have received some amount of alphabetic arrangement ; of one or two unhappily I have to report that they are in primitive chaos/ In 1880 Dr. Murray reported that 'during the year our readers have risen to the number of 754. . . . Altogether 1,568 books have been undertaken, of which 924 have been finished.' A most interesting feature of this report is the notice of the great help received from America. Among American readers he names ' three to whom we are pre- eminently obliged ' — the Rev. J. Pierson, of Ionia, Michigan, ' our first helper in the States/ who has also sent in 7,650 quotations from important sixteenth and seventeenth century works ; Prof. G. M. Philips, of the University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, and Dr. Henry Phillipps, of Philadelphia. The same report gives many interesting details as to particular words beginning with A. In 1 88 1, the editor again reported excellent progress. The number of readers had then risen to upwards of 800, and the total number of authors represented in the Reference Index was 2,700. 'In the alphabetical arrangement of the old slips, we are in sight of the end, only W remaining to be put in order.' Much careful sub-editing of various letters had been accomplished. By way of example, it may be noted that the division of the meanings of the verb Set, and the attempt to put them in satisfactory order, had occupied a sub-editor for over forty hours. In 1882, the editor was able to report that ' the Dictionary 1 The material for this letter was, at one time, entrusted to myself, and I found it in tolerably good order. Mr. Cornelius Payne had prepared a portion, as if for press, down to the word Ravel, or there- abouts. I finished Ra, and began Re, but the pressure of editorial work made it impossible for me to proceed ; and I soon relinquished the responsibility. d 2 \ii INTRODUCTION. is at last really launched, and some forty pages are in type.' From that time the work proceeded without further inter- ruption ; and the first part, from the beginning of A down to Ant, appeared in 1884. In 1888, Mr. Henry Bradley, whose excellent edition of Stratmann's Middle-English Dictionary has been already mentioned, was appointed joint-editor. He has finished E and a large portion of F, whilst Dr. Murray, having completed A-C, is engaged upon the latter part of D. So that now, in 1896, it is a great satisfaction to think that more than a quarter of this monumental work has already appeared, and to remember the old days when it was brought home to its well-wishers that a great number of MSS. had still to be edited, or else edited anew, before it could reasonably be commenced. Now that I have traced the outlines of the history of the great Dictionary, and shown how the endeavour to provide for it worthy materials led to the formation of the English Text Society and the printing of many previously inedited MSS. ; and how the impulse thus given to the historical study of our own language originated many other collateral movements, such as the foundation of the English Dialect Society, and the Chaucer and Shakespeare Societies, the phonetic researches of Dr. Ellis and Dr. Sweet, the compilation of the Middle- English Dictio?ia?ies by Stratmann and Matzner, and a greatly increased and more rational interest in the study of English etymology ; it may, perhaps, be allowed me to return to matters more personal. The training which I gained by the editing of Middle- English texts proved particularly beneficial ; chiefly because I thus came to learn the spelling of the fourteenth century from MSS. written during that period. Knowledge of old texts, as derived' at second-hand from printed texts, is a very poor thing in comparison with that obtained from the MSS. themselves. From the MSS. themselves it is GHOST-WORDS. liii possible to learn, precisely and accurately, the character and origin of such mistakes as the scribes sometimes perpetrate, as well as the sources of such peculiar fancies as some editors, either consciously or unconsciously, adopt. It is often easy, for one who is thus familiar with all (or most) of the causes of error, to see through and correct the blunders of the editor who is new to his trade, viz. by help of the ability to recognize forms, which the editor, even with the MS. before him, could not decipher. Of this many instances could be given, from the marginal notes in some of my books, or they may be found in my paper on Ghost- Words. By way of specimen of editorial ingenuity of this character, I may cite one from my Notes to Piers the Plowman, C. ix. 2. In that passage we find the expres- sion ha If acre, meaning a small plot of ground, about half an acre in size. The same expression occurs in Gammer Gurlo?is Needle, Act i. sc. 2, where ' Tom Tankard's cow " is described as ' flinging [i. e. capering] about his halfe aker, risking [flourishing] with her tail.' But unluckily, when Mr. Hazlitt reprinted this play in Dodsley's collection, the expression appeared as halse aker, by the usual confusion between f and the long s (f) ; and he was consequently much exercised to find an explanation. At last he was driven to suggest that it must be an error for halse anker, because ' a halse or halser was a particular kind of cable ' ; to which a tail might, conceivably, be likened. The point is, of course, that even this gratuitous alteration gives little more sense than before. Moreover, ' his ' refers to ' Tom ' 1 I have frequently been asked how I managed to turn out so much work, and to edit so many texts. The answer is, simply, that it was done by devoting to them nearly all my spare time, and that of spare time I had abundance, having not much else to do. It is astonishing how much can be done by steady work at the same subject for many hours every day. and by continuing the same during most liv INTRODUCTION. months in the year. It is also necessary to be an enthu- siast, working with an ever-present hope of doing something to increase our knowledge in every available direction. Then the merest drudgery becomes a sincere pleasure ; and, if any one would learn what drudgery means, let him make glossaries, and verify the references. Of making many glossaries I have had much experience ; on which account I here presume to explain how it may best be done *. The best way is to make a note of every word that requires explanation on a separate slip of paper, with a reference to the place where it occurs. I keep the slips in the order in which the words occur in the book, and afterwards go over each one again separately, adding the part of speech and the sense (unless this has already been done), at the same time verifying the references and making sure that the sense is correct. Then, and not till then, the slips are all sorted into alphabetical order ; after which, I go over them once more, collecting the references from several slips on to one, where necessary, putting all the information together, and sometimes adding etymologies where required. The rejected slips can be thrown away ; the rest go to press without rewriting. This is the best plan, but very few will believe it ; most people try to put down the words, in approximately alphabetical order, in a note-book kept wholly for the purpose. But the attempt will assuredly break down or lead to trouble, if the text is of any great length. It is, of course, absolutely necessary that the slips should all be exactly of the same shape and size. My favourite size is that of a slip five inches and three-quarters long, and two inches and a quarter wide. The number of them is of no consequence. For example, the original number 1 This method is copied from a note at p. lxvi of 1113' General Preface to Piers the Plowman. BOS WORTH PROFESSORSHIP. lv of slips for the Glossarial Index in the sixth volume of Chaucer's Works considerably exceeded 30,000 ; and even when a large number had been weeded out and thrown aside, there were so many left that, when piled one upon the other, the whole depth of them was quite two inches over nine feet. And the result is decidedly useful. My work of editing and explaining texts began, as has been said, in 1864, and had been continued (of course without payment) for fourteen years when, in 1878, I had the honour to be unanimously elected the first Professor of Anglo-Saxon in Cambridge on the foundation of Dr. Bos- worth 1 ; a most gratifying result, as it was precisely the post which I most coveted, so that I thus attained the very summit of my ambition. The kindness of the friends who furnished me with testimonials on that occasion is a thing not to be forgotten ; and one of my chief treasures is a small volume in which all the original letters then sent me are bound together. Opening it, I find the autograph signatures of some who, alas ! are no longer with us — such as Professor J. S. Brewer (of King's College, London), the Rev. H. O. Coxe (Bodley's well-known and much-regretted Librarian), Dr. Ellis, Professor Freeman, Professor Morley, Dr. Morris, Dr. Swainson (Norrisian Professor of Divinity), Dr. Small of Edinburgh, the Arch- bishop of Dublin (better known by the name of Richard 1 I am careful to say * the first ... on the foundation of Dr. Bos- worth.' For it is a matter of history, that a Professorship of Anglo- Saxon was established in Cambridge by Sir Henry Spelman more than two centuries ago. The first Professor on his foundation was Abraham Whelock, who had previously been elected the first Pro- fessor of Arabic in 1632. on the foundation of Sir Thomas Adams. Whelock published his edition of the Anglo-Saxon version of Bcdas History in 1644 ; and was succeeded in the chair by William Somner. whose Dictionary and text of sE/frics Grammar were published at Oxford in 1659. But the professorship came to an end during the civil wars, when the Spelman family were no longer in a position to continue this useful benefaction. lvi INTRODUCTION. Chenevix Trench), Professor Stephens of Copenhagen, Professor Ten Brink of Strassburg, Ur. Stratmann of Krefeld, and Professor Zupitza of Berlin. Of the many others who are still living I will say no more than that it is delightful to experience from nearly all of them, even up to the present time, most ready sympathy and kindly help whenever difficulties arise. The chief result of my promotion has been that the work which was before a pleasure only has now become, at the same time, a duty. And perhaps no man is more fortunate than one whose self-chosen occupation has become his allotted task. Another piece of exceptional good fortune was my election to a Professorial Fellowship at my own college, in 1883 ; for it was the fortune of some professors to be elected to fellowships at colleges with which they had no previous connexion • a fate which I did not much desire. My dear friend, Sir John Seeley, Regius Professor of History, had obviously a prior claim ; but he had been promptly secured by Gonville and Caius College, for which wise choice I have always been grateful. Considering that Anglo-Saxon is not a subject in very great request, it might very easily have happened, especially at the beginning of my professional work, that I might some day be prepared to lecture, and might find no one to listen. Curiously enough, this has never actually happened ; in every year there have been some two or three at least who, for some reason or other, have wanted instruction. And in 1886, a new Tripos for Medieval and Modern Languages was established, in which candidates have the opportunity of choosing English as one of their subjects, if they are so minded ; and for those who choose it a fair knowledge of Anglo-Saxon is, of course, essential. Hence the work in this department has become regular and constant, and is likely, we may hope, to remain so. SKEAT ENGLISH PRIZE. lvii The known gentleness of the courteous reader will excuse a few more notes ; they are not intended to claim merit, but to inform and encourage others. As far back as 1865, I gave £100 to found a small prize, at Christ's College, for the encouragement of English literature. The candidates are usually examined in a selected piece of Middle-English, a couple of Shakespeare's plays, and some third subject, such as Sidney's Apology for Poetry. Small as the prize is, it has been a considerable success, inasmuch as it has been gained, in some years, by men of some mark. I may instance, for example, Dr. J. S. Reid, well known as a classical scholar, Professor Gardner of Oxford, Sir J. W. Bonser, Chief Justice of Ceylon, and Mr. I. Gollancz, Editor of the Temple Shake- speare. Shortly after the death of Charles Darwin, a memorial fund was raised among the members of Christ's College, of which I had the honour to be treasurer. After paying for an excellent portrait, by Ouless, which now adorns the college-hall, a small sum was left which, it was thought, might be gradually expended in giving occasional prizes for natural science. As it seemed to me a pity that this design should, in the course of a few years, come to a sudden end, I again gave £100, in 1888, to make the prize permanent. My chief anxiety, in connexion with the University of Cambridge, has been, for some years past, the establish- ment of a University Lectureship in English. For more than ten years, we have had University Lecturers in French and German, each of whom are in the receipt of £200 a year; but when the endeavour was made, in 1889, to secure a Lecturer in English at half that stipend, no funds were any longer available for the purpose, owing to the impossibility of meeting ever-increasing needs upon an ever-diminishing income. In this dilemma, I could think lviii INTRODUCTION. of nothing better than to appeal to the generosity of the public in general, and wrote a letter to The Times to that effect. To this appeal I received precisely one answer, but it made a good beginning. The late Mr. S. Sandars, a well-known benefactor to Cambridge on many occasions, at once offered the sum of £50; and adding this to a promise of £100 from Mr. Mocatta, I was encouraged to proceed. A splendid gift of 200 guineas came from the Company of Merchant Taylors, fifty guineas from the Company of Mercers, £100 from the Master of Trinity Hall, and another 200 guineas from an 'anonymous donor.' The result has been the appointment, in March, 1896, of Mr. Gollancz as the Lecturer, at the modest stipend of £50 per annum ; and it is at least somewhat of a triumph to find that the importance of the subject has at last found some sort of public recognition. One of my most delightful experiences has been my connexion with the University of Oxford, as it has led to my finding there many sincere friends. When I first had to visit the Bodleian Library for the purpose of con- sulting MSS., I found (notwithstanding many kindnesses) that my evenings were often spent alone ; and I found it depressing to be, practically, a stranger. Some years ago, it was possible for a Cambridge M.A. to take an ad eundem degree at Oxford without joining any college ; but there was not much to be gained by this, in the case of one not usually resident there. Under the new statutes, it is necessary for one who seeks this degree to join a college, winch is a much better arrangement. The college of my choice was Exeter, which proved a very happy one ; and I went through what I believe to be a wholly unique experience ; at least, I have never heard of a similar case. The Oxford University statutes require a term's residence in the case of one who, besides seeking the M.A. degree, also desires to become a full member of Convocation ; INCORPORATION AT OXFORD. lix and though I had no object in desiring this privilege in itself, I was glad of an opportunity of seeing something of the Oxford life. One of the fellows of Exeter who happened to be for a while abroad kindly lent me his rooms, and I duly completed my term's residence in college with much satisfaction. The kindness which I there experienced, and the opportunities thus given me of making friends, proved a very great advantage ; and now it is a most pleasant change to visit Oxford rather frequently, and to find myself among many friends in that famous University ; in fact, I am quite at home there, finding all the attractions of a student's life, without any responsibility in the way of lecturing or otherwise. It is a good thing for a student of one university to know something of the ways of the other, without actual migration ; and I rather wonder that the idea is not more frequently entertained. The chief reason against it is to be found in the detestable arrangement whereby the London and North-Western Railway compels every traveller to spend three hours over a journey that might be completed in little more than two. An enforced wait of three-quarters of an hour or so at the cheerless Bletchley station is decidedly unaccommodating and ruthless ; and there can be little doubt that this is the chief cause that keeps the two Universities apart. The reader who has, by this time, had enough of my own doings may perhaps be interested in a few remarks about other people. The revival of the study of Anglo-Saxon in the present century was largely due to Benjamin Thorpe and John Mitchell Kemble. Thorpe's editions of the Anglo-Saxon Chro?iicle and of the A?icient Laws and Institutes of England are well-known and useful books ; he also gave us an edition of Ccedmon in 1832, of the Codex Exoniensis in 1842, of the Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church in 1844-46, and of Beowulf in 1855 ; besides issuing a translation of Rask's lx INTRODUCTION. Anglo-Saxon Grammar and a good selection of short pieces entitled Analecta Anglo-Saxonica. The student who desires a complete account of Anglo-Saxon studies will find it all in Dr. Wulker's Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsachsischen Litteratur, published at Leipzig in 1885. To Kemble we owe an edition of Beowulf "in 1833, which reached a second edition in 1835, and was followed by a translation, with notes and a glossary, in 1837; a collec- tion of Anglo-Saxon charters, in six volumes, known as the Codex Diplomaticus ALvi Saxonici ; the poetry of the Codex Vercellensis, 1843-56 ; and the Dialogue of Salomon and Saturn, 1848. He also wrote the esteemed historical work known as The Saxons in England, published in two volumes in 1849. The latest work which he undertook, on behalf of the University of Cambridge, was an edition of all the known MSS. of the Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, and Mercian versions of the four Gospels ; but at the time of his death, in the spring of 1857, the portion actually completed did not reach much beyond the beginning of the twenty-fifth chapter of St. Matthew. The small portion of this Gospel thus left unfinished was completed by Charles Hardwick in 1858 ; and there the matter rested for more than ten years. After this lapse of time, the Syndics of the Pitt Press, being unwilling that the work should be abandoned, entrusted me with the task of continuing the work ; and I was able gradually to complete it, issuing the Gospel of St. Mark in 187 1, that of St. Luke in 1874, and that of St. John in 1878. After this, I was permitted to bring out a second and revised edition of St. Matthew's Gospel in 1887 ; and all four Gospels can now be obtained in a single quarto volume, which is a convenient form for use. I was never so fortunate as to meet with Thorpe or Kemble, but I heard something about the latter from Mr. Thomas Wright, whom I met frequently. Kemble KEMBLE AND WRIGHT. lxi had taken his B.A. degree in 1830, at Trinity College, Cambridge, a year later than Archbishop Trench. In 1834 Kemble, being then well versed in Anglo-Saxon, was anxious to impart some of his knowledge to his fellow-collegians, and designed an ambitious course of twenty lectures, of which he issued a printed prospectus, twenty pages long, interleaved with blank paper for the convenience of such as were disposed to take notes \ When the day appointed for the first lecture came, he duly donned his cap and gown, and appeared in the lecture-room which the college had assigned for the purpose. But where was the audience ? There was precisely one person' present, Thomas Wright by name, at that time (I believe) an undergraduate of the same college. As this one hearer evidently meant business, the lecture was duly delivered. But when, on the second occasion, the same thing happened again, notwithstanding that the main subject of the lecture was the poem of Beotvulf, and that one of the things noted in the Syllabus was the 'arrogance and ignorance of Mr. Ritson,' which ought in itself to have drawn a crowd of hearers, Kemble could stand it no longer, but invited his young friend to come to his own rooms, and discuss the subject freely over a tankard of beer. And certainly that undergraduate had a pleasant experience, and considered himself more than usually fortunate. Wright's extraordinary industry is shown most clearly by the fact that the mere enumeration of his books fills a whole column of small print in the English Encyclopaedia ; a large number of them being especially concerned with Anglo-Saxon and Middle-English. I re- member him as a quiet but cheery old gentleman, who more than once stayed with me when he came to Cambridge 1 I possess a copy of this syllabus. It bears, on the title-page, the following: — History of the English Language. First, or Anglo-Saxon Period. By J. M. Kemble, Esq., A.M., Trinity College, Cambridge : printed for J. and J. J. Deighton, Trinity Street, 1834. lxii INTRODUCTION. to consult MSS. He had sharp quick eye-sight, and wrote a very legible hand at a quite unusual pace ; he used to say of himself that he was ' pretty quick,' and perhaps he trusted to his quickness a little too much in later years, as some of his errors of reading are somewhat surprising. His ency- clopaedic literary knowledge of many various subjects, especially antiquarian, was very remarkable. We were excellent friends, with a common interest in Middle-English and in things relating to Shropshire \ I possess a copy of a small wTork entitled Bibliotheque Ang/o-Saxonne, par F. Michel (Paris, 1837). This is a catalogue of the chief works printed before that date that relate to Anglo-Saxon studies. But it is especially remark- able for the Letter by Kemble to M. Francisque Michel, which occupies the first forty-three pages. This is an excellent outline of the general history of the study, containing several remarks of interest. Thus, in a note at p. 24, he pursues his quarrel with Ritson's work with much energy. He declares that Ritson's print of The Frere and the Boy contains sixty-four mistakes, and that in his print of The King and the Barker, there are 140 errors in the course of 128 lines. 'Yet this man dared to run down and persecute Warton ! It is now beginning to be felt, that it was not Warton's inaccuracy which moved Ritson's bile : oh, no ! it was the unhappy fact that Warton was a fellow of a college, a scholar, a gentleman, and a Christian, to no one of which titles Ritson had the slightest claim.' Of Home Tooke, Kemble asserts that ' he was barbarously ignorant 1 He had a favourite dialect story, which I fear has often done duty under various forms. Seeing a peasant at work in a field abounding with mole-hills, he pointed to them, saying — ' My good man, what be those?' The reply was, of course, ' they bin 66nty-tumps ! ' 'But, pray, what do you mean by 65nty-tumps? ' ' Wlvy, 66nty-tumps bin the tumps as the oonts maken.' ' But what do you mean by odnts?' ' I think yo' mun be a fool ; the 60nts bin the things as maken the tumps ! ' JOHN MITCHELL KEMBLE. lxiii of all the Teutonic tongues ; and owes what reputation he has enjoyed solely to a happy knack of outbullying his opponents upon subjects with which he and they were alike conversant.' ' Sharon Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons, 1 80 1,' is 'a learned and laborious work; yet in all that relates to the language and the poetry of our forefathers, often deficient, often mistaken.' ' Sir F. Palgrave's Ang/o- Saxon Com?nonwea?th, 1832, . . . cannot be too highly valued, as a clear and learned exposition of the Saxon polity. Nevertheless one must, as a philologist, quarrel with Sir Francis for false etymology. As long as he is at work with his Latin or Saxon charters, he reads them well and no man can more safely be followed ; but set him once upon a bit of etymology, up go the heels of his hobby, and down comes Sir Francis into the mire, no better informed, as it appears, than most of his English predecessors have been, respecting the true form and power of many words1.' But the most valuable contribution made by Kemble to the study of Anglo-Saxon was that he was the first to call attention to the value of scientific philology, as illustrated by the great German scholar, Wilhelm Grimm. ' The system of this scholar,' he says, ' which can henceforth alone form the basis of any philosophical study of the Teutonic tongues, rests upon two propositions : (1) that the roots of these languages, their methods of declension, conjugation, and derivation, are common to them all ; and (2) that each language, according to fixed laws of its own, differences - the common element.' He gives two excellent examples of Grimm's methods. He first quotes 'maeg(5a 1 It is but too true. Sir Francis was one of those who thought that any sound-changes could take place in any direction and to any extent. Thus in the preface to his History of the Anglo-Saxons. p. xiii, he argues that bet is merely another form of zvager\ Bet, he tells us, is derived from bad; and it appears that, by bad, he means A. S. bad, a pledge, with long a ! ■ We should now say — ' differentiates. ' Ixiv INTRODUCTION. hose ' from Beowulf, 1. 924, an expression of which the meaning was quite unknown till Grimm pointed it out. The word hose occurs nowhere else in A.S. ; yet, by the method of comparison, the solution is easy. P'or, just as the A.S.gos, ' a goose,' answers to the G. Gans, it is clear that the A. S. lids answers to the M. H. G. hans (mod. G. Hanse) and the Goth, hansa, ' a company.' Accordingly, ' maegtfa hose ' simply means 'with a company of maidens.' Next, he illustrates Grimm's law (which requires that a Latin / should be represented in English by/) by pointing out that the A. S. word corresponding to the Lat. pal?7ia is precisely the A. S. fern. sb. folm, meaning the palm of the hand, or the hand itself. We have indeed adopted the word palm in English, but it is merely the Latin form, not the native one. Speaking of his edition of Beowulf, in 1833, Kemble claims that, in that book, he was the first who ever attempted, in England, 'to separate the long from the short sounds, upon a philosophical principle of analogy and the authority of MSS. '; and felt himself justified accordingly in ' claiming favour for errors.' Finally, he concludes this interesting ' Letter' with words of hope : — ' From the activity which all at once appears to prevail among the Saxonists of England, there is hope that we may make some important advances, and escape the reproach, at present too well deserved, of suffering foreigners to outstrip us in acquaintance with our native tongue. Surely, while we have all the MSS., it cannot be right that they should have all the Juiowledgel These are words of encouragement that may well be laid to heart. Dr. Sweet's useful Anglo-Saxon Reader, and, still better, his accurate edition of The Oldest English Texts, well exemplify how much can be done by a scholar who knows what he is about. Perhaps the most unexpected result of modern times is the extension of Anglo-Saxon studies to the continent of America. But whatever progress 1 OSWALD COCKAYNE. lxv may be made in the future, we must not forget that the Englishman who first vindicated the importance of the application of philological principles to the study of English was certainly John Mitchell Kemble. I have good reason to remember very well the Rev. Oswald Cockayne, because, as I have already said (at p. viii), he was my class-master at King's College School. It will readily be understood that he did not teach me Anglo- Saxon, but Latin and Greek. He was an excellent teacher, and I profited by his instruction sufficiently to obtain the first prize in the Lower Third form. It must have been some twenty years before we again met, and discussed the subject in which we had a common interest. I was even able to afford him, occasionally, some humble assistance by consulting for him some of the precious MSS. in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. His knowledge was very extensive and extremely accurate ; and it was fortunate that the peculiarly difficult task of editing the Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early Engla?id fell into such able hands. His own copy of this work is now in my possession, and I observe in vol. i. just a few minute corrections, of no real consequence ; such as, for example, that at p. 156, in the fourth line from the bottom, the word ' waestme' is written, in the MS., with the usual short s, and not, as printed, with a long one. His love of exactness led him to the use of the ' Anglo-Saxon ' type, which is rightly now discarded as being needless and clumsy. Another objection is that some letters are liable to be confused ; for I observe in the same volume, at p. 74, 1. 12, the curious word ( J>yrte,' translated by ' wort,' where it is obvious that the first letter was intended for a w. A mis- print of this kind is of course extremely rare in any of his books, as he was obliged to watch such letters very closely. A very characteristic book of his is that entitled, The e lxvi INTRODUCTION. Shrine : A Collection of Occasional Papers on Dry Subjects. My copy of it, presented by the author, ends abruptly at p. 208 ; but I am not aware that it ever went any further. The corrections for Bosworth's Dictionary, at pp. 1-11 and 23-28, have proved of service. One very curious criticism is that wherein Mr. Cockayne accuses Dr. Bosworth of making the sb. dust, 'dust,' masculine. It is undoubtedly marked with 'ml in the smaller Dictionary of 1848; but this may well be due to a misprint, seeing that it is marked ' n.' in the first edition of the larger work, printed ten years earlier. It was once my fortune to hear Mr. Cockayne preach a sermon without notes, and I was much struck with his eloquence of expression. His language had the classic elegance of the well-read scholar, and approached more nearly to the style of Johnson than I should have expected. He told me that he preferred to preach extempore, as he disliked the labour of writing down the discourse ; and there was certainly no need for him to do so. I can well recall the tall and upright figure of Dr. Bosworth, founder of the Professorship which I now hold, and author of two Anglo-Saxon Dictionaries. He was born in Derby- shire, more than a century ago, in 1789, and educated at Repton, Aberdeen, and Trinity College, Cambridge. In 181 7 he became vicar of Little Horwood, in Buckingham- shire, and in 1823 he published the work entitled The Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar. In 1829 he was appointed British Chaplain in Holland, where he acquired a knowledge of Dutch, in which he was able to converse fluently. In 1840 he became vicar of Waith in Lincoln- shire ; and in 1857 rector of Water Stratford, Bucks., where he remained but a short time, being appointed Rawlinsonian Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford in 1858. His larger Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, published in 1838, when he was DR. JOSEPH BOSWORTH. lxvii chaplain at Rotterdam, was, at that date, a very useful book. It was largely a translation of the Dictionary by Lye and Manning, with some additions and alterations, and is a much more convenient book to handle than the two folio volumes that preceded it. Still more useful, for many students, was the cheaper Compendious Anglo-Saxon Dictionary published in 1848. But the dictionaries published in Germany by Ettmiiller in 185 1, and by Leo in 1872-7, as well as the extremely exhaustive Glossary of the poetical A. S. literature by Grein in 186 1-4 rendered it necessary for him to prepare a new edition, on a fuller plan. When my edition of St. Mark's Gospel in the Anglo-Saxon and Northumbrian versions was published by the Pitt Press in 187 1, the Syndics of the Press sent a copy of it to Dr. Bosworth, who, in his reply (dated Dec. 15, 1871) acknowledging the present of the book, made an interesting allusion to the work upon which he was then engaged. He was glad to find that the readings of all the MSS. were presented to the reader at once, and observed that — 'instead of having the trouble of referring to the MSS. or the various books in which some of them are printed, I find, at once, all I want to quote in my large Anglo-Saxon Dictionary preparing for the Clarendon Press, on which I and my amanuenses are employed at least seven hours a day.' He was working at the Dictionary up to the very last ; and at his death, which took place on May 27, 1876, had finally revised the first 288 pages of the work, down to the word firgen-stream. It was some time before it was possible to make preparations for the continuation of the work; but it was at last under- taken by Professor Toller, of Manchester, who completed Part II (down to hwistlian) in 1882, Part III (to sar) in 1887, and Part IV, section 1 (to swithrian) in 1892 ; so that we may reasonably hope for the completion of this important work at no very distant date. Dr. Bosworth once told me how he made a considerable e 2 lxviii INTRODUCTION. sum of money in a very simple way. There was formerly a stupid fashion in vogue of writing Greek Grammars in Latin. I have now before me the one which I used at school — Graecae Grammaticae Rudi?ne7ita i?i usutn scholarum — printed at Oxford in 1849. As this, naturally enough, appeared to him a useless piece of tyranny on the part of pedagogues, he brought out a G?'eek Grammar containing very similar information, the text of which was entirely written in perfectly plain English, such as every schoolboy could understand ; and he had his reward in an enormous sale. Dr. Bosworth will always be remembered by a grateful University for his liberal gift, in 1867, of the sum of ^10,000, which, after accumulating till it produced ^500 per annum, provided the stipend of the Ellington and Bosworth Professorship of Anglo-Saxon. The reason for the founder's adoption of this title is easily discovered. The doctor was thrice married, and the name of his second wife, who had herself been previously married, was Mrs. Elrington. She took much interest in the study of Anglo-Saxon, and we find, from a remark in Dr. Bosworth's edition of Orosius (p. lxii), that she assisted him in collating the manuscript readings of that work. If I rightly interpret the following extracts from the Gentleman's Magazine, her maiden name was Anne Margaret Elliot. ' Married, Dec. 13, 1828. At St. Margaret's, Westminster, Lieut. - Col. Elrington, of the 3rd Guards, to Anne Margaret, second daughter of John Elliot, Esq., of Pimlico Lodge.' ' Died, July 6, 1842. Sarah, wife of Dr. Bosworth, at Quorn, Derbyshire.' ' Died, Nov. 26, 1842. At Berkley Square, John Hamilton Elrington, late Lieut. -Col. Scots Fusilier Guards.' ' Married, Dec. 8, 1853. At Leckhampton, Cheltenham, the Rev. J. Bosworth, D.D., F.R.S., to Anne Margaret, widow of Col. Hamilton Elrington' {Gent. Mag., March, 1854). Another good friend of mine was Miss Georgina Jackson, MISS JACKSON. lxix authoress of the Shropshire Glossary, one of the very best of its kind. After many years employed in collecting dialect words, some of which were acquired when travelling in a third-class railway-carriage on a market-day, she con- sulted me — then a total stranger to her — as to the best method of preparing her work for press. I recommended the use of slips — each slip to be of the size of a half-sheet of note-paper — a suggestion which she adopted. I also took occasion to recommend the use of 'glossic,' or, at any rate, of some fixed mode of representing sounds by symbols. At this she at first rebelled, on the grounds that it was quite unintelligible to her, and that she could never acquire it. I could only reply that it was worth while to acquire either that system or something like it ; at the same time alluding to the difficulty of discussing sounds through the medium of writing. At once, with characteristic decision, she started from Chester for Cambridge, to discuss the matter personally ; whereupon ensued a long and amusing argu- ment, conducted on both sides with due spirit and vigour. Being very anxious to render her work as useful as possible, she soon found that ' glossic ' was not so very difficult, and that it could be adapted to the Shropshire pronunciation with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes. She then had an interview with Dr. Ellis, with the most satisfactory results ; and the end of it was that he described her investigation of the dialect-sounds as ' perhaps the most searching that has been made.' It was quite a treat to hear her give the sounds which I had so often myself heard in the neighbourhood of Corve-dale. Her favourite story was that of Betty Andrews, of Church Pulverbatch. Betty was going in a market-train from Han wood to Shrewsbury, and while talking with her usual rapidity, was thus addressed by a man who was her fellow-traveller : — ' Wy, Missis, I should think as yo' mun a 'ad yore tongue lied [oiled] this mornin' afore yo' started.' ' No, indeed, Sir,' said Betty, ' I hanna ; lxx INTRODUCTION. fur if it 'ad a bin lied it 66d never a stopped. No danger ] ! ' Miss Jackson became a sad invalid in her later years, being confined to one room and often to bed for long periods, and suffering much pain ; but she bore her trials with much courage and even cheerfulness, and at all times took much interest in English dialects and etymology. It has always been a great pleasure to me to wrelcome English scholars to Cambridge ; and to find that they are not unfrequently attracted here. The manuscript treasures of the University library and of Corpus Christi College are an inducement to them to visit us ; and it is a great privilege for us to meet them. It is thus that I became personally acquainted writh many scholars from Germany ; such as Professors Ten Brink, Zupitza, Kolbing, Schroer, Koch, and Brandl ; and with Professors Child, Bright, Cook, and several others, from America. Zupitza was one of the most kindly and delightful of companions, a great enthusiast in his subject, and an excellent teacher. As a critic, he possessed a faculty of too great rarity, in that he could detect an error and set one right without causing even the slightest annoyance. We all know how prone are critics, in general, and especially, perhaps, the German critics, to give the impression that they like seeing the victim wince while they forcibly stick in the pin. To Professor Child belongs, as I believe, the honour of being one of the first to show that England could learn from America in matters relating to the philology of our common language. His wonderful essays on the Language of Chaucer and on the 1 In glossic — • Wi Mis-is, ei shud thing k uz yoa mun a ad* yoar' tungg erld dhis maur'-nin ufoar' yoa staaT'tid.' * Noa indeed Sur, ei an*u fur' if it ad* u bin ei'ld it 66d nevur' u stop-t. Noa* •dei'njuV ! ' The use of yoa for you, of mun a for must have, of aim for have not, and the total loss of initial h, are very characteristic of Shropshire. And as for * no danger,' i.e. not at all likely, it is quite the usual way of concluding a repl}'. PROFESSOR CHILD. lxxi Language of Gower laid the foundation of nearly all that we have learnt as to the grammar and metre of these poets ; and any one who examines his splendid collection of English Ballads will marvel at the erudition he displays with regard to all the numerous ballads that are found among Teutonic peoples. Perhaps the most remarkable sign of the times is the recognition of English philological studies at the universities by the conferring of honorary degrees. I can recall three examples at Cambridge within recent years. I have seen Stephens, of Copenhagen, Zupitza, of Berlin, and Alexander John Ellis, all presented, in different years, for the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters in the Senate House. The last of these cases is the most striking, as the degree was conferred upon one who was himself a Cambridge man. Dr. Ellis, of Trinity College, took his B.A. degree as sixth wrangler, as far back as 1837, and was at the head of the second class in the classical tripos in the same year ; but, owing to certain theological restrictions then in vogue he was never elected a fellow of any college, nor even took the M.A. degree. Fifty-three years later, in 1890, he was made a Litt. D. ; an honour which he did not long survive. Account of the Extracts in the Present Volume. The present volume is entirely occupied with selected extracts from the articles contributed by me at various times to the well-known weekly periodical entitled Notes and Queries. As these amount to several hundred, and many of them relate to questions which were chiefly of interest at the moment, or give results which have since found their way into books, it became necessary to make a selection. The lxxii INTRODUCTION. number of articles which are omitted because the suggestions which they expressed have been disproved, is very small. On the other hand, a considerable number of etymologies have been here reprinted, notwithstanding their appearance in later works, because I had much to do with their enuncia- tion or explanation, and their appearance in N. and Q. has become a matter of history. I may note, for example, that the etymology of Carfax was suggested to me by the perusal of the French MS. of Melusine, and has since been adopted in all the newer dictionaries. The etymology of puzzle was put together from certain examples of the word in Lydgate and Skelton. The etymology of spawn came out of Walter of Biblesworth. The right explanation of talon and pounce is in the Book of Hawking. The full explanation of the prefixes to- and all-to- was due to collation of the usages of many English writers. Lammas was explained by King Alfred ; and the provincial word ollands by Ray. The first clear light as to the origin of nuncheon came from Mr. Riley ; following in whose trace the true explanation was given by Mr. Walford, and at a later time, but independently, by myself. Our use of atone is due to imitation of a French idiom. Sparable is a modern spelling of sparrow-bill ; and wag is short for wag-halter. Hogs-head was formerly ox-head, whatever may have been the reason for so naming it. I found the etymology of the provincial words aund, reckan, and wicks (of the mouth) in the Icelandic Dictionary. Before we can explain hugger-mugger, we must know that the older spelling is hoder-moder. All these things, and many more like them, prove that there is no royal road to etymology ; it is simply a matter of pure research, conducted in accordance with very careful study of the phonetic changes that have taken place in our language from time to time. Besides preserving here many illustrations of difficult words, such as caddy, cap-a-pie, beef-eater, bernar, blake-beryed, E TYMOL OGIES. lx xiii hydatid, carminative, gist, and many others of a like kind, I have brought together, from almost countless sources, illustrations of phrases of interest, such as key-cold, as dead as a doornail, a year and a day, by hook or by crook, a baker's dozen, exceptio probat regulam, and others like them ; all gathered by the simple process of diving into all kinds of books of all periods. In fact, one never knows whence help may come ; Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-French, Middle- English, and Elizabethan texts all abound with possibilities for the discovery of ' origins,' for those who have the courage to attack them. I found, for example, the true etymology of dismal x in the catalogue of the MSS. in the Glasgow Library ; and I am not aware that it has, till lately, been given any- where else; though it was duly pointed out by M. Paul Meyer, who made the catalogue. In reading such old texts, there is no reason for confining one's attention to the language only ; nor have I ever omitted to learn from them whatever else I could there find. Hence the reader may find here discussions on several literary points of some interest, such as the Middle- English accounts of the Seven Ages of man. of the creation of roses, of Cain's jaw-bone, and of the story of ' the pound of flesh.' The Jackdaw of Rheims is illustrated by the Knight de la Tour, and the Lay of Havelok by the poems of Robert of Brunne. There are some remarkable parallelisms of expression between Chaucer's Troilus and his Knightes Tale ; and the passage in Piers the Plowman about Lucifer's seat in the north can be illustrated from the Vulgate version of the Bible and from Milton's Paradise Lost. There is no end to the interest to be derived from the study of our splendid literature ; and it is just as easy, for a mind not already debilitated by the perusal of magazines, 1 From A. F. dis mal, evil days ; whence the common old phrase ' dismal days.' See my note to Chaucer's Works, vol. i. poem iii. 1. 1206. lxxiv INTRODUCTION. to cultivate a taste for the Elizabethan drama as for Tit-bits and the Yellotv Book. All that is needed is to read the former first. The works of our best authors form a true ' Pastime of Pleasure,' and are a source of rational recreation ; magazines are chiefly good for killing time in hours of intentional idleness. One of the queerest crazes in English etymology is the love of paradox, which is often carried to such an extent that it is considered mean, if not despicable, to accept an etymology that is obvious. It is of no use to prove, to some people, by the clearest evidence, that beef-eater is derived from beef -sccid eater ; ox fox-glove ixomfox and glove ; or offal from off and fall; or garret from the French garite ; or the A. S. hlafmcesse (Lammas) from hldfi a loaf; or marigold from Mary and gold; or Whitsunday from ivhite and Sunday : all this is to them but food for babes, and they crave for strong meat, such as only themselves can digest. Most of these questions are here touched upon ; but I only attempt to convince such as are more humble- minded. Against this desire of seeing * corruption ' in almost every word, I have always waged war ; and that is why many of the articles in this volume have a controversial tone. Moreover, it has always seemed to me legitimate to show up the absurdity and crudity of many of these notable ideas ; but I have always attacked the ideas, not the persons who utter them. The trouble is, of course, that the originators of the ideas do not like it, and are far too apt to hide the weakness of their case by assuming that they are personally affronted. Surely this is hardly in accordance with common sense. If a man has a good case, he can base it upon facts and quotations ; and it is no answer to tell me, when I ask for proof, that it is ungentlemanly to dare to contradict. Moreover, it is very strange, as I have often argued, that it is only in the case of etymology that such tactics are FIRST PRINCIPLES. lxxv resorted to If the question were one of chemistry, botany, or any form of science, the appeal would lie to the facts ; and we should be amazed if any one who asserted that the chief constituents of water are oxygen and nitrogen were to take offence at contradiction. The whole matter lies in a nutshell; if etymology is to be scientific, the appeal lies to the facts ; and the facts, in this case, are accurate quota- tions, with exact references, from all available authors. To attempt to etymologize without the help of quotations, is like learning geology without inspecting specimens ; and we may well ask, what good can come of it ? Yet this very absurdity happens. A man sees a piece of quartz for the first time, and writes 'a note' that he has discovered a piece of malachite. This is no unfair descrip- tion of some of the wonderful crazes which I have often taken upon myself to ' contradict.' Take, for example, my article on amperzand at p. 67. It was written to put an end to the extraordinary notion that it is a 'corruption' (oh! this beloved word!) of and-pussy-and, 'because' (another very precious word) the symbol (&) suggests a cat sitting well up, and holding up one fore paw. The lowest curl, I believe, was thought to be due to the end of the tail. One wonders where was the inventor's sense of humour. Here are a few more specimens of pure invention, viz. that siuine is the plural of sow \ that glove is of Celtic origin ; that the Whitby word gaut, a narrow lane, is of Hindustani origin ; that the phrase ' he dare not ' is modern, an assertion which was shifted to another one equally baseless, that it does not occur in Elizabethan literature ; that sweetheart is a ' corruption ' of a form siueetard, which ■ never existed ; that the Latin word laburnum is derived from French ( !) ; that, in the phrase ' to set the Thames on fire,' the word temse means ' a sieve ' ; that offal is derived from or-ral, refuse, which is not, in any case, a correct form ; that balloon is derived from the name of M. Ballon, Ixxvi INTRODUCTION. who was a dancing-master (this precious specimen actually appeared in the Times newspaper) ; that ing is Swedish (!) for a meadow ; and a great many more things of the same kind. For the forgers of these curiosities are not in the least bound by the authority of dictionaries and grammars, but coin words for the nonce with the same freedom as is indulged in by the providers of canards for our daily papers. Even good writers make curious mistakes, as the reader will discover. Spenser thought that yede was an infinitive mood, with a past tense yode. Keats seems to have been under the impression that darkfaig is a present participle ; but let us charitably hope that he knew it to be an adverb. Blackmore imagined that the old word ivatchet, signifying 1 blue,' is derived from Watchet in Somersetshire. Browning thought that slughorn (variant of slogan) was a kind of horn that could be blown. Nearly all the world has gone wrong over the interpretation of ' one touch of nature,' owing to a contemptuous disregard of the context. And then there are the critics ! One of them opines that the O. French word serfs cannot mean ' stags,' because his limited experience only recognises the spelling cerfs. Richardson, in his Dictionary, misunderstands Chaucer's fapere (meaning ' to appear '), and enters it to illustrate taper. Another critic wants to rewrite a line of Dryden's, because he did not know that instinct was, in those days, accented on the second syllable ; with many more vagaries of a like kind. And then there are the editors ! Caxton turned the old word estres into eftures, which has no meaning at all. An editor of Hudibras turns tricker into trigger, because he is unaware that tricker is merely a Dutch word anglicized. An editor of Cowper's John Gilpin turns lumbering into rumbling. Crabbe's own son altered ri??ipling to rippling. And so the game goes on. My position has always been, that things of this kind are INGLORIOUS GUESSES. lxxvii not glorious, but sad ; not laudable, but discreditable, if not dishonest. And few things have surprised me more, in the course of my experience, than the eager recklessness with which such puerilities are vented, the extraordinary readiness with which they are accepted and applauded, and the tenacity with which they are defended against the clearest exhibition of evidence Paradox and grotesqueness are powerful in their favour, whilst the simple truth is but plain and prosaic. Are we therefore to give way, to let fancy have its free fling, and allow ignorance to revel in its recklessness ? I have always maintained that, if truth be simple, it is also instructive, and that only docility promotes progress. Of course I have found mistakes in ideas of my own, but have always thought it wisest to drop such notions like a red-hot coal ; which is the teaching of common sense. Indeed, the very point for which I here contend was well stated by a writer with the signature ' H. de B. H. ' in JV. and Q. 7 S. ix. 442 ; and I appended some remarks of my own which I here beg leave to quote ' : — ' I am extremely thankful to the author of this article for saying that " people who touch on specialist points should have special knowledge." This is what I have been saying for years with respect to the English language, concerning which floods of untruths are continually being poured out by persons absolutely ignorant of the fact that its study does require special knowledge, and is full of " specialist points"— a phrase, by the way, that is a little awkward. Because I have said this I have been told that I am rude, and it has been plainly hinted that I can be no gentleman. Nevertheless, I shall maintain my position, and I can at once illustrate it by a very clear example from the same number of A", and Q. (7 S. ix. 453). We are there told, 1 From N. and Q. 7 S. ix. 495 (1890 , in an article headed 'Critical Carelessness.' Ixxviii INTRODUCTION. under the heading " Heriots," that Coke derives it [heriot] from here, " lord," and geat, " beste." We thus learn that even so great an authority as Coke was entirely ignorant of the subject concerning which he professed to give informa- tion. It so happens that here does not mean " lord," neither does geat mean " beste." And it is clear, too, that he made yet a third blunder in writing geat, when the word to which he meant to refer is geatu. Geat means a gate ! ' It is a pleasure to observe that, in spite of recurring out- breaks, guess-work is no longer adored with that blind admiration which it once evoked. Its ancient glory is waning, and its acceptance is transitory and hesitating ; towards which hopeful change in public opinion I claim to have contributed somewhat, by means of the very articles which are here collected and reprinted. I have only to add that I have contributed a large number of articles, on linguistic and literary subjects, to many other publications besides Notes and Queries If the reception of the present book is sufficiently encouraging, it will be easy to produce another volume, or even two more, of a like kind. BIBLIOGRAPHY. (From N. and Q. 8 S. ii. 241 (1892); with subsequent additions). 1 hope there is no harm in my attempting to give some account of my booksy> I suppose it must be done some day, and I am more likely than another to be able to do it correctly. I begin with books and editions, excluding letters and pamphlets. As many of the editions mentioned below came out in parts, at different dates, it is clearest to adopt a perfectly chronological order, mentioning each part separately, and denoting it by the letters a, I?, c; different editions I denote by the letters A, B, C : — I. The Songs- and Ballads of Uhland : translated from the German. London, Williams and Norgate, 1864. Post 8vo, pp. xxviii, 455- 2 (A). Lancelot of the Laik : a Scottish Metrical Romance. Re-edited with an Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. (Early English Text Society, No. 6.) London, Trubner and Co., 1865. Demy 8vo, pp. lvi, 132. B) Revised ed., 1870. Pp. lvii, 132. 3 (A). Parallel Extracts from MSS. of Piers the Plowman. (E.E.T.S., No. 17.) Trubner, 1866. Pp.24. (B) Second edition, with alterations and additions, 1885. Pp. 34. 4. The Romance of Partenay, or the Tale of Melusine. E.E.T.S. No. 22.) Trubner, 1866. Pp. xix, 299. 5. A Tale of Ludlow Castle. A Poem. Bell and Daldy, 1866. Fcap. 8vo, pp. x, 101. lxxx BIBLIOGRAPHY. 6 (a). The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman. By Wm. Langland. Part I, or the A-Text. (E.E.T.S., No. 28.) Trubner, 1867. Pp. xliii, 158. 7 (A). Pierce the Ploughman's Crede, with God Spede the Plough. (E.E.T.S., No. 30.) Trubner, 1867. Pp. xx, 75. (B) Revised ed., 1895. 8. The Romance of "William of Palerne, or William and the Werwolf ; with a fragment of an Alliterative Romance of Alisaunder. (E.E.T.S., Extra Series, No. 1.) Trubner, 1867. Pp. xliv, 328. 9 (A). The Lay of Havelok the Dane. (E.E.T.S., Extra Series, No. 4.) Trubner, 1868. Pp. Iv, 159. (B) Re-issued, with Corrections and Additions, 1889. Pp. lxii, 159. 10. A Mceso- Gothic Glossary. (Philological Society.) London, Asher and Co., 1868. Small 4to, pp. xxiv, 341. ir (A). The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman. B-Text; Prologue and Passus i-vii. Oxford, 1869. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xlii, 195. (B^i Second edition, revised, 1874. (C) Third edition, revised, 1879. Pp. xlviii, 216. (D) Fourth edition, revised, 1886. (E) Fifth edition, revised, 1889. (F) Sixth edition, revised, 1891. 6 (b). The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman. Part II, or the B-Text. (E.E.T.S., No. 38.) Trubner, 1869. Pp. lvi, 427. N.B. Appended to this part is a Supplement to Part I, pp. numbered i37*-i44*. 12(a). The Bruce. By John Barbour. Parti. (E.E.T.S., Extra Series, No. 11.) Trubner, 1870. Pp. 1-256. 13. Joseph of Arimathie ; or the Holy Grail ; with the Life of Joseph of Arimathea. (E.E.T.S., No. 44.) Trubner, 1871. Pp. xlvii, 100. 14 (A\ The Poems of Thomas Chatterton ; with an Essay on the Rowley Poems and a Memoir by E. Bell. Bell and Daldy, 1871. 2 vols. fcap. 8vo. Vol. I, pp. cvii, 379 ; vol. II, pp. xlvi, 346. (B) Re-issued, 1890. 15 (A). Specimens of English, from A.D. 1394 to 1597. Oxford, 1 87 1. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xxxii, 536. (B) Second edition, revised, 1879. (C) Third edition, revised, 1880. (D) Fourth edition, revised, 1887, pp. xxxi, 550. (E) Fifth edition, 1890. 16 (a). The Gospel according to St. Mark; in the Anglo-Saxon and Northumbrian Versions. Cambridge, 1871. Demy 4to, pp. xxxii, 144. 17 (A\ Specimens of Early English, from A.D. 1298 to 1393. By Dr. Morris, and the Rev. W. W. Skeat. Oxford, 1872. Extra fcap. 8vo. (B) Second edition, 1873. Pp. xl, 490. (C) Third edition, 1894. 18. Chaucer's Treatise on the Astrolabe. ^E.E.T.S., Extra BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ixxxi Series, No. 16, and Chaucer Soc.) Triibner, 1872. Pp. lxix, 119 (with seven plates). 6 (c). The Vision of "William, &c. Part III. ; or the C-Text. Together with Richard the Redeles, and the Crowned King. (E.E.T.S., No. 54.) Triibner, 1873. Pp. cxxviii, 534 (with a facsimile). 19 (A). Questions for Examination in English Literature, with an introduction on the Study of English. Bell and Daldy, 1873. Pp. xxvii, 100. (B) Second and revised edition, 1887. Pp. xxx, no. 20. Seven Reprinted Glossaries. (English Dialect Society, No. 1.) Triibner, 1873. Demy 8vo, pp. vi, 112. 16 (b). The Gospel according to St. Luke, &c. Cambridge. 1874. Pp. xii, 252. 21 (A). Chaucer : The Prioresses Tale, Sir Thopas, The Monkes Tale, The Clerkes Tale, The Squieres Tale, &c. Oxford, 1874. Extra fcap. 8vo. (B) Second edition, revised, 1877. Pp. lxxx, 312. (C) Third edition, revised, 1880. Pp. xcv, 316. (D) Fourth edition, revised, 1888. (E) Fifth edition, revised, 1891. 22. Seven Reprinted Glossaries. (E.D.S., No. 5.) Triibner, 1874. Pp. viii, 92. 12 (6). The Bruce. Part II. (E.E.T.S., Extra Series, No. 21). Pp- 257-336. 23. Ray's Collection of English Words not generally used. Reprinted, with rearrangement and additions, from the edition of 1691. (E.D.S., No. 6.) Triibner, 1874. Pp« xxix> x22. 24. The Two Noble Kinsmen. By Shakespeare and Fletcher. Cambridge, 1875. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xxiv, 159. 25. Shakespeare's Plutarch. London, Macmillan, 1875. Crown 8vo, pp. xxii, 352. 26. Five Original Provincial Glossaries. (E.D.S., No. 12.) Triibner, 1876. Pp. xiv, 149. 27. A List of English Words, the Etymology of which is illus- trated by comparison with Icelandic. (Supplement to Vigfusson's Icelandic Dictionary.) Oxford, 1876. 4to, pp. iv, 20. 28 (A). Chaucer : The Tale of the Man of Lawe, The Pardoneres Tale, The Second Nonnes Tale, The Chanouns Yemannes Tale. Oxford, 1877. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xlviii, 275. (B) Second edition, revised, 1879. Pp. xlviii, 282. (C) New edition, revised, 1889. (D) New edition, revised, 1889. 29. A Bibliographical List of the Works illustrative of the various Dialects of English. By the Rev. W. W. Skeat and J. H. Nodal. (E.D.S.) Part I, 1873, pp. 1-48, and Part II, 1875, pp. 49-131, by W. W. S. ; Part III, 1877, pp. i-viii, by W. W. S., pp. 133-201, by J. H. N., inclusive of an Index by W. E. A. Axon. f lxxxii BIBLIOGRAPHY. 6 (d). Notes on Piers the Plowman. Part IV, sect. i. (E.E.T.S., No. 67.) Triibner, 1877. Pp. 1-512. 12 (c). The Bruce. Part III. (E.E.T.S., Extra Series, No. 29.) Triibner, 1877. Pp. 337-785- 16 (c). The Gospel according to St. John, &c. Cambridge, 1878. Pp. xx, 197. 30. Alexander and Dindimus. (E.E.T.S., Extra Series. No. 31.) Triibner, 1878. Pp. xxxvi, 93. 31. Wycliffe's New Testament, ed. Forshall and Madden. Re- printed, with Introduction and Glossary. Oxford, 1879. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xxiii, 541. 32. Five Reprinted Glossaries. (E.D.S., No. 23.) Triibner. 1879. Demy 8vo, pp. viii, 191. 33. Specimens of English Dialects : including a Bran New Wark. E.D.S., No. 25.) Triibner, 1879. Demy 8vo, pp. viii, 222. 34. Wycliffe's Translation of Job, Psalms, &c. Ed. Forshall and Madden. Reprinted, with Introduction and Glossary ; Oxford, 1881. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xi, 300. 35 (a). ^Elfric's Lives of Saints. Part I. E.E.T.S., No. 76.) Triibner, 1881. Pp. vii and 1-256. 36. The Gospel of St. Mark in Gothic. Oxford, 1882. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. lxxv, 103. [36*. I was entrusted with the reissue of the following work, to which I supplied many references and an index. The History of English Rhythms, by Edwin Guest. LL.D. Ed. by W. W. S London, G. Bell and Sons, 1882. Demy 8vo, pp. xviii, 730.] 37. Pitzherbert's Book of Husbandry. 1534. (E.D.S., No. 37.' Triibner, 1882. Demy 8vo, pp. xxx, 167. 38 A). An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. (Part I, A-Dor, 1879. Part II, Dor-Lit, 1880. Part III, Lit- Red, 1881. Part IV, Red-Z, &c. 1882.) Oxford, 1882. 4to. pp. xxviii. 799. (B) Supplement to the first edition; pp. 775-846. Oxford, 1884, 4to. (C) Second edition, including the Supplement. Oxford, 1884. 4to, pp. xxxii, 844. 39 (A \ A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. Oxford, 1882. Crown 8vo, pp xii, 616. (B) Second edition, revised, 1885. Pp. xii. 625. (C) Third edition, 1887. Pp. xn> 633. (D) Fourth edition, 1890. Pp. xii, 633. 40. The Tale of Gamelyn, with Notes and a Glossary. Oxford, 1884. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xxxix, 64. 6 >{e). Notes on Piers the Plowman. Part IV, section ii. (E.E.T.S., No 81.) Triibner, 1884. Pp. lxxvii, and 513-910. 41. The Kingis Quair. By King James I of Scotland. ^Scottish Text Society, No. 1.) Edinburgh, 1884. Demy 8vo, pp. lv, 113. BIBLIOGRAPHY. lxxxiii 35 (ft), ^llfric's Lives of Saints. Part II. E.E.T.S.. No. 82. Triibner, 1886. Pp. 257-554. 42. The Wars of Alexander ; an Alliterative Romance. ^E.E.T.S.. Extra Series, No. 47. ) Triibner, 1886. Pp. xxiv, 478. 43 Piers the Plowman. By W. Langland. In three parallel Texts; with Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. Oxford, 1886. In two vols, demy 8vo ; vol. I, pp. viii, 628 : vol. II, pp. xciii, 484. 16 \d). The Gospel according to St. Matthew, &c. Cambridge. 1887. Pp. xi, 258. The complete work, in one volume, is entitled, ' The Holy Gospels in Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, and Old Mercian Versions, synoptically arranged/ &c. Cambridge, 1871-1887. Demy 8vo. Paged as before. 44 (A). Principles of English Etymology. First Series. The Native Element. Oxford, 1887. Crown 8vo, pp. xxxiv, 541. (ET Second and revised edition, 1892. Pp. xxxix, 547. 45. A Concise Dictionary of Middle English. By A. L. Mayhew and W. W. S. Oxford, 1888. Crown 8vo, pp. xv, 272. 46. Chaucer : the Minor Poems. Oxford, 1888. Crown 8vo, pp. lxxxvi, 462. 12 (d). The Bruce. Part IV. E.E.T.S.. Extra Series, No. 55. Triibner, 1889. Pp. i-cv. 47. Chaucer : the Legend of Good Women. Oxford. 1889. Crown 8vo, pp. liv, 229. 35 (c). ^llfric's Lives of Saints. Part III. (E.E.T.S., No. 94.) Triibner. 1890. Vol. II, pp. i-224. 48. Principles of English Etymology. Second Series. The Foreign Element. Oxford, 1891. Crown 8vo, pp. xxix, 505. 49. (A) Chaucer ; the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. Oxford. 1891. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xvi, 83. B) Second and revised edition, 1895. 50 (A). A Primer of English Etymology. Oxford, 1892. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. viii, 112. (B Second and revised edition, 1895. 51. Twelve Facsimiles of Old English MSS. Oxford. 1892. Demy 4to, pp. 1-36 ; with twelve plates. 52. Chaucer's House of Fame. Oxford, 1893. Crown 8vo. pp. 136. 53 a). The Bruce. By John Barbour. Part I. (Scottish Text Society.) Edinburgh, 1893-4. Demy 8vo, pp. 1-351. bj The same; Part II, 1893-4. Pp- i— viii, 1-431. (c) The same ; Part III. 1894-5. Pp. i-xci. N.B. {c) and (a) make up vol. I ; (6X constitutes vol. II. 54. The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Oxford, 1894. Six vols, demy 8vo. Vol. I. — The Romaunt of the Rose, and Minor Poems; pp. lxiv, 568. Vol. II. — Boethius ; Troilus ; pp. lxxx, 506. lxxxiv BIBLIOGRAPHY. Vol. III. — House of Fame; Legend of Good Women; Astrolabe; Sources of the Tales ; pp. lxxx, 504. Vol. IV. — Canterbury Tales ; Tale of Gamelyn ; pp. xxxii, 667. Vol. V. — Notes to the Canterbury Tales; pp. xxviii, 515. Vol. VI. — Introduction; Glossary; Indexes; pp. ciii, 445. 55. The Student's Chaucer. Oxford, 1895. Crown 8vo, pp. xxiv, 732 ; with Glossarial Index, pp. 149. 56. Nine Specimens of English Dialects. (^E.D.S., No. 76.) Oxford, 1895. Demy 8vo, pp. xxiv, 193. 57. Two Collections of Derbicisms; by S. Pegge, A.M. Edited by W.W. S. and Thomas Hallam. (E.D.S., No. 78/. Oxford, 1896. Demy 8vo, pp. c, 138. 58. A Student's Pastime ; being a select series of articles re- printed from Notes and Queries. Oxford, 1896. Cr. 8vo, pp. lxxxiv, 410. 59. The Complete "Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Vol. VII supplementary). — Works printed in old editions. Oxford. Demy 8vo. (In the press.) 35 (d). oniric's Lives of Saints. Part IV. E.E.T.S.) Vol. II ; concluding part. (In the press.) ERRATA. P. 46, 1. 11. For Libra read Liber. P. 108, 1. 3. For 187 read 1877. P. 129, 1. 10. For parables read parable. P. 137, 1. 12. For ofel read ofer. A STUDENT'S PASTIME FROM 'NOTES AND QUERIES: One of my earliest contributions to Notes and Queries appeared in the Third Series, vii. 407 ; May 20. 1865. Later contributions can be found in the Indexes to the various years, under my name. I here give a selection from the numerous articles contributed by me to that periodical from the year 1866 onwards. In a few cases. I have slightly altered the wording, but as a rule it is unaltered. In other cases, I give only a portion of the article, when the rest of it is of no general interest. The articles are, for the most part, arranged in chronological order. The Index at the end of the volume is a sufficient guide to the subjects under discussion. The reference to ' 3 S. ix. 379' means Third Series, vol. ix. p. 379; and so in other cases. 1. Conrad: derivation of (3 S. ix. 379 ; 1866). Of Teutonic origin. From Old High Germ. Kuon-rdt, i.e. keen (in) counsel. [See kuoni, keen, rat, counsel, and Kuonrdt (s.v. Chuonzo), in Schade's O. Ger. Diet.] The Ital. Currado, in Dante, Parad. xv. 139, is borrowed from the German. The Dutch words koen, keen or bold, and raad, counsel, still strikingly resemble the old Kuon-rdt. B 2 ENGLISH ACCENT. 2. English accent thrown back ; as in balcony (3 S. ix. 380; 1866). The history of the pronunciation of such words as balcony is easily explained, and has been often discussed; see, e.g., Marsh's Lectures on the English Language, Series 1, p. 531. In almost all such words, the foreign pronunciation comes near the end, as in the Ital. balcbne ; but when the word becomes thoroughly familiar to us, we throw back the accent, and call it balcony. It is useless, therefore, to protest against balcony, for that this pronunciation will prevail there can be no doubt ; and we may therefore as well accept it at once. Thus Robert Browning, writing later than Scott and Byron, adopts the newer pronunciation as being more in accord- ance with English, and is right in so doing. The list of words, the accent of which has been thrown back, is a very long one. I may instance aspect, process, contrite, blasphemous, uproar, co7itemplate, &c. ; formerly pro- nounced aspect, process, contrite, blasphemous, uproar, con- template ; nor would it be at all surprising if we soon have to say decorous and sonorous, badly as these sound to any one acquainted with Latin ; for pronunciation is regulated by common custom, not by any consideration of right and wrong. And when an Englishman is in doubt, he throws back the accent as a matter of course. 3. Rime v. Rhyme (3 S. ix. 102, 264; 1866). [In 3 S. ix. 102, I observed, on the spelling rime, that I had explained it in a letter to The Reader, in February, 1865. After this, I was referred to Jamieson's Dictionary, where I should ' find that rime is a word totally inconsistent with any idea of poetic lines' (3 S. ix. 169). Of course I replied that the word rime does not occur in Jamieson at all ! For such is the fact \ I also wrote as follows.] 1 Jamieson merely gives rind, rliync, rhyme as words meaning rime, i.e. hoar-frost. RIME V. RHYME. 3 I am not surprised that the correctness of the spelling ' rime ' for ' rhyme ' should be doubted, but I do not think that many readers (especially if they have looked into Shakespeare ', where the word occurs about forty times) will attribute the ' idea ' to me ! I suppose Mr. I. means that the old meaning of rime had sometimes reference to another kind of verse than that which has chimed couplets, which may be quite true ; as it is also true that the A. S. rim generally meant a reckoning or computation. What I mean is, that the authors who assert rime to be the true spelling are right. Mr. Marsh has done this most explicitly, in his Lectures on the English Language, Series i, p. 509 ; the statement, strongly put, also appeared in the Saturday Review, Aug. 17, 186 1, p. 105 ; it is also distinctly stated in Ogilvie's Imperial Dictionary ; and Tyrwhitt uses this spell- ing throughout his' ' Essay on the Versification of Chaucer.' This was whence I first derived the idea, and it has been abundantly confirmed by investigation. Thus the word is spelt rytn in Haveluk the Dane, and in Chaucer; ryme in Robert of Brunne, N. Udall, W. Webbe (1586), Skelton, Donne, and Shakespeare ; rime in Chaucer, Shakespeare, Spenser, and Milton (see particularly Milton's preface to Paradise Lost) ; whilst we find ryming in Roger Ascham and Bishop Cosin, and riming and rimer in Shakespeare. Very many more authors might be cited, but perhaps the following from Shakespeare may suffice : — ' Marry, I cannot shew it in rime ; I have tried, I can finde no rime to ladie but badie, an innocent rime ; for scorne, home, a hard rime ; tor schoole. foole, a babling rime; very ominous endings.' — Much Ado about Nothing, Act V. Sc. 2 (ed. 1623). It is obvious that this writer believed rime to be not 'totally inconsistent with any idea of poetic lines.' The 1 I had previously referred to Chaucer and Spenser. Of course, the Middle-English spelling is always rime, rim (or ryme, rym). B 2 4 ANOINTED. intrusion of h into the word was doubtless due to confusion with the Greek pvfyios ; but it should be noted that English is the only language which has admitted this pedantic innovation 1. Compare A. S. rim, Icelandic rima, Dutch rijm, German Rei?n, Danish riim, Swedish ri?n, French rime, Ital. rima, Span, and Port, rima, Prov. rim, [Even Polish has ry??i?\ 4. Anointed; in a depraved sense (3 S. ix. 422 ; i866\ [Murray's New English Dictionary has : ' Anoint : ironically, to beat soundly, to baste. In the North they say humorously " to anoint with the sap of a hazel rod." ' He then quotes the very passage to which I called attention in 1866.] I have just met with so singular a use of this word, that I make a note of it at once. In the French MS. Romance of Melusine is an account of a man who had received a thorough and severe beating, which is thus referred to : — ' Qui auoit este si bien oingt.'' The English version, which I am now editing for the E. E. T. Society, says : — 'Which so well was Anoy?ited indedeV It is clear that to a?ioint a man, was to give him a sound drubbing, and that the word was so used in the fifteenth century. This, I think, explains all. ' An a?iointed rogue ' means either one who has been well thrashed, or who deserves to be. In the latter case, it expresses the opinion and the wish of the speaker. 5. Carfax. I (3 S. x. 184; 1866). Having duly read all I can find in N and Q. about Carfax, well known as the name of a place in Oxford, I feel bound to say that none of the derivations proposed for it 1 The insertion of the // into the word is not much earlier than 1550. 2 See the Romance of Partenay, ed. Skeat, 1866, 1. 5653 ; and the note. CARFAX. 5 seem to me to be properly proved, and I therefore ven- ture to propose another which is something more than a guess, as a good deal can be shown in its favour, it being capable of being traced through all its changes. The best of those proposed are quatre-faces and quatre-voies, the latter being the favourite, and adopted in the Oxford guide-books. But I submit that it remains to be shown that the phrase qaatre-voies was ever commonly used ; quadriviu7?i was used in Latin, but was quartre-voies used in French? The answer is, no ; the word commonly used in Old French was carrefourg, and the word still commonly used in French is its modern form, carrefour. Now the history of this word is very much to the purpose. First, let us see what Burguy says of it : he says, ' quarefor, quarefort, carrefour ; compose de quadrifurcum, propr. quadruple fourche.' This is quite sound ; there is no doubt that the Latin root-words are quatuor and furca. Next, hear Cotgrave \ he says, ' Quarrefour : the place in, or part of, a towne whereat four streets meet at a head. Par tous les quarrefours de : Throughout all the four quarters, corners, or streets of; and this is a good sound explanation. I must now remark that, according to N. and Q., an old spelling for Carfax is ' Carfox,' and I can then trace the word from beginning to end as follows. In MS. Camb. LI. 2. 5, fol. 41, "are the lines — ' A lentree de luxenbourg, Lieu ny auoit ne carrcfourg Dont len neust veu venir les gens,' &c. In MS. Trin. R. 3. 1 7, which is a translation of the above Romance of Melusine, we find on fol. 39 the corresponding lines — ' No place ther had, neither carfoukes non, But peple shold se ther come many one1.' 1 Printed in the Romance of Partenay, ed. Skeat (E. E. T. S.)} 1866 j lines 1819-20. 6 CARFAX. Whence it is easy to see that Carfax is a contraction of Carfoukes, and from Carfax comes, as has been admitted, the modern form Carfax. I propose, therefore, to give up the derivations quatuor fades and quatuor vias, and to adopt quatuor furcas ; to suppose, in fact, that the -fax or -fax answers to the English forks. Those who think votes the true original have to show how the ^-sound got in to the word ; I make the simpler supposition that an r has dropped out. By way of corollary, it may be noted that the French have retained the r, but have dropped the k or g: thus they no longer write carrefourg, but carrefour. A correspondent has made the curious objection that, at Horsham, Carfax means a place where three wrays meet, and he actually thinks this fatal to the etymology ! Of couse, the idea of four was easily lost, but the idea of crosswaysi or roads meeting, retained. How would such a person understand Peter's ' passing through all quarters ' (Acts ix. 32) ? Or, we might thus argue that jourtial has no connexion with the Latin diurnus, because the Londo7i Journal is published once a week. Or again (and this is yet more to the purpose), it may be shown that even carrefour may denote, not four crossways, but one street only. For Froissart uses le souverain carrefour to denote the principal street \ Froissart, vol. iv. c. 28. [PS. The above etymology is adopted in the New Eng. Diet. ; and the above passage is there cited. It had previously appeared in my own Etym. Dictionary, in 1882.] 6. Carfax. II (4 S. iii. 273 ; 1869). The word carfukes occurs in the Memorials of Lo?idon, ed. Riley, p. 300. I am sorry Mr. Riley reproduces in his note the erroneous notion of a derivation from quatre faces, four faces. It is, on the contrary, one more instance which illustrates the true derivation from the Latin quadrifurcum (or quatuor furcas), as I have explained in N. and Q. in 'AS NICE AS A NUN'S HEN.' 7 the passage to which I here refer; (see p. 4 aboveV Mr. Wedgwood has adopted my suggestion in the Appendix to his Ety?nological Dictionary, and gives further informa- tion concerning the etymology. 7. 'As nice as a Nun's Hen' (3 S. x. 215 ; 1866). The word fastidious very nearly expresses the sense of nice here. The priest alluded to was fastidious and mincing in his talk ; and, by a sort of pun, was said to be as fastidious and particular as a nun's hen ; according to a proverb in the north, which makes a nun's hen to be something peculiarly delicate and pure. The following quotation well exemplifies this : — 'Women, women, loue of women Make bare purs with some men. Some be nyse as a nonne hene, Yet al thei be nat soo ; Some be lewde, some all be schreude, Go schrewes wher thei goo.' From a poem on ' Women,' appended to the Wrighfs Chaste Wife, ed. F. J. Furnivall (Early English Text Society). 8. Rhyme nor Reason (3 S. x. 236 ; 1866). Two or three correspondents have already explained that the phrase probably has reference to some poetical attempt which was recommended neither by metre nor meaning. I merely write to ' make a note ' that the phrase seems to be of considerable antiquity, and is probably of French origin. In a MS. written before 1500 (Camb. Univ. LI. 2. 5, fol. 9b.) is the line — ' En toy na Ryme ne Raison,' i. e. there is neither rime nor reason in thee. [PS. This MS. is the French original of the Romance of 8 RESPLEND. Partenay. The translation does not reproduce the line here quoted. See note to 1. 279 of the Romance of Partenay, ed. Skeat, E. E. T. S.,1866 ; p. 235.] 9. Resplend (3 S. x. 258 ; 1866). Resplend occurs in the following passage : — ' He sees Berinthia's modesty resplend and shine in her affection.' (Reynolds's God's Revenge against Murder (1622), booke ii. hy. vii. p. 57.) I take it to be closely related to the verb resplendish, which is not uncommon in early English, as in the following : — ' The fame of Ffabius resplendysshed and floured after his deth more thanne at that tyme when he lyved.' (Caxton's Boke of Tulle, Of Old Age (1481)). Resplende?ice and resple?ident are common enough, probably owing to their having been used by Milton, as, e. g. in Paradise Lost, v. 720, 'in full resplendence,' and ix. 568, ' resplendent Eve.' 10. Curious Tradition : Roses (3 S. x. 276; 1866). May I suggest that there were no roses in Paradise ? They are, comparatively, quite a recent creation ! At any rate, Sir John Maundeville gives the full and true account of their first appearance on earth, and says expressly they were the first ' that euer ony man saughe.' See Southey's fine poem called ' The Rose,' at the head of which the quotation from Maundeville is fully given. But Southey is not true to his original ; for, instead of saying that the rose was then seen for the first time, he says — ' First seen on earth since Paradise zvas lost."1 Whence it appears that he had also read Milton (see P. L. iv. 256), and had combined his information. The 'rose of Sharon ' was only a narcissus. See Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. ' Rose.' CADDY 9 11. Caddy (3 S. x. 323 ; 1866). The following curious passage in a lately-published work is worth notice, and may perhaps at the same time suggest to W. S. J.1 an etymology for the word caddy : — 1 The standard currency of Borneo is brass guns. This is not a figure of speech, nor do I mean small pistols or blunderbusses ; but real cannon, five to ten feet long, and heavy in proportion. The metal is estimated at so much a picul, and articles are bought and sold, and change given, by means of this awkward coinage. The picul contains 100 catties, each of which weighs about 1^ English pounds. There is one advantage about this currency, it is not easily stolen.' — F. Boyle, Adventures among the Dyaks, p. 100. To the word catties the author subjoins a footnote as follows : — * Tea purchased in small quantities is frequentry enclosed in boxes containing one catty. I offer a diffident suggestion that this may possibly be the derivation of our familiar tea-caddy.' I may add that the use of this weight is not confined to Borneo; it is used also in China, and is (as I am informed) the only weight in use in Japan. [PS. A note by R. W. W., also printed in X. and Q., con- tained the information that ' an original package of tea, less than a half-chest, is called in the trade a box, caddy, or catty. This latter is a Malay word — kati, a catty or weight, equivalent to 1 gib. avoirdupois.' This etymology was repeated in my Etym. Diet., 1882, and is adopted in the New Eng. Dictionary.] 12. Expulse (3 S. x. 437; 1866). Expulse is simply the French and old English form of the word expel, and is now used but rarely ; so that it may be more justly deemed a term of the past than of the future. I find ' Expulser, to expulse, expell,' in Cotgrave's French Dictionary, editon of 1660; and ' Expulser, to expulse,' in 1 My dear brother-in-law, since dead. IO FRENCH PROVERB: 'GRATE.' Nugent's French Dictionary, dated 1844. It occurs in Shakespeare (1 Hen. VI. iii. 3. 25) as equivalent to extirp : — Charles. 'Nor should that nation boast it so with us, But be extirped from our provinces. Alen. For ever should they be expulsed from France ; And not have title of an earldom here.' Nares, in his Glossary, also quotes the following : — 'He was expulsed the senate.' — North's Plutarch, p. 499. And— ' If he, expulsing King Richard, as a man not meet for the office he bare, would take upon him the scepter.' — Holinshed, vol. ii. vv. 8. But why the writer in The Guardian could not use the simpler term expel, seems odd ; perhaps he may have thought expulse more expressive and forcible, from the con- sideration that, in Latin, expulsare is the frequentative form of expellere ; or, more probably, he was thinking of the French form expulser, which is in common use. I may add, that expulse is a favourite word with dictionary-makers. I find it in Meadows' Spanish and Italian dictionaries, in Vieyra's Portuguese dictionary, and in the Tauchnitz Dutch and Swedish dictionaries. Both forms, expeler and expulsar, occur in Spanish, and expellir and expulsar in Portuguese ; but the Italian has expellere only, which is counterbalanced by the sole French form, expulser. 13. French Proverb : ' Grate' (3 S. x. 523 ; 1866). Mr. B. says that he wants an explanation of grate in the phrase ' Tant grate chievre que mal gist,' and suggests that it will be found in Cotgrave. There it is, sure enough ; for Cotgrave gives, ' Grater, to scratch, to scrape, to scrub, claw, rub. Tant grate la chevre que mat gist (a proverb applicable to such as cannot be quiet when they are well).' [PS. The mod. F. form is gratter.] ENGLISH WITHOUT ARTICLES. II 14. English without Articles (3 S. xi. 52 ; 1867). It is worth noting that Sir William Davenant contrived to write a poem, ' The London Vacation,' almost without the use of articles. In the course of 162 lines, the only occurs about four times, and a about thrice. The effect is rather odd, as may be seen from this specimen : — ' Now wight that acts on stage of Bull In scullers' bark does lie at Hull, Which he for pennies two does rig, All day on Thames to bob for grig. Whilst fencer pocr does by him stand In old dung-lighter, hook in hand ; Between knees rod, with canvas crib To girdle tied, close under rib ; Where worms are put, which must small fish Betray at night to earthen dish.' It may be noted, too, that grig here occurs in the sense of a little eel. (See 3 S. x. 413.) 15. Keycold (3 S. xi. 171 ; 1867). Shakespeare speaks of ''key-cold Lucrece ' \ and again, we find the line — ■ ' Poor key-cold figure of a holy king ! ' Richard III, Act I. Sc. 2. It may be noted that a similar idea is found in Gower. Compare — 'And so it coldeth at min herte That wonder is, how I asterte {escape), In such a point that I ne deie. For certes, there was never kcie Ne frosen is (ice) upon the walle More inly cold, than I am alle.' Gower, Confessio Amantis, ed. Pauli, iii. 9. 16. 'As Dead as a Door-Nail' (3 S. xi. 173 ; 1867). That this proverb is old enough, is easily shown. It occurs in the following passages : — 12 BERN A R. ' For but ich haue bote of mi bale bi a schort time, I am ded as dore-nail ; now do all thi wille ! ' William, and the Werwolf, p. 23, 1. 628. 'Thurth the bold bodi he bar him to the erthe As ded as dornayl, to deme the sothe.' Id. p. 122, 1. 3396. ' Feith withouten the feet is right nothyng worthi, And as deed as a door-tree, but if the dedes folwe.' Piers Ploughman, ed. Wright, p. 26. For which another MS. (Trin. Coll. R. 3. 14) reads — ' Feith withoute fait is feblere than nought, And as ded as a dorenail, but ghif the dede folewe ' ; both of which latter are free translations of St. James's saying, that ' faith without works is dead.' Sir F. Madden, in his glossary to William and the Wer- wolf , calls it ' a proverb which has become indigenous, but the sense of which it is difficult to analyze ' ; and I am very much of the same opinion. ' As dead as a door-tree] i. e. as a door-post, is somewhat more intelligible, for the wood of which the post is formed was part of a live tree once. There is then a possibility that such was the original expres- sion, and that the proverb was transferred from the door- post itself to the nails that studded the door, without any very great care as to maintaining the sense of the expression. There are other sayings in the same plight. [PS. See my note to P. Plowman, B. i. 185 (C. ii. 184), where I also quote from Shak. 2 Hen. IV. v. 3. 125-6.] 17. Bernar (3 S. xi. 191; 1867). In Jesse's Researches into the History of the British Dog, I find the following passages : — ' We send you also William Fitz-R:chard, Guy the huntsman, and Robert de Stanton, commanding you to provide necessaries for the same greyhounds and " veltrars/' and our dogs '*de motis," and brachets, with their bernars,' &c. — Vol. ii. p. 27. ' And than shuld ye bcerners on foot, and ye gromes lede home ye houndes,' &c. — Vol. ii. p. 123. BERNAR. 13 'And whan ye j'emen, beerners, and gromes han ladde home ye houndes, and sette hem wel up, and ordeynne water and strawe after yat hem nedeth/ &c. — Ibid. Observing that the learned author is for once somewhat at fault about the meaning and origin of the term, T send you the following note :— Mr. Jesse says : — 1 Bernars, qy., bowmen, or huntsmen, from bersare. to hunt or shoot. — Coivel. Or from bernage, equipage, train, &c. — Cotgrave.'' But the true meaning is better given in Roquefort. We there find — ' Bemiers, vassaux qui payoient le droit de brenage? And again : — ' Brenage, redevance en son, que des vassaux payoient d'abord a certains seigneurs pour la nourriture de leurs chiens ; en bas-Lat. brenagiutn.' And again : — 'Bren, bran, brenie, ordure, et du son, ou ce qui reste dans le sas de la farine sassee ; en bas-Bret. bren, son.' It hence appears that a bernar might, in modern English, be well named a branner ; i. e. a man who provides bran for dogs, where by bran may be denoted refuse of various kinds, and not only that obtained from husks of corn. Wedgwood, s. v. Bran, explains that it means refuse, draff, leavings, ordure ; and instances the Breton brenn hesken as meaning refuse of the saw, sawdust. The duty of the berner was, no doubt, to feed the dogs ; for Mr. Jesse says again : — • Besides the foregoing, and not included, was the wages of a certain valet (' berner ') for the keep of fifteen running-dogs during forty days in Lent.' — Vol. ii. p. 132. Yet again we read : — 1 Mention is made likewise of " the Pantryes, Chippinges, and broken breade," a kind of food which is frequently spoken of about this period.' — Vol. ii. p. 125. This may be the signification of bran in its wider sense. 14 PUTTING A MAN UNDER A POT. One more quotation (referring to the 49th year of Henry III) is too important to be omitted : — 'In acquittance of the expenses of Richard de Candevere and William de Candevere going for bran,'' &c. — Vol. ii. p. 36. It might easily happen that a person who engaged to pro- vide food for hounds was a man of wealth : for numerous examples of such ' dog tenures,' see the same volume, pp. 41, 42, 43. This perhaps may account for the name being applied to persons of higher station, and I suppose such to have been the origin of the name Berners, of which Juliana Berners and Lord Berners are such bright orna- ments. [PS. This etymology appears in the New Eng. Did., s. v. Bemerl\ 18. Putting a Man under a Pot (3 S. xi. 277 ; 1867). I have seldom met with a more amazing statement than there is in Piers Ploughman 's Crede, and I should greatly like to know of something that would corroborate it. The author distinctly asserts that there was a regular system of making away with friars who were not sufficiently active in begging for the good of tbeir house. He says : — ' But1 [except) he may beggen his bred, His bed is y-greithed {prepared for him) ; Under a pot he shall be put In a pryvye chambre, That he shall lyuen ne laste But lytel whyle after.' Ed. Wright, 1. 1247. This clearly means that a useless friar is put under a pot, and that he soon dies in consequence. The only passage I know of that throws any light on this is also in the Crede : — ' For thei ben nere dede ; And put al in pur clath With pottes on her hedes.' Id. 1. 1222. 1 The Trinity MS. has ' But.' The printed texts have ' That.' LIVING. 15 Now why, I ask, should a pot be put on a man's head when he lies on his death-bed ? [This question remains unanswered.] 19. Living (3 S. xi. 286 ; 1877). Wright's Provincial Dictionary gives ' Living, a farm : Leicestershire.'' In Norfolk it is a very common word. A London man might call a person's house and grounds a nice place, but a Norfolk man would use the word living. In this sense, too, it occurs in Ben Jonson : ' I have a pretty living o' mine own too, beside, hard by here : ' Every Ma?i in his Humour, Act I. Sc. 1 (or 2). [Nares misses the word. There is no note on it in Wheatley's edition of Every Man, Act I. Sc. 2, 1. 8. I fre- quently heard it when residing in Norfolk. I was once told that I seemed to have a nice living (i. e. a pleasantly situated house). It seemed to me a queer thing to say to a curate.] 20. Two-faced Pictures (3 S. xi. 346 ; 1867). Few things are easier to make. Get two pictures of the same size ; cut them vertically into strips half an inch broad ; paste the corresponding strips back to back (you will see which these are by trial), and then set them up on their edges in a row from left to right at equal distances of about three-quarters of an inch or an inch apart. Then, if you stand to the left, you see the whole of one picture ; if to the right, the whole of the other. If, instead of setting them up above plain paper, you set them up above a third uncut picture, you will see this one only by standing directly in front ; and the double picture thus becomes a treble picture without any increase of difficulty in the construction. [PS. Now {\n 1895) used to advertise 'Sunlight Soap.'] 16 CHRIST-CROSS. 21. Christ-cross (3 S. xi. 352 ; 1867). In Piers Ploughmen? s Crede, 1. 1, we find ' Cros and curteis Christ this begynnyng spede,' where there seems to be an allusion to the prefixing of a cross to the beginning of a piece of writing, especially of an alphabet in a primer ; see Nares's Glossary, s. v. Cross-row and Christ-cross-row. Also in a poem, by the Rev. R. S. Hawker, called ' A Christ- cross Rhyme,' we find at the very beginning — ' Christ his cross shall be my speed, Teach me, father John, to read.' Now it is to be observed, that in Chaucer's Treatise on the Astrolabe occurs the following : — i This border is devided also with xxiii letters, and a s?nall crosse aboue the south line that sheweth the xxiiij houres equales of the clocke ' ; and in the diagrams accompanying this in the MSS. we accordingly see a cross at the south or starting-point, followed by the twenty-three letters of the alphabet, /, v, and w being omitted. The fact is, that the true use of a cross, in drawing, is to define or mark a point, especially a point to start or measure from (there being no more convenient way of defining a point than by thus considering it as the spot where two short lines intersect) ; and I believe this to be its simple sole and original use when prefixed to the alphabet in an astrolabe, except that it was also found convenient to increase the number of symbols from the awkward number of twenty-three to the very convenient one of twenty-four. But it was impossible that it could be used long without reference being supposed to be made to the cross of Christ, and it must soon have been regarded as invoking Christ's blessing upon the commence- ment of any writing. Hence the term Christ-cross-row, or shortly, cross-row. Archdeacon Nares has another sug- gestion, that the cross-row was probably named from a superstitious custom of writing the alphabet in the form of a cross, by way of charm ; but I prefer the former AS RIGHT AS A TRIVET. 1 7 explanation. He also says, ' the mark of noon on a dial is in the following passage jocularly called the Christ-cross of the dial, being the figure of a cross placed instead of xii : — " Fall to your business roundly ; the fescue [Lat. festuca] of the dial is upon the Christ-cross of noon." ' — Puritan iv. 2, Suppl. to Sh. ii. 607. But there is no need to insert the word jocularly; it was natural enough that it should come to be so called. [See Christ-cross and Cross-row in the New Eng. Dictionary^ 22. As right as a trivet : As clean as a whistle (3 S. xi. 361; 1867). These are excellent examples of the way in which proverbs rapidly become obscure when based on something that is a sort of pun upon words. Thus, we use such a word as deep in two senses, and we might facetiously call a very astute man ' as deep as the Bay of Biscay,' which would be readily intelligible at first, but might easily, by a slight alteration, become almost meaningless. I suppose the same sort of process to have been at work in the case of the two above proverbs. ( The ' rectitude of a trivet ' con- sists in its rectangularity \ If that sort of trivet which is placed upon the upper bar of a grate is not accurately made, the kettle that stands upon it will not stand even, but will inconveniently slouch forward or backward. The trivet, to be a good one, must be right-angled, or made 1 right and true.' In the next proverb a further stage of corruption of the sense has been reached, the word clean being put for clear. No sound is more clear than that of a whistle ; hence ' as clear as a whistle ' is good sense. 1 [Or, if we take trivet in the sense of ' a three-legged support,' the sense is quite clear, in that case also. You cannot make a three- legged stool stand unsteadily.] C 1 8 MILTON'S USE OF 'CHARM.' But if a man speaks of cutting anything off with perfect smoothness and evenness, he would say he has cut it off clear or sheer, or clean, with equal readiness ; and he would probably add the words ' as a whistle ' to one phrase quite as soon as to the other, without any great amount of reflection as to the congruity of his speech. Just in the same way, a church is a safe place of sanctuary, or may be regarded as safely built, secure and fast ; whence arises such a question and answer as the following, which is not uncommon : — ' Is he fast asleep ? ' ' Aye, as safe as a church.' A play upon words necessarily leads to a play upon phrases. See note on ' as dead as a door-nail,' N. and Q., 3 S. xi. 173. 23. Milton's use of the word ' charm.' I (3 S. xi. 382 ; 1867). The word charm is well explained by Wedgwood. The root of it is preserved in the A. S. cyrm, loud noise. Another quotation for it is : — 'Vor thi ich am loth smale foghle — Hit me bichermit and bigredeth.' Owl and Nightingale, 280. It also occurs in one of our Early English Text Society's Books : — 'Tentes, pauilons freshly wrought and good, Doucet songes hurde of briddes enuiron, Whych meryly chinned in the grene wood.' Romance of Partenay ^ed. Skeat, 1866), p. 37, 1. 876; which is thus explained in the Glossarial Index : — 1 Chirmed, made a loud noise, chirped loudly, 878. Cf. " synniga cynn, the uproar of sinners" ; Caedmon, ed. Thorpe, 145, 17. "With charm of earliest birds"; Milton, P. L., iv. 642. See Forby.' By ' Forby ' I mean ' Forby's East- Anglian Glossary.7 [See Charm (2) and Chirm in the New Eng. Dictionary.] MIL TON'S USE OF 'CHARM/ 19 24. ' Charm.' II (5 S. vii. 278 ; 1877). This word has been often discussed ; see, e. g., 2V. and Q., 3 S. xi. 221, 382, 510. It is a perfectly common English word, used, to my own knowledge, in Shropshire, and is not a Celtic, but an English word, being the A. S. arm (cyrm), the hard c turning into eh as usual. Jamieson has it in his Dictionary, with the spelling chirm ; and though he fails to give the A. S. form, he gives the correct equivalent Dutch verb, viz. kermen, to lament. The A. S. substantive is better spelt eirm; and Grein, in his A.S. Dictionary, s v. arm, gives fifteen examples of its use as a substantive, and six examples of the verb arman, which he rightly compares with O. H. G. karmian, to make a noise. The word is per- fectly well known, and the supposed ' Gaelic ' equivalent is all moonshine ; so, too, is a supposed connexion with the Latin carmen. 25. Luther's Distich (3 S. xi. 449 ; 1867). This distich is attributed to Luther by the poet Uhland, who was no bad judge in such matters. See ' Gedichte ' von L. Uhland — Die Geisterkelter. The passage runs thus in my translation : — ' At Weinsberg, town well known to fame, That doth from ivine derive its name, Where songs are heard of joy and 3'outh, Where stands the fort, hight ''Woman's Truth"' — Where Luther e'en, 'mid women, song, And wine, would find the time not long, And might, perchance, find room to spare For Satan and an inkhorn there (For there a host of spirits dwell); — Hear what at Weinsberg once befel ! ' Songs and Ballads 0/ Uhland, translated by Skeat, p. 318. There is a note on the passage by Mr. Piatt, at p. 497 of his translation of Uhland's poems. He says : — 1 The great Martin Luther was no ascetic. In one of his merry moments he is reported to have written the following couplet, which C 2 20 'HON// ITS MEANING AND ETYMOLOGY. frequently adorns the margin of the wine-bills, drinking-cups, &c, in houses of glad resort in Germany : — ''Who loves not woman, wine, and song, Remains a fool his whole life long." The story of Luther's conflict with the devil, when he put the fiend to flight by throwing his inkstand at him, is well known.' This, by the way, is precisely how Mr. Pickwick vented his rage upon A. Jingle, Esq., of No-hall, Nowhere. 26. 'Honi,' its meaning and etymology in the phrase * Honi soit qui mal y pense ' (3 S. xi. 481 ,"1867). This is a common enough word in Old French. Thus we find in Roquefort — ' Honir {homer, /loimir, hontager, hontir, hounir, hoannir) ; mepriser, biamer, deshonorer, maltraiter, diffamer.' And in Cotgrave — ' Honnir. To reproach, disgrace, dishonour, defame, shame, revile, curse, or outrage, in words ; also, to spot, blemish, pollute, foule, file, defile.' When we consider how many Teutonic words there are in French, and more especially in Old French, the deriva- tion becomes not far to seek. I take it to be simply allied to the Moeso-Gothic hauns (low), which was used as a contrasted word to hanks (high). In Ulfilas's translation of St. Paul's Epistles, we have this well brought out in the following : — ' Ni waiht bi haifstai aiththau lausai hauheinai ak in allai hauneinai gahugdais,' &c. — i. e. ' No whit by strife or empty haughtiness^ but in all lowliness of mind,' Phil. ii. 3 ; and again, only five verses farther on, we read that Christ ' gahaunida sik silban,' i. e. humbled himself, where the Greek is iruireivatrev, and the Latin humiliauit. Hence haunjan (Greek ran € wnvv, Lat. humiliart)^ means 'to make low,' ' to humiliate ' : whence the meanings given by Cotgrave, ' to reproach, disgrace, dishonour,' &c, follow easily enough. Compare also the German holm, an affront. I do not see why we should quarrel with the com- DRYDEN QUERIES: ' NEYES.' 21 monly-received translation. Literally, the phrase means, 'Disgraced be he who thinks evil thereat ' ; of which 'Evil be to him who evil thinks ' is no bad version. Its chief defect is, that it ignores the word y. [Strictly, the O.F. honir is from the O. H. G. Konjan (see Schade), which is cognate with the Goth, haunjan. See Diez, s. v. onire \ cf. F. honteJ] 27. Dryden Queries : ' Neyes ' (3 S. xii. 56 ; 1867). I have not Dryden's plays to refer to, but probably neyes means eyes. There is an undoubted instance of this in a quotation given in Jesse's History of the British Bog, vol. ii., where, at a bear-baiting, the bear is described ' with his two pink neyes.1 Is not this, by the way, the etymology of the name Pinckeney ? It is an instance of the ' epenthetic /<?,' so common in old English. In my new edition of Piers Plowman, the first volume of which is just ready, the various readings furnish several instances. Thus, in the pro- logue, 1. 42, instead of 'at the ale/ some MSS. have ' at the /tale,1 or 'at nale' ; and again, in Passus v. 1. 115, instead of ' at the oke (oak) ' most MSS. have ' at the noke ' or 'atte nohe.' Hence the explanation of the phrase 'for the nonce,' which simply means ' for the once ' (A. S. for than anes), but which so puzzled Tyrwhitt, one of our greatest scholars, that he was driven to conjecture a deriva- tion from the Latin pro nunc. The history of this n seems to be simply this, that the dative of the article takes the form than or then in the masculine and neuter in early English. . . But when the noun following began with a vowel, this n was transferred to the beginning of such words ; and this transfer took place, not only in the dative case, but often in all cases for the mere sake of euphony, so that we not only find ' the neyes ' in the dative case, but even in the nominative. Nor did this addition of n stop here ; we may go a step further, and dismiss the article altogether, 22 LUCIFER. and speak of ' two pinke neyes.' To add to the confusion thus introduced, we have numerous instances of the reverse process, the taking away of an //, so that instead of a ?iadder, we now absurdly write an adder. See Ulphilas's translation of Luke iii. 7 — ' kuni nadre,' i. e. O kin oinadders, O genera- tion of vipers. Other instances are, a?i auger, an umpire, miswritten for a ?iauger (A. S. nafegar), and a numpire (O. F. noumpere), [See further in the Remarks on the letter N in my Etym. Diet., at the beginning of N; and my Pri7iciples of Eng. Etymology, First Series, § 346, 347.] 28. Lucifer (3 S. xii. no ; 1867). I think it should be noted that Lucifer was applied to Satan, in English literature, at least four hundred years before Milton's time, and probably long before that1. In some Early English Homilies, which Mr. Morris is editing for the Early English Text Society, and the date of which is about 1220-30 a.d., it is stated most explicitly. The book is not yet published, but I quote from a proof-sheet, p. 219 : — ' Tha wes thes tyendes hades alder swithe feir isceapan, swa that heo was gehoten leoht-berinde ' ; i. e. ' Then was this tenth order's elder very fair shapen, so that he was called light-bearing.' The context explains that there were originally ten orders of angels ; nine of which are angels still, but the tenth order fell from heaven through pride, and their chiefs name was Light-bearing, or Lucifer. So again, in a. d. 1362, Langland wrote : — ' Lucifer with legiouns lerede hit in heuene ; He was louelokest of siht after vr lord. Til he brak boxsumnes thorw bost of himseluen.' Langland, Piers Plotvman, pass. i. 1. 109. That is :— ' Lucifer with his legions learnt it (viz. obedience) in heaven. He 1 It has been so applied ' from St. Jerome downwards.' — Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. LUCIFER. 23 was loveliest to look upon, next to our Lord, until he brake obedi- ence, through boast of himself.' Still more curious is the English form of the name, Ligber (A. S. lig-bcer, flame-bearing), as in the following : — ' Ligber he sridde a dere srud, And he wurthe in himseluen prud,' &c. i. e. ' Ligber, he shrouded him in a noble shroud, and he became in himself proud.' This I quote from Mr. Morris's Genesis and Exodus, 1. 271 : the date is about 1250 a. d. No doubt this is all derived from a misapplication of Isaiah xiv. 12. But I think it is worth while to add, in confirmation of this, and by way of further illustration, that we hardly ever find an allusion to Lucifer in early English, without finding, at the same time, a mention of his trying to seat himself in the north- -a curious perversion of the verse following, viz. Isaiah xiv. 13, which is, in the Vulgate: — * Qui dicebas in corde tuo : in caelum conscendam. super astra Dei exaltabo solium meum, sedebo in monte testamenti, in lateribus aq n Hon is.' Compare the Septuagint version — em to 6prj to. v^Xh to rrpos froppav ; and the English, ' in the sides of the north.' Thus, even as early as Coedmon, who speaks of Satan as ' like to the light stars,' we find, ' that he west and north would prepare structures ' ; as Thorpe translates it in his edition, at p. 18. So, too, in the English Homilies, three lines below the quotation already given ; ' and sitte on north[d]ele hefene riches,' i. e. and sit on the north-part of the kingdom of heaven. So again in Genesis and Exodus, 1. 277 : — ' Min flight — he seide — Ic wile uptaken, Min sete north on heuene maken.' So again in some (not in all) of the MSS. of Piers Plowman, as, e. g. : — 24 NOTES ON FLY-LEAVES. * Lorde, why wolde he tho, thulke wrechede Lucifer, Lepen on a-lofte in the northe syde ? ' Langland, Piers Plowman, C. ii. 112, ed. Whitaker, p. 18. In fact, Satan's name of Lucifer, and his sitting in the north, are generally found in company. Even Milton has : — ' At length into the limits of the north They came ; and Satan to his royal seat The palace of great Lucifer^ &c. Paradise Lost, v. 755-760. 29. Notes on Fly-leaves (3 S. xii. 126 ; 1867). At the end of the MS. No. xlv., in University College, Oxford— which contains a copy of Piers Plowman in its earliest form — is the following note : — • Eiier}' man whoes wife wereth a great horse must keep a frenche hood, quod Josua SI in the parlement house. 4 Euery man whjes wife wereth a frenche hode must kepe a great horse ; all one to hym. • the kynge was borne thre year after I cam to ye court. ' I cam to ye court iij }^eer after the king was borne. • Drinke er you goe 1 horse-mylle. goe er you drinke \ mylle-horse. • If Hunue had nat sued the premunire, he shuld nat haue ben accused of heresie. • If Hunne had nat ben accused of heresie, he shuld nat have sued the premunire. • The cat kylled the mouse. Mus necabatur a cato. • The mouse kylled the cat. Catus necuit murem. • catus muri mortem egit. • mus interemit catum.' All this obviously refers to some member of Parliament who was unfortunate enough to put the cart before the horse, evidently to the great amusement of some hearer who ' made a note ' of it. 30. Cap-a-pie (3 S. xii. 135 ; 1867). I think your correspondent D. P. S. does very wisely in thus asking for examples of the occurrence of this phrase before proceeding to give his theory of the etymology ; for CAP-A-PIE. 25 it is not uncommon for etymologists to construct a theory first, and look about for facts afterwards, and it is this practice which has often brought etymology into contempt. In the present instance, I think the received explanation may stand. First, by way of examples. The phrase occurs, accord- ing to the dictionaries, both in Prescott and Swift. In A. d. 1755 we meet with : — ' Armed cap-a-pee, forth marched the fairy king.' Cooper, Tomb of Shakspcar. Tracing back, we come to : — • Armed cap-a-pie, with reverence low they bent.' Dr\-den, Palamon and Arcite, 1. 1765. There is also another curious instance. In a poem called Psyche, or Loves Mystery, by Joseph Beaumont, published in 1651, we have: — ' For knowing well what strength they have within, By stiff tenacious faith they hold it fast ; How can these champions ever fail to win, Amidst whose armour heaven itself is plac'd.' Pysche, canto xii. st. 136. At that time Joseph Beaumont was an ejected Fellow of St. Peter's College, but he lived to be master of the college nevertheless, and half-a-century later this poem attained to a second edition, viz. in 1702. In its second form, the poem was much expanded, so that the above stanza, 136, became stanza 154, and at the same time a variation was made, so that it ran thus : — 1 How can those champions ever fail to win. Who, cap-a-pe, for arms, with heaven are drest.' I have little doubt that many more examples might be found ; and now for the etymology. The received one is, that cap-a-pied means from head to foot, and surely it is simply equivalent to the usual French phrase, ' arme de pied en cap,' for which Raynouard gives the quotation : — 26 THE SEVEN AGES OF MAN. 1 De pied en cap s'armera tout en fer.' Laboderie, Hymn Eccl., p. 282. The only objection to this seems to be that there is a reversal of the order of the words. But if, leaving the Langue d'O'il, we consult the Langue d'Oc, we shall then find the words in the right order, and at the same time establish, as I think, the right explanation beyond a doubt, besides showing that the phrase existed in the twelfth century. In his Provencal Lexicon, Raynouard gives — 'Cap, Kap, s. in. Lat. caput, tete, chef; and he goes on to explain the phrases de cap en cap (from one end to the other) \ del cap tro a Is pes (from the head to the foot) ; del premier cap tro en la fi (from the first beginning even to the end). The second of these is clearly the one we want, and he gives the following example : — 'Que dol si del cap tro als p'S? Guillaume Adhemar (died a. d. 1190). This he translates by ' Qu'il se plaint de la tete jusqu'aux pieds.' When your correspondent says he doubts this explanation, I suspect he is being misled by a French proverb given by Cotgrave, viz. ' n'avoir que la cape et Pepee,' which means, ' to have nothing left but your mantle and your sword, to be brought to dependence on your own exertions.' The resemblance between the two phrases cap-a-pie (head to foot), and cape et Vepee (mantle and sword), is certainly striking, but they seem to be quite distinct nevertheless, and I do not think they can be proved to be otherwise. [See Cap-a-pie in the New Eng. Dictionary?^ 31. The Seven Ages of Man. I (3 S. xii. 145 ; 1867). In a poem entitled This World is but a Vanyte, from the Lambert MS. 853, about 1430 a. d., printed in Hymns to the Virgin and Christ (edited by F. J. Furnivall for the THE SEVEN AGES OF MAN. 27 Early English Text Society), at p. &?, we have a very curious comparison of the life of man to the seven times of the day. The number seven is here determined apparently by the hours of the Romish Church. Thus, correspond- ing to matins, prime, tierce, sext, nones, vespers, and compline, which were called in Old English uhtsang, primesang, undemsang, midday sang, ?ionsang, evensang. nightsang, we have the following periods of the day and of man's life : — 1. Morning. The infant is like the morning, at first born spotless and innocent. 2. Midmorrow. This is the period of childhood. 3. Undern (9 a.m.). The boy is put to school. 4. Midday. He is knighted, and fights battles. 5. High Noon (i.e. nones or 9th hour, 3 p.m.). He is crowned a king, and fulfils all his pleasure. 6. Mid-overnoon (i. e. the middle of the period between high noon and evensong). The man begins to droop, and cares little for the pleasures of youth. 7. Evensong. The man walks with a staff, and death seeks him. After this follows the last stanza : — '"Thus is the day come to nyght. That me lothith of my lyuynge, And doolful deeth to me is dight, And in coold clay now schal y clinge." Thus an oold man y herde mornynge Biside an holte vndir a tree. God graunte us his blis euerlastinge ! This world is but a vanite ! ' The resemblance of this to Shakespeare's ' Seven Ages ' is curious and interesting. 32. The Seven Ages of Man. II (4 S. iv. 303 ; 1869). I have already pointed out a description of the seven ages of man in the old poem entitled This World is but a Vanyte. I have just come across a paragraph in Arnold's Chronicle 28 NOTES ON FLY-LEAVES. (ed. 1811, p. 157) which seems worth noting. Arnold is supposed to have died about a. d. 1521 : — - • The vij Ages of Man lining in the World. — The first age is infancie and lastith from ye byrth vnto vij. yere of age The ij. ehildhod and endurith vnto xv. yere age. The iij. age is adholecencye and endurith vnto xxv. yere age. The iiij. age is youthe and endurith vnto xxxv. yere age. The v. age is manhood and endurith vnto 1. yere age. The vi. age is [elde] 1 and lasteth vnto lxx. yere age. The vij. age of man is crepill and endurith vnto dethe.' 33. Notes on Fly-leaves (3 S. xii. 412 ; 1867). On the fly-leaf of a Collection of Musical Tunes, by John Dowlande, M.B., in MS. Camb. Univ. Dd. ii. 11, is the following specimen of alliteration : — ' Musiea mentis medicina moestae.' There are also the lines : • Qu an di tris dul pa os guis rus ti cedine vit,' H san mi Chris mul la which have been already discussed in N. and Q., 3 S. x. 414, 503 2; and also the following, in the same style, which I had not before seen, but which I dare say may be common enough : — pit rem nam pit rem ' Qui ca uxo poe ca atque dolo ret re na ret re.' In one respect these latter verses are the more curious of the two, as they are Leonine verses, wherein uxorem and uxo re rime to do lore m and do lore. [Read the lines by taking the first and second lines together — Quos anguis dims, ccc. ; and the third and second lines together — Hos sanguis mirus, &c] 1 A blank space here. Probably it should be elde, i. e. old age. - This version is the one which I said would be found to be the correct one of these lines. THE WORD 'ALL-TO.' 29 34. The word ' All-to.' I (3 S. xii. 464 ; 1867). On the subject of ' A Tobroken Word,' I beg to refer Mr. H. to my letter in The Athenaeiun of October 5. The fact is that, wherever alto (in Mid. English) is apparently a separate word, it is so by a blunder of an editor. It is common enough in MSS. to separate a prefix from its verb. Any one who has ever seen an Anglo-Saxon MS. knows that the prefix ge- is far more often written separately from the word it belongs to, than it is joined to it ; and an editor ought to represent this by a hyphen, unless, professing to give a facsimile of the MS., he discards hyphens altogether, as in Sir F. Madden's excellent edition of William and the Werwolf. Hence, the mere fact of to or alto being written apart from the word it belongs to, is not at all surprising : it is only what we expect. I think it is not quite safe, for the purpose of argument, to assert that ' there is no instance, I believe, of the use of the word to-troublid? I found two, in less than two minutes, in the very first book I laid my hands on. I quote from the Wicliffite Glossary, where I find ' to-truble, to greatly trouble, Ecclus. xxxv. 22, 23 ; v. ' al-to-trublist.' This second reference gives: 'al-to-trublist, extremely afflidest, Ps. lxxiii. 13 ; //. al-to-trubleden, Dan. v. 6 ; v. to-truble.' I have only to repeat that — '"All-to, as equivalent to all to pieces, and as separable from the verb, is comparatively modern. As the force of to as an intensive prefix was less understood, and as verbs beginning with it became rarer, it was regarded as leaning upon and eking out the meaning of all, whereas in older times it was all that added force to the meaning of to! Halliwell, I now find (for I had not noticed it before\ says much the same thing : — ' In earlier writers, the to would of course be a prefix to the verb, but the phrase all-to, in Elizabethan writers, can scarcely be always so explained.' 30 THE WORD ' ALL-TO.' It is not the only blunder perpetrated by these later writers. Some one of them took to spelling rime with an h, and produced the wrord rhyme — thus giving a Greek commencement to a Saxon word ; and this was thought so happy and classical an emendation, that nearly every one has followed suit ever since. A somewhat wider search through English literature would disclose the not recondite fact, that all is used before other prefixes besides to. Thus (i) it is used before a (I write as it stands in the MS., omitting hyphens) in the line — ' here of was sche al a wondred and a waked sone.' William and the Werwolf, 1. 2912. (2) It is used wTith the prefix for — 'as weigh al for waked for wo vpon nightes,' Id. 1. 790. which should be compared with 1. 785 just above, viz.— ' Febul wax he and feynt for waked a nightes.' (3) It is used before the prefix bi\ as in ' al bi weped for wo wisly him thought." Id. 1. 661. Perhaps when alto has been proved, in early English, to be a complete word in itself, distinct from the past participle — which, oddly enough, is always found not far off it — we may hope to have an explanation of the words alfor, ala, and albi ! But surely, the simpler explanation is that, when the later writers looked on the to- as separable, they did so because they knew no better. [Admirably explained on similar lines, in the New E?ig. Diet. s. v. All, C. 14, 15; p. 227, col. 2.] 35. The word * All-to.' II (3 S. xii. 535 ; 1867). May I add two quotations of great importance? The first is — 1 Al io-tare his a-tir that he to-tere might.' William and the Wenvolf, 1. 3884. WOLWARDE. 31 That is, ' he completely tare-in-pieces his attire, whatever of it he could tear-in-pieces.' And, if this be not thought decisive enough as to the separation of the al from the to, here is another more decisive still — 1 For hapnyt ony to slyd and fall, He suld sone be to-fruschyt all? Barbour's Brus, ed. Jamieson, p. 207. That is, ' For, if any one had happened to slide and fall, he would soon have been broken-in-pieces utterly.' 36. Wolwarde. I (4 S. i. 65 ; 1868). I quite agree with Mr. Addis in thinking Mr. Morris is here, for once, wrong in his explanation of the word, because I do not see how to join -ward on to wot, so as to make sense. But the explanation wolwarde, ' with wool next the body,' satisfies all three quotations, viz. in the Pricke of Conscie?ice, in Piers Ploivman, and in the Crede. It is always connected with the idea of penance or of poor clothing. The quotation from the Pricke of Conscience is very much to the point : — 1 And fast and ga wolwarde, and wake.' Accordingly, when Mr. Addis receives my edition of the Crede from the E. E. T. S., he will find in the glossary : — 1 " Wolwarde, without any lynnen next one's body, sans chemyse." — Palsgrave. To go woolward was a common way of doing penance. viz. with the wool towards l one's skin.' 37. Wolwarde. II (4 S. i. 254; 1868). I fail to understand the point of the note by A. H. What is the ' simpler meaning ' he suggests ? Merely, I suppose, that he thinks woohvard, in that it means with the wool towards one, does not necessarily imply pe?ia?ice, and might 1 [Unless it meant — ' with the skin towards the wool.'] 32 WOLWARDE. be found very comfortable. No doubt of it. But the idea of penance, or poor clothing, was connected with it in early English, though the quotation from Shakespeare shows that it was ceasing to be a penance in his time, and it seems that the common people of Russia at the present day like it. A. H. ought, in all fairness, to read over the passages referred to, together with the context. The references are : — Hampole's Pricke of Conscience, ed. Morris, 1. 3514; Lang- land's Vision of Piers Ploughman, ed. Wright, p. 369 (see p. 497 of the same volume) ; and Pierce the Ploughman's Credc, ed. Skeat, 1. 788. Besides these, Halliwell gives one more example, and Nares five, with an excellent note, that will convince A. H. more than I seem to have done. The example of it in Shakespeare occurs in Love's Labour's Lost, Act V. Sc. 2, 1. 717. 38. Wolwarde. Ill (4 S. i. 425 ; 1868). If A. H. will only take time enough he will find my explanations quite right ; and if so, he will not need to be at the trouble of proving them wrong. Meanwhile, I must comment upon his two new state- ments. His first is, that there is no allusion to penance in the quotation from the Crede. Of course this is quite right, for it is in the quotation from Hampole that penance is implied. Secondly, he thinks that to go wolwarde means to go woolwards. Certainly not. In the first expression, wolwarde is an adjective ; and he has not distinguished between the endings ivard and wards, which were seldom confounded till recently in English writings. To go wool- ward means to go about ' with the woolly side in'; and the verb to go is here used, as elsewhere in old English, for to go about, much as in the Bible (see Gen. iii. 14). To go woolwards, if it ever were to be used (for it never has been), could only mean that which we more commonly express by the phrase — ' to go a wool-gathering.' ' RABBIT. ' 33 39. 'Rabbit' (4 S. i. 279 ; 1868). No doubt F. C. H. is right. Compare the account of the word in Hartshorne's Salopia Antiqua, which contains a list of Salopian expressions : — ' Rabbit it, p/ir. The evidently profane phrase " Od rabbit it " is not local. The Od in this case is but a corruption of God, and the other part of the oath has become changed to its present form from the Old English rabate, rebate, which in its turn is altered from the French rebatrc; Teut. rabatten, de summa detrahere.' Rebate, in Old English, means to drive back, repulse : — ' This is the city of great Babylon, Where proud Darius was rebated from.' R. Greene, ' Orlando Furioso,' Works, vol. i. p. 34 (ed. 1831 . 40. Hogshead (4 S. i. 613 ; 1868). The great point in etymology — but the lesson will never be learnt — is, that we should be guided by facts, and not by guess. The guess hog's-hide is very ingenious, but against it we must set these facts. The first is, that, in Dutch, the word for a hogshead is okshoofd ; the second is, that the Swedish is oxhufvud ; and thirdly, the Danish is oxehofved. Hence hogshead is a corruption, not of hog's-hide, but of ox-head. The suggestion hogs-hide does not explain things at all ; because it leaves the Dutch, Danish, and Swedish words quite untouched ; and indeed, if we are to guess at all, ox-hide would be, undoubtedly, half right. Permit me, then, to put the query in a form more likely to produce a true answer. How comes it that the Swedish word oxhufvud means both an ox's head and the measure called a hogshead} It is clear that an ox, not a hog, is the animal meant. 41. Lister (4 S. i. 547 ; 1868). A Lister is a dyer. Jamieson gives Lit, to dye ; Isl. lita, to dye ; Suio-Goth. ///, colour. Also Lidstar, a dyer. In the Promptorium Parvulorum, we have Lytyn, littyn, or lytyu, D 34 THE 'JACKDAW OF RHEIMS.' to dye ; and again, Lytynge or littinge of cloth, i. e. dyeing. Mr. Way, the editor of this book, gives other instances. Lit also means dye-stuffs ; and to lit is sometimes used in Lowland Scotch for to blush deeply, to be suffused with blushes. Dyer is used as a surname as well as Lister. 42. The 'Jackdaw of Rheims ' (4 S. i. 577 ; 1868). Many readers must remember the story about the scalded magpie, which the author of the Ingoldsby Legends says was told him by Cannon. Hence he adopted the notion about the 'Jackdaw of Rheims,' which he expressed in the line : — ' His head was as bald as the palm of your hand.' It is amusing to compare this with a similar one in The Knight of La Tonr~Land?y (E.E.T.S.), p. 22. This relates how a magpie told a man that his wife had eaten an eel which he was fattening in a pond in his garden for himself and friends. The wife tried to excuse herself by saying the husband had eaten it ; but the husband told her he knew better, as he had heard about it from the magpie. In revenge, the lady and her maid plucked the bird's feathers off, saying : ' Thou hast discovered us of the eel.' And ever after, the magpie repeated this to any one whom he saw with a bald head. Surely this is curiously like the con- clusion of Cannon's story, as told in the Memoir of the Rev. F. H. Barham. [It is, practically, the same story as that in Chaucer's Manciples Tale ; respecting the oriental origin of which see my ed. of Chaucer, iii. 501. Chaucer took it from Ovid.] 43. Walter pronounced as ' Water' (4 S. i. 595 ; 1868). A very early instance is the following : — ' Byhold opon Wat Brut whou [how] bisiliche thei pursueden.1 — Pierce the Ploughman s Crede, 1. 657. Here Wat is the reading of the Trinity MS., but the British Museum MS. and the early printed edition of 1553 gist. 35 both have Water, which represents Walter at full length. The short form Wat is spelt without an /. Similarly the common Old English word for fault is faute, and for assault is assaut. [This illustrates Shak., 2 Hen. VI. iv. 1. 31-35. My own name as a boy, in Shropshire, was ' our Wat.'] 44. Gist (4 S. ii. 42 ; 1868; curtailed). The derivation of gist is very obvious, being the French word gite, formerly spelt giste, a derivative of gesir ; Lat. iacere, to lie. The gist of a thing is the point in law whereon the action rests. According to analogy, the pronunciation ought to be with the soft g [i. e. as j\ ; and as there is hardly an instance where a soft g is hardened, but many of the contrary, there is no sort of excuse for pronouncing it hard [i. e. as g in go]. 45. 'Lene' and 'leue' (4 S. ii. 126; 1868). I wish to draw attention to the two words le?ie and kite as occurring in Chaucer, Piers Plowman, and other poems, which have, as I think, been utterly confused by most editors ; probably, because they can hardly be distinguished in the MSS. In Halliwell's Dictionary I find — ' Lene, to give. Hence our word tend. The editor of Havelok absurdly prints lene! In Morris's Specimens of Early English, ed. 1867, at P- 395? we r^ad — ' Lene, grant. Many editors of Old English works print lene (leve, give leave to), for le?ie, as if from A.S. lefan, to permit ; lene is from Icenan, to give, lend.' Here, I submit, there is the most dire confusion. The editor of Havelok did not act absurdly in printing leue, because he had to deal with another word, quite different from lene ; and secondly, Mr. Morris, after making the right distinction between the words, proceeds to confound them. But it is proper to add that he now writes to tell d 2 36 < LENE ' AND < LEUE. ' me that he has discovered the mistake, and holds the view which I proceed to state. This is, that Sir F. Madden and Dr. Stratmann, who do put a difference between the words, are right; and what I wish to do now, is to show the exact difference between them, and to offer some arguments in place of assertions. In the first place, all scholars agree in accepting that the old spelling of lend is lene or len, just as the old spelling of sound is soun. This shows, too, why the past tense and past participle are alike ; for lent (as the past tense) is con- tracted from the old past tense lende, and le?it (as the past participle) from the old past participle lened\ both of which are formed from len or lene. Now the old meaning of lene is to give, deliver, hand over, impart, and it answers to the German leihen. None would deny that the following are correct examples of it : — ' To yeue and lene him of his owne good.' Chaucer, Prol, 611. ' That hote cultre in the chj'mney heere As lene it me, I have therwith to doone.' Chaucer, Miller s Talc. 589. ' Lene me a mark,' quod he. ' but dayes thre.' Chaucer, Chan. Yeni. Talc, 15. ' I shal lene the a bowr.' — Havclok, 2072. But what Mr. Halliwell appears to deny is, the existence of the verb leue ; and this is the point to come to. Dr. Stratmann's account of it is, that leue or leve is the A.S. lefan, German erlauben, to give leave to, permit, allow. Now this word in various forms, I) fan, lefan, aljfan, geljfau, is common enough in Anglo-Saxon, and as / between two vowels had the sound of v, it would necessarily produce leve in Old English. There are three undoubted examples of its occurrence. Thus, in the Onnulu/u, we have (vol. i. p. 308) the line : — ' Godd allmahhtigg lefe uss swa To forthenn Cristess wille,' 'LENE' AND ' LELE.' 37 i. e. ' God Almighty grant (or permit) us so to further Christ's will.' Here the spelling with f makes the word certain ; and to make doubly sure, we have a similar ex- pression in the same volume, at p. 357. But there is a third instance. In Douglas's Virgil is the phrase ' Gif us war lewit] which is equivalent to leuit, as explained by Jamieson. Here again, the use of the w makes the word altogether certain ; for w has the force of v very commonly in Lowland Scotch. The signification of the phrase is — 1 if it were permitted to us.' That the two words have been so hopelessly jumbled together is no doubt owing to the fact that each can be represented by the verb to grant; but it really makes all the difference whether we are speaking of to grant a thing to a person, or to grant that a thing may happen. ' God le?ie thee grace ' means, ' God grant thee grace,' where to grant is to impart ; but ' God lene we may do right ' means, 'God grant we may do right,' where to grant is to permit. The difference between the two is distinct enough, and the instances of lefe in the Ormulum render the blunder here protested against quite unjustifiable. Briefly, lene requires an accusative case after it, hue is followed by a dependent clause. And now for the results. The following are true examples of leue : — ' God . . . save and gyde us alle and some, And leue this sompnour good man to become.' Chaucer, Freres Talc. 346. Printed lene by Tyrwhitt, and leene by Morris. ' Ther he is now, God leue us for to meete.' Prioresses Tale, 231. Printed lene by Tyrwhitt and Morris. ' Depardieux ' — quod she — 'God leue all be wele.' Troil. and Crcseide, ii. 12 12. 38 PORCELAIN. ' God kite hym werken as he can devyse.' Trot I. and Creseide, ii. 7. ' God lene us for to take it for the best.' Ibid. v. 1749. Morris prints lenc. Moxon prints /eve, but Tyrwhitt has lene in his Glossary (s. v. ' Leveth '), in all three instances. The three instances in Havelok occur in similar ex- clamations, in the forms ' God leue,' or ■ Crist leue,' and Halliwell need not have called such a spelling absurd. The quotations from the Ormulum entirely establish the phrase. Lastly, by way of a crucial test, take Pierce the Plough- man's Crede. I regret that I have, in all four places, printed lene in the text. Yet, strictly speaking, there are two instances of le?ie, in lines 445, 741 ; and two of leue, in lines 366, 573, where the phrase is 'God leue,' etc. And now observe a circumstance that clinches the whole result. In lines 445 and 741 all three copies of the Crede have lene ; but in lines 366 and 573 the best MS. can be read either way ; the British Museum MS. has leve, and the old printed edition has leue, as shown by my footnotes. Surely future editors of Chaucer ought to note these corrections. Of course I have not taken into consideration here the other senses of the word leue, viz. (1) to believe, (2) to leave, and (3) dear. Curiously enough, all these three occur in one line : — ' What ! leuestow, leue lemman, that i the leue wold ? ' William of Palerne, 2358. 46. Porcelain (4 S. ii. 155 ; 1868). Mr. Wedgwood derives this from ' Ptg. porcellana, china ware, said to be so called from the surface being like that of the porcella?ia, a large univalve, commonly known as the tiger-shell, or Venus' shell.' But this does not tell us why the shell itself was so named. AGE OF THE WORLD. 39 In the Catalogue of the Chinese CoIlectio7i exhibited some years ago near Hyde Park Corner, at p. 63, I met with the following remark, which seems worth preserving : — ' Marsden, as quoted by Davis, shows that it [porcelain] was applied by the Europeans to the ware of China, from the resemblance of its finely polished surface to that of the univalve shell so named [in Portuguese] ; while the shell itself derived its appellation from the curved shape of its upper surface, which was thought to resemble the raised back of a porcella, or little hog.' Thus the word porcelain is finally traced back to the Latin porcus ; just as porpoise is the pork-fish, and porcupine means spiny pig. [See further in Littre, s. v. porcelaine ; and in the larger edition of my Etym. Diet.] 47. Age of the World. I (4 S. ii. 156 : 1868). In two MSS. only of Piers Plowman, viz. that belonging to Oriel College, Oxford, and one in the Cambridge Uni- versity Library, marked LI. 4. 14, are the two following lines, which have reference to the pletiitudo temporis, the ' fulness of time ' of Christ's birth : — ■ ' Annis quingentis decies, rursumque ducentis Unus defuerat, cum Deus ortus erat.' My query is, whence did the monks in the fourteenth century derive the idea that Christ was to be born exactly 5199 years after the Creation? [Answered by myself, in a later number ; see below.] 48. Age of the World. II (4 S. iii. 203 ; 1869). I can now answer my own question, as to why Christ's birth is made to have taken place 5199 years after the Creation. The reckoning is British, and is very curious. In A Chronicle of London, p. 183, there is a copy of the great tablet which was once hung up in Old St. Paul's, and which contained the curious chronological facts which I here tabulate. (Cf. MS. Harl. 565.) 40 <YEDE,' MISUSED BY SPENSER. Destruction of Tro}', Anno Mundi 4030. Building of New Troy, called London, a. m. 4094. Building of Rome, a. m. 4484. Christ born, in the 19th year of Cymbeline, a. m. 5199. Add to these, that Brutus landed at Totness, in Cornwall (it was in Cornwall then), a. m. 4063, where he destroyed, amongst other giants, three who were named respectively Geomagog, Hastripoldius, and Rascalbundy, as we learn from a MS. in the Heralds' College ; the one, namely, which contains the original French version of Havelok. 49. 'Yede/ misused by Spenser (4 S. ii. 199 ; 1868). It is strange that no one seems to have remarked the curious blunder made by Spenser respecting the verb yede. In yielding to his propensity for archaic diction, he has, in this instance at least, not perfectly learnt his lesson, and fallen into a remarkable grammatical error. Yede and yode are both, as every student of Early English should know, various forms of the A.S. eode, a past tense without any corresponding present tense, employed with the sense of ' went.' But Spenser, observing the differing forms of the word, came to the extraordinary, yet somewhat logical, conclusion that yede must be the infinitive mood, and yode the past tense of the same. This did not mislead him as regards yode, so that he wrote correctly enough — ' Before them yode a lustie tabrere.' ShephearcT s Calendar, May, 22. But, with respect to yede, he has erred in at least three places : ' Then badd the knight his lady yede aloof.' Faerie Queene, I. xi. 5. 1 The whiles on foot was forced for to yccd.' Ibid. II. iv. 2. ' But if they with thy gotes should yede.' Shepheard's Calendar, July, 109. Nares gives no instance from any other author beyond A YEAR AXD A DAY. 4 1 quoting yede as a preterite ; and it would be curious to know if the mistake really occurs in any other author's works. Spenser certainly did not find it so used by his master Chaucer, nor by any other writer of the fourteenth century. 50. A Year and a Day (4 S. iii. 222 ; 1868). Perhaps several of your readers, like myself, have felt inclined to smile at the expression, 'a year and a day,' occurring so frequently in old ballads. The words ' and a day ' seem so unnecessary. But I now feel inclined to smile at my own want of perception ; there is very good reason for the phrase. If, in a passage of a melody, we wish to rise from one C to the C above, we ascend by the seve?i notes of the scale, C to B, and by one more, i. e. we arrive at the octave. In the same way, Low Sunday is not said to be seven days after Easter, but is called the octave. The phrase ' in a week's time ' is felt to be vague ; and therefore people say ' this day week.' But this is sometimes expressed in old books by ' in eight days,' and a fortnight is sometimes denoted by ' in fifteen days ' ; cf. Fr. quinzai?ie. Now the period of the octave might also be fairly called ' a week and a day,' as well as a period of eight days ; and in the same way, a year and a day must mean on the 366th day from the present, i. e. on the same day of the month as the present, in next year. The intention of it is to show that not only has a year elapsed, but that the day now spoken of is the same day of the month as the day before mentioned. Cf. Exod. xii. 41. Again, the present 25th of August being a Tuesday, the 25th next year will be JVednesday ; and by that time we shall have advanced not only by a year (reckoned by years), but by a day (reckoned by days of the week). Here is another reason for choosing the phrase. 42 CHRONOLOGY OF THE < KNIGHTES TALE.' [Cf. Chaucer, 'Knightes Tale,' Group A, 1. 1850; and my note on the passage.] 51. Chronology of Chaucer's * Knightes Tale ' (4 S. ii. 243 ; 1868). After some little trouble, I have arrived at the conclusion that Chaucer has given us sufficient data for ascertaining both the days of the month and of the week of many of the principal events of the ' Knightes Tale.' The following scheme will explain many things hitherto unnoticed. I refer to the lines of the Aldine edition, ed. Morris, 1866. On Friday, May 4, before 1 a. m. Palamon breaks out of prison. For (1. 605) it was during the ' third night of May, but (1. 609) a little after midnight.' That it was Friday is evident also, from observing that Palamon hides himself at day's approach, whilst Arcite rises ' for to doon his observ- ance to May, remembryng of the poynt of his desire? To do this best, he would go into the fields at sunrise (1. 633V during the hour dedicated to Venus, i. e. during the hour after sunrise on a Friday. If however this seem for a moment doubtful, all doubt is removed by the following lines : — ' Right as the Friday, sothly tor to telle, Now it schyneth, now it reyneth faste. Right so gan gcry Venus overcaste The hertes of hire folke, right as hir day Is gerful, right so chaungeth hire aray. Selde is the Fryday al the wyke alike.' All this is very little to the point unless we suppose Friday to be the day. Or, if the reader have still any doubt about this, let him observe the curious accumulation of evidence which is to follow. Palamon and Arcite meet, and a duel is arranged for an early hour on the day followi?ig. That is, they meet on Saturday, May 5. But, as Saturday is presided over by the inauspicious planet Saturn, it is no wonder that they are CHRONOLOGY OF THE ' KNIGHTES TALE.' 43 both unfortunate enough to have their duel interrupted by Theseus, and to find themselves threatened with death. Still, at the intercession of the queen and Emily, a day of assembly for a tournament is fixed for ithis day fyfty wekes1 (1. 992). Now we must understand 'fyfty wekes ' to be a poetical expression for a year. This is not mere supposi- tion, however, but a certainty ; because the appointed day was in the month of May, whereas fifty weeks and no more would land us in April1. Then 'this day fyfty wekes' means 'this day year,' viz. on May 5. Now, in the year following (supposed not a leap-year), the 5th of May would be Sunday. But this we are expressly told in 1. 1330. It must be noted, however, that this is not the day of the tournament^ but of the muster for it, as may be gleaned from 11. 992-995 and 1238. The tenth hour 'inequal' of Sunday night, or the second hour before sunrise of Monday, is dedicated to Venus, as explained by Tyrwhitt (1. 1359) ; and therefore Palamon then goes to the temple of A'enus. The third hour after this, the first after sunrise on Monday, is dedicated to Luna or Diana, and during this Emily goes to Diana's temple. The third hour after this again, the fourth after sunrise, is dedicated to Mars, and therefore Arcite then goes to the temple of Mars. But the rest of the day is spent merely in jousting and preparations— ' Al the Monday jousten the}- and daunce ' (1628). The tournament therefore takes place on Tuesday, May 7, on the day of the week presided over by Mars, as was very fitting ; and this perhaps helps to explain Saturn's exclama- tion in 1. 181 1, <Mars hath his wil]e; Thus far all the principal days, with their events, are exactly accounted for. In what follows I merelv throw out a suggestion for what it is worth. It is clear that Chaucer 1 It turns out that Boccaccio, whom Chaucer here follows, actually uses the expression ' un anno intero,' a complete year. 44 A BAKER'S DOZEN. would have been assisted in arranging all these matters thus exactly, if he had chosen to calculate them according to the year then current. Now the years (not bissextile) in which May 5 is on a Sunday, during the last half of the fourteenth century, are these : 1359, 1370, T381, 1387, 1398. Of these five, it is at least curious that the date 1387 exactly coincides with this sentence in Sir H. Nicolas's Life of Chaucer: — ' From internal evidence it appears that the " Canterbury Pilgrimage" was written after the year 1386.' 52. A Baker's Dozen (4 S. ii. 464 ; 1868). I do not know if the following passage in the Liber Aldus has been noticed. It occurs at p. 232 of the translation by Mr. Riley :— 1 And that no baker of the town shall give unto the regratresses the six pence on Monday morning by way of hansel-money, or the three pence on Friday for curtesy-money ; but, after the ancient manner, let him give thirteen articles of bread for twelve/ That is, the retailers of bread from house to house were allowed a thirteenth loaf by the baker, as a payment for their trouble. 53. Pied Friars (4 S. ii. 496 ; 1868). A further investigation has convinced me that my note upon ' Pied Friars,' instead of being wrong, as is now sug- gested, is perfectly correct l. They are not, or at any rate were not originally, the same as the Carmelites. The latter were (not the Pied, but) the White Friars. The truth is, that we know very little about these Pied Friars. They only had one house in all England, viz. at Norwich, and this only for a time ; so that any allusion to them, or account of 1 My note to 1. 65 of Pierce the Ploughman's Crede, which mentions the frcrcs of the Pye, is : ' They would appear to be not very different from the Carmelites; they were called Pied Friars from their dress being a mixture of black and white, like a magpie.' PIED FRIARS. 45 them, is very difficult to obtain. In Thomas Walsingham's history [ed. H. T. Riley, i. 102], there is an allusion which seems to imply, and probably does imply, that they once had a burial-ground in London; but that, in a. d. 1326. their name, as that of a separate fraternity, was no longer used. In describing the murder by the Londoners of Walter de Stapleton, Bishop of Exeter, he says that the dead body was cast in an old cemetery which had once belonged to the Friars, wrhom our ancestors used to call ' Pied Friars' : ' quod fuerat quondam Fratrum, quos Preres Pyes veteres appellabant.' All that is said about them, in the course of the eight large volumes of Dugdale's JWonas- ticon, is contained in one short paragraph ; and even this is copied from Blomefield's Norfolk. It is in the latter work that we at last find some account of them. After describing the church of St. Peter per Mountergate, in Norwich, he says that there was a college at the north-east corner of the churchyard, which was 'first given to the Pied Friars, so named from their habit ; and after they quitted it, which was when they were obliged to join one of the four principal orders, it came to the Hospital of Bek, in Billingford, in Norfolk.' Blomefield's Norfolk, ii. 537; cf. Dugdale's Monasticon, viii. 161 1. The only other reference to them that I can discover, is the one already cited in my notes, viz. Political Poems, i. 262 ; where some change is evidently expressed by the words fuerunt and mutati sunt, though I forget the context at this moment1. It will be observed that Blomefield himself is quite at a loss as to which of the four orders they joined, but the passage in the Crede furnishes evidence that ther joined the Carmelites. I may then repeat my original note ; 1 [The lines are : ' With an O and an I, fuerunt pyed freres Quomodo mutati sunt, rogo dicat Per[e]s.' But they throw no special light upon the matter.] 46 GENTEEL DOGS. ' that they were not very different from the Carmelites.' They were different once, but not at a later period. Their Latin name was ' Fratres de Pica.' 54. Genteel Dogs (4 S. ii. 507 ; 1868). ' Also, to avoid the noise, damage, and strife that used to arise therefrom, it is forbidden that any person shall keep a dog accus- tomed to go at large out of his own enclosure without guard thereof, by day or night, within the franchise of the City, genteel dogs excepted ; under pain of paying forty pence, to the use of the Chamber.' Mr. Riley's note to this passage (Libra Aldus, p. 389) is that the word gentilx may mean ' gentle ' or pet dogs of the then known description. But ' gentyll houndes ' are such as were kept for hawking and hunting, as ' grayhoundes, braches, spanyellis, or suche other.' See Laurens Andrewe on the Dog, quoted in Mr. Furnivall's Babees Book, p. 225. 55. ' Ye ' for ' The ' (4 S. ii. 545 ; 1868). The reason why ' ye ' is sometimes used for ' the ' in old books wherein ' the ' is the more usual form, is simply that printers in former times had difficulties about ' spacing out.' When pressed for room, they put ' ye ' ; when they had plenty of room, they put ' the.' This distinction is made over and over again in Crowley's edition of Piers Plowman, printed in 1550. Many people use ' ye ' still, but few of those who use it know what it means, as is shown by their pronouncing it ye. But the proper pronunciation is the, for the y is only a corruption of the old thor7i-letter, or symbol for th. In the MS. of Barbour's Brus, for instance, ye, yai\ yair, yaim, yat, &c, occur frequently, and are to be pro- nounced the, thai, thair, thaim (them), that. The methods of printing the e above the line, and of putting cy* ' for that, are borrowed from the abbreviations ' \fi ' and ' ]?* ' in MSS. Another common abbreviation is ' bu' for thou, which would be printed ' y11.' COAT, IS IT PROPER? 47 58. Coat, a name for the dress of women : is it proper? (4 S. ii. 586 ; 1868). There is here no difficulty. Whatever be the ultimate etymology of the word, which is the French cotte, Italian cotta, German kutte, it implies a covei'ing. There is no reason for restricting it to male dress, except that it is now customary to do so. We still apply it widely when we speak of a coat of plaster, or of a pony having a rough coat. In early English it is much more frequently applied to male than to female attire; but the following are a few examples of the latter use : — ' This was her cote, and her mantel.' Chaucer, Rom. of the Rose, 459. 'And she hadde on a cote of grene.' — Ibid. 573. ' How Heyne hath a new cote, and his wif another.' Piers Plowman, A. v. 91. ' I have put off my coat ; how shall I put it on ? ' The Bible (Authorised Version), Sol. Song, v. 3. 'The cote-hardic was also worn by the ladies in this reign [Edw. III].' — British Costume, p. 133. The first, second, and fourth examples are given in that excellent book entitled The Bible Word-Book. The word gown is, on the other hand, very frequently used of male attire, as in Chaucer. So also in Piers Plowman, ed. Wright, p. 259. And Stow says, anno 1507 : — ' The Duke of Buckingham wore a gowne wrought of needle-work, and set upon cloth of tissue, furred with sables, the which goune was valued at 1500/.' We still have gownsmen in plenty. [See Coat in the New Eng. Dictionary.] 57. Soc-lamb (4 S. ii. 592 ; 1868). According to Halliwell, this term is also used in Sussex. The A.S. soc means the act of suction, and the existence of the Germ. Saugelamm, Dutch zuig-lam, both meaning a sucking-lamb, leaves us in no doubt as to the true 48 THE TRI SECTION OF AN ANGLE. etymology. Compare sokerel, an unwearied child ; souking- fere, a foster-brother ; sokeling, a suckling plant or a young animal. Jamieson also tells us that one of the designations among the vulgar for a simpleton is a sookin' turkey. 58. The problem of ' the trisection of an angle ' (4 S. iii. 94 ; 1869). The locus of the points of trisection of any arc which has a given chord is an hyperbola, of which the eccentricity is 2, the foci are the ends of the chord, and the directrix is the sagitta of the arc. Hence it follows that the problem cannot be solved by the ordinary methods of geometry, i.e. by the rule and compasses only. But it is easily solved by constructing the hyperbola, which can be done by tolerably simple means — viz. merely with the aid of a piece of string, a ruler revolving round a fixed end, and a tracing-pencil. 59. Monkey (4 S. iii. 183; 1869). I see no reason for doubting the etymology commonly accepted (as e. g. in Ogilvie and Wedgwood), that monkey, though formed with an English suffix, is equivalent to the Italian monicchio. It is clearly a diminutive, and the fact that we have the older word ape shows that monkey is an imported word. The original word is Italian mona, an ape ; Spanish mono (masculine), and mona (feminine). We find also Spanish monillo, a small monkey ; Italian monna, monnino, monnone. The Italian monna meant originally mistress, and seems to be a mere abbreviation of ?nado?ina, my lady ; hence it came to mean dame, old woman, &c. The degradation of the term is certainly very great ; but there is an exactly parallel instance in the case of the word dam, which has been degraded from the Latin domina. in French ' notre dame,' till it now means only the mother of a racehorse, or of a less important animal. [Cf. Monkey in my larger Etym. Dictionary.] WA TERSHED. 49 60. Watershed (4 S. iii. 215 ; 1869). Some time ago there was a discussion about this word in The Athenaeum, some of the correspondents of that paper not understanding its derivation. Others, better informed, pointed out that it is simply equivalent to the German Wasserscheide, and that to shed is still used, locally, in the sense of parting the hair. I have little doubt that many quotations might be adduced assigning to shed (German scheiden) the sense of to part or divide. Still, as the word is not very common, it may be as well to note the following, where it is used as a neuter verb, meaning to separate : — 'The River Don or Dun (says Dodsworth in his Yorkshire collec- tions riseth in the upper part of Pennystone parish near Lady's Cross — which may be called our Apennines, because the rain-water that falleth shcddcth from sea to sea/ Southey's The Doctor, 2nd edition, vol. ii. p. 4. The exact meaning of watershed, I may add, is the ridge or elevation which causes the streams of water on either side of it to flow in opposite directions, and so parts them asunder. 61. Final -e in Early English (4 S. iii. 215 ; 1869). There is a curious instance of careful spelling in MS. Camb. Univ. Lib. Dd. 1. 17, which shows that the scribes did pay some regard to the final e even in alliterative poems, where a syllable more or less in the line is not of much consequence. It is in the passage of Piers Ploiv- man (B. xi. 166) which is thus given in that MS. : — ' Or any science vndir sonne, the seuene artz and alle. But thay be lerned for oure lordes loue, lost is al the t3'me. Cf. Wright's ed., p. 212. Here all occurs twice : once in the pi. alle, and once in the sing. al. In the second place, the scribe had at first written alle as before ; but on second thoughts, he became aware of his mistake, and destroyed the le by placing E 50 ROODEE. a point beneath each letter in the usual manner. It evidently made a difference to him. 62. Roodee (4 S. iii. 228 ; 1869). The origin of this word [the name of a piece of ground at Chester] has not yet, I believe, been shown, although the Editor pointed out that the old form of the word was Rood Eye. The answer is to be found, however, in Mr. Wright's note to his edition of Piers Plonghinan. (See vol. ii. p. 521.) There was a famous Rood or cross at Chester, mentioned by Langland, which stood on an eye, or piece of ground surrounded by water. Hence this plot of ground was named Rood Rye or cross-island, as explained by Pennant in his Tour in Wales, edit. 1778, p. 191. Nowadays this level space is used as a race-course ; the cross has probably disappeared (though its base was to be seen in 1789), and the name made into Roodee • and this, owing to the proximity of the river Dee, is again most absurdly corrupted into Roo-Dee. In the English Cyclopaedia it is thus spelt. No wonder that Roo cannot be explained ! 63. Poetic diction of the Anglo-Saxons (4 S. iii. 268 ; 1869). The difference between Anglo-Saxon prose and Anglo- Saxon poetry is best understood by reading a little of both. In poetry, the requirements of alliterative verse tend to render the sentences involved and disjointed. The principal characteristics of our old poetry are, among others, these following. 1. Inversion of the order of words. Example : — (I only give the translation, not the original) — ' For us it is very right that we the Guardian of the skies, the i\ lory-king of hosts, with our words praise, in our minds love.'— Caedmon ; the opening lines. 2. Insertion of numerous epithets and equivalent ex- POETIC DICTION OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS. 51 pressions. Thus, in the above, the Lord is called in one line 'the Guardian of the skies,' and in the next ' the Glory- king of hosts.' In one line we have ' with our words praise,' in the next ' in our minds love,' which are paral- lelisms. 3. An abundance of names for the same object. Thus, even in the later English, a man is called a man, a freke, a re?ik, a segge, a burne, or a gome, merely to satisfy the requirements of alliteration. These names are picked out just as required: that is, if the alliteration requires f it is freke ; if s, it is segge, and so on. So also in Anglo- Saxon, very numerous are the expressions for a sword, or a ship, &c. 4. A curious chopping up of sentences into pieces of the same metrical length. Every line being divided into hemistichs by a metrical pause, it will be found that, in many cases, there is a pause in the sense as well as in the sound. This is seen in the specimen given above. ' For us it is very right — that we the Guardian of the skies — the Glory-king of hosts — with our words praise — with our minds love.' We thus get each sentence piecemeal as it were, and it is often necessary to get to the end of each sentence before the drift of it can be even guessed at. These are a few of the points which must strike every reader who peruses but one page of Anglo-Saxon poetry. To appreciate the matter fully, your correspondent should consult Conybeare's Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, or (which would be far better) steadily make his way through a good long portion of Caedmon or Beowulf. This may be done in part, without a knowledge of Anglo-Saxon, by help of Mr. Thorpe's translations. On Early English Alliterative Poetry of a somewhat later date, see my Essay ! in vol. hi. of the Percy Folio MS., by Hales and Furnivall. 1 [It is rather obsolete now, and not very correct ; but contains some useful information.] E 2 52 DID ADAM AXD EVE FALL INTO THE SEA ? 64. Did Adam and Eve fall into the Sea ? (4 S. iii. 275 ; 1869). Certainly they did so. How they did it, is sufficiently explained by the context of the passage cited. Philip de Thuan carefully explains that the sea means this world, and the miseries of it. They were driven out of Paradise, and into the world of sorrows. This is all that is meant by their falling into the sea. The same idea is found in Langland's Piers Plowman, ed. Wright, p. 153; ed. Skeat, B. viii. 40. 65. * Havelok' and Robert of Brunne (4 S. iii. 357 ; 1869). Robert Mannyng of Brunne, himself a Lincolnshire man, was probably alive and of sufficient age to compose poetry when the English version of Havelok was written in the Lincolnshire dialect. In a passage to which Sir F. Madden has drawn attention, he uses expressions which show clearly (1) that he was well acquainted with Havelok, and (2) that it was no work of his own, as might perhaps for a moment be imagined. But that he knew it tolerably well can be verified by internal evidence, which also shows that Robert of Brunne's Handlyng Synne was written after Havelok ; which is precisely in accordance with other evidence. I think the following is a clear example of plagiarism : — 'Al })at he per-fore tok With-held he nouth a ferj>inges nok.' Havelok, 1. 819. 1 Plenerly, alle J)at he toke Wy}>helde he nat a ferj>ynge noke.' Robert of Brunne. Handlyng Synne, 581 1, in Morris' Specimens. This case is so clear that other instances are hardly needed, though I think it very likely that a fair number of such imitations could be found : and it is very interesting to know where to look for the original of some of Robert's B YD AND. 53 expressions. The word to swill, to wash dishes, is very rare, both in Anglo-Saxon and Early English. Here is one example of it : — ' Ful wel kan ich dislics swilen.1 Havelok, 919. And here is another : — ' Pottes and dysshes for to Steele.1 Handlyng Synne, 5828 'Morris. One of the most curious stories about Havelok is, that a flame was often seen to proceed out of his mouth as he slept. Compare — • Out of hys mout1 me ))oghte brak A flamme of fyre b^ght and clere.' Handlyng Synne. 5922 ^Morris). Now that I have pointed this out, I dare say some of your readers can multiply instances of similar plagiarism. Observe, too, that the metre of the Handlyng Synne is precisely the same as that of Havelok, although on other occasions Robert wrote in long lines, averaging fourteen syllables. 66. Bydand (4 S. iii. 494 ; 1869). There is no difficulty in this word : why Halliwell did not explain it, I cannot guess. It simply means abiding, i. e. never budging an inch. When Eitz-James said to Roderick Dhu — ' Come one, come all ! this rock shall fly From its firm base as soon as I,' — he approved himself to be bydand. Cf. Halliwell's quota- tion— •And ye. Ser Gye, a thousande, Bolde men and wele bydande,' — where ' wele bydande ' means well abiding, unflinching. There is a passage in Langland's Piers the Plowman which is very much to the point. Avarice is described as fighting on the side of Antichrist, and is represented as fighting 54 AN ERROR IN FABYAN'S CHRONICLES. without flinching as long as his bag of money holds out. It runs thus : — •••Alias!" quod Conscience, and cryde tho. " wolde Crist of his grace. That Coveitise were Cristene ! that is so kene a fightere. And boold and bidvuge. while his bagge lasteth."' Langland's Piers the Plowman, (B. xx. 139 , ed. Wright, p. 433. Some MSS. read abydynge in this passage. Our word staunch expresses the sense of it tolerably well. The ending -and is northern. [Cf. Biding in the JVew. Eng. Diet.'] 67. An error in Fabyan s Chronicles (4 S. iv. 152 ; 1869). There is a singular error in the dates of the reign of Edward III in Fabyan 's Chronicles, which seems to have escaped the notice of the editor, Sir H. Ellis, and is of some importance. The year of our Lord is given wrongly during nearly the whole of this reign, and this may easily mislead a reader who trusts to this author. I am referring to the edition of 181 1, wherein the reader, by turning to p. 441, will find the entry, 'Anno Domini. mcccxxx-i ; Anno v,' meaning that the fifth year of Edward's reign began in the last-mentioned date, viz. 1331 (Jan. 25). But on the next page we have the following entry : ' Anno Domini m.cccxxxi- Anno Domini m.cccxxxii ; Anno vii,' which is as much as to say that the next year to the fifth year was the seventh. 1'he sixth year, in fact, is simply lost sight of, and the error is continued down to the very end of the reign. One consequence is that the years are wrongly calculated down to the end of the reign ; another is, that Edward's reign is made a year longer than it was. He died in the fifty-first year of his reign, having reigned fifty years and about five months; but at p. 487 of Fabyan we have the entry, ' Anno Hi.' The regnal years and mayors' years are difficult to arrange, because they AN ERROR IX FABYAX'S CHROXICLES. 55 began at different times. Fabyan begins the reign by passing over the mayoralty of Chickwell, and calls Betayne the first mayor ; whereas he was not elected till October, 1327, when Edward had reigned about nine months. This explains the expression on p. 439 — ' In the ende of yJ firste yere of this kynge Edwarde, & begynnynge of this mayres yere' ; where 'this mayre ' is Fabyan's first, the above-named Betayne. But, if he begins to reckon thus, he should have continued it. By the same reckoning the fourth mayor would be elected in the end of the fourth year of the king; yet on p. 441 we read — 'In this .iiii. mayres yere, & ende of ye thyrde yere of thys kynge.' where for thyrde we must certainly read fourth. In the same way, the battle of Cressy is said to have taken place in the twenty -first year of Edward's reign, but it was fought during the twe?itieth (1346). And so on throughout. By way of further example, let me explain the entry on p. 480. We there find 'Anno Domini, m.ccclxviii. John Chychester — Anno Domini, m.ccclxix. Anno xliiii.' This refers, not to the 44th, but to the 43rd year, from Jan. 1369 to Jan. 1370, towards the close of which— viz. in October 1369 — Chichester was elected as mayor. Hence the entry, under this year, of the death of Queen Philippa (Aug. 15, 1369). It follows that Chichester was still mayor in April 1370, as is proved also by a notice of him as mayor in that very month and year in Riley's Me??iorials of London, p. 344. Hence follows the complete solution of the date of Piers the Plowman. When Lang- land mentions 1370 as Chichester's year, he is right enough. I have said, at p. xxxii of the preface to text A of the poem, that ' our author seems to be a year wrong.' But I am glad to find that the error lies, not with Langland, but with Fabyan ; and the date of the second version of the poem is irrefragably proved to be later than 1370. Other indications point to the year 1377 as the date thereof. 56 ENNUI. 68. Ennui (4 S. iv. 223; 1869). I cannot allow that English is unequal to translate this word. Our language, which possesses the fulness of several languages rolled into one, is equal to every emergency ; and the more so, if we are allowed to fall back upon words that are obsolescent or provincial. It is from the dulness of translators that the frequent miserable wailing over the inadequacy of English arises. Eniiui is not so expressive as dumps. It means, I suppose, to quote Roget's Thesaurus, ' melancholiness, the dismals, mumps, dumps, blue devils, vapours, megrims, spleen ' ; also weariness, tedium, lassitude, and in fact, boredom. Mr. Besant, in his pleasant and scholarly book on Early French Poetry, in speaking of the English poems of Charles of Orleans, says : — ' What is newous thought ? The French explains it : it is pensee cnnuyeuse. I believe this is the only attempt to adopt this word in English, though we want it badly.' I am certainly a little surprised at this remark, for we actually possess the word annoyance from the same root ; and so far from newous or ?wyous being an uncommon word, and only used by Charles, it is a word that is suffi- ciently familiar to readers of our older literature. Chaucer has anoyful, disagreeable ; anoyous, with the same meaning j auoyaunce, grievance ; noyaus, troublesome j whilst Lang- land not only uses the verb noyen, to plague, but actually has the very word anoy or noy, used as a substantive, which is exactly equivalent to ennui in form, and very nearly so in meaning. Even Spenser has the word, and uses it so as to bring out with much clearness the meaning which we now attach to it (F. Q. i. 6. 17): — ' For griefe whereof the lad n'ould after joy, But pynd away in anguish and selfcivild annoy.' What better epithet for it than se/fwi/kd} CHAUCER PARALLELS. 57 And again, Spenser say (F. Q. ii. 9. 35) : — ' But other some could not abide to toy, All plesaunce was to them griefe and annoy.'' This is just what happens to those who suffer from ennui • they cannot 'abide to toy.' If, then, neither mumps, nor dumps, nor boredom be considered sufficiently near to ennui to represent the true force of it, there can be no objection to reviving the English form of the word. viz. annoy. As for the amazing number of English words which can be used to translate a single French one, is there not Cotgrave's Dictionary! 69. Chaucer Parallels : ' The Knightes Tale ' and ' Troilus and Cressida ' (4 S. iv. 292 j 1869). Since, in both these works, Chaucer was to some measure indebted to the same poet, Boccaccio, it is not unreasonable to suppose that they were composed ' nearly at the same time. The following parallels seem to point to the same result. I believe their number might be increased. The references are to the Aldine edition [and to my own] : — 1. ' And forth he ryt : ther [n]is no more to telle.' K. T. 116 [A. 974). 1 And forth she rit, ful sorwfully, a pas.' Tr. v. 60. 2. ' Thurgh girt with many a grevous blody ivonnde.'' K. T. 152 (A. 1010 . ' Thorwgh gyrt with many wyde and blody ivoundc' Tr. iv. 599 (627 . 3. ' That never, for to deyen in the payne.' K. T. 275 A. 1 133 . 1 Thai certein, for to deyen in the pey^icS Tr. i. 674. 4. 'And lowde he song ayens the sonne scheene.* K. T. 651 (A. 1509^ ' Ful lowde song ay tin the moone shene.' — Tr. ii. 920. 1 [This refers, of course, to the first draught of the Knightes Tal< . called Palamon and Arcite.J 58 SERFS. 5. ' He may go pypen in an ivy lee/.' — K. T. 980 (A. 1838). 1 Pipe in an ivy ieefe, if that the leste.' — Tr. v. 1433. 6. ' As soth is sayd, eelde hath gret avantage, In eelde is bothe wisdom and usage ; Men may the eelde at-renne, but nat at-rede." K. T 1589 (A. 2447). ' Your sire is wis, and seyde is out of drede, Men may the wise at-renne, and nought at-rede."1 Tr. iv. 1427 (1456^. 7. • To maken vcrtu of neccssite.' — K. T. 2184 (A. 3042). 'Thus maketh vertu of necessite.' — Tr. iv. 1558 (1586 . And in Sq. Ta. ii. 247 (F. 593). 70. Serfs (4 S. iv. 302 ; 1869). There is no reason why serfs may not mean stags without any alteration to cerfs. I suppose it to be a parallel case to a passage in the French prose romance of Alexander — ' Nas tu pas veu par plusieurs fois que ung [lyon] meit a la fuite grant quantite de serfz ? ' To this passage the French editor appends a note — ' On reconnait la les idees provenant de la superiorite si marquee de la chevalerie, au moyen age, sur les serfs et sur les vilains.' This is a delicious blunder, when it is remembered that the parallel passage in the Latin version is ' an nescis quod unus leo multos cervos in fugam vertit ? ' and the Greek version has i\d<f>ovs. See the passages quoted at length in my edition of William of Palerne (E. E. T. S.), p. 240. 71. i Rue with a difference ' in c Hamlet * (4 S. iv. 559; 1869). In explaining Shakespeare's phrases, I think that many commentators refine too much. If he indeed 'had in his mind ' all the intricate allusions he is said to have had, his mind must have been even greater than most of us grant it to have been. In Ophelia's speech — 'there's rue for you ; and here 's some for me ; we may call it herb-grace on Sundays ; 0, you must wear your rue with a difference ' — ' JERESGIVE' A MISTAKE EOR ' YERESGIUE.' 59 there is no difficulty if we do not force the words ' with a difference ' into some ' heraldic ' phrase. It merely means this : ' I offer you rue, which has two meanings ; it is some- times called herb of grace, and in that sense I take some for myself; but, with a difference of meaning, it means ruth, and in that respect will do for you.' This explanation is not mine; it is Shakespeare's own. ' Here did she fall a tear ; here, in this place. I'll set a bank of rue. sour herb of grace ; Rue, even for ruth, here shortly shall be seen. In the remembrance of a weeping queen.' Richard II, Act iii. Sc. 4. [The fact is, there is a play upon words. There are two distinct words, both spelt rue. Rue, the herb, is from O.F. rue, which Cotgrave explains by ^ rue, herb grace' ; and this is from Lat. ruta. But rue, the verb, is English ; A. S. hreowan7\ Some wrongly explain the word cra?its by garlands, whereas it is a garland, in the singular number. Long notes have been written about it, but no one seems to have noticed that Shakespeare not only understood the word, but knew it to be singular. Otherwise he would hardly have used the name of Rosenkrantz as that of one of his characters. What need of search for explaining a word which is under one's nose all the while ? Surely Rosenkrantz is a rose-garland. 72. ' Jeresgive,' a mistake for * Yeresgiue ■ (4 S. v. 74; 1870). I am much obliged to Mr. T. for his quotation ; the explanation is not difficult. It is the old English yresyue, which may be represented by yeresyiue or yeresgiue, but not by jeresgiue, as the letter 3 may be denoted by y or g, but not by j (except in German). It is a year's-gift, i. e. an annual donation, or new-year's gift ; or, in common parlance, 60 THE SUN : ITS GENDER. a Christmas-box. The first part of the word is the genitive case of year ; the latter partis the A.S. gifu, G. gabe, a gift. It occurs in Piers the Ploivman, iii. 99 (ed. Skeat, Clarendon Press Series, p. 27) : — ' Ignis devorabit tabernacula eorum qui libenter accipiunt mu- nera, &c. k Amonge this lettered ledes this latyn is to mene, That fyre shal falle, and brenne al to bio askes The houses and the homes of hem that desireth Yiftes or yeresyyues bi cause of here offices.' That is to say, Langland explains the text (Job xv. 34) by the phrase : — ' Among these learned people this Latin signifies, that fire shall fall, and burn all to blue ashes the houses and homes of them that desire gifts or yeresyiues by reason of their offices.' The word is duly explained in my Glossary. 73. The Sun : its Gender (4 S. v. 75 ; 1870). The statement of E. H. A. that he has never seen the sun used of the feminine gender, except in the works of Mede, is exceedingly amusing. The difficulty would rather be to find any instance of its being masculine in any English writer from the time of the author of Beowulf \.o nearly the end of the fourteenth century. I at once give a couple of examples, viz. : ' the sonne gaf hire litht ' (the sun gave her light), Layamon's Brut, ed. Madden, 1. 7239; and 'the sonne gan louke her lighte in herself (the sun locked up her light within herself, or was eclipsed), Piers the Plow- man, ed. Skeat, B. xviii. 243. My 'B-text' of Langland's Piers the Plowman, containing the latter quotation, is now being published. In our early writers the sun is feminine, and the moon masculine. The question is rather, what are the earliest instances of the contrary ? According to Dr. Bosworth's edition, we find the moon masculine in the Old English THE SANGREAL, OR HOLY GRAIL. 61 version of St. Matt. xxiv. 29, which he dates at about a. d. 995, but feminine in Wycliffe's version, a. d. 1389. 74. The Sangreal, or Holy Grail (4 S. v. 251 ; i8yo\ That Sangreal should be a corruption of sang real is such a very obvious derivation, that it will possibly always find acceptance ; although it is always safe to regard popular etymologies with suspicion, and the more so if they were constructed in medieval times. As in all other cases, we must have some regard to chronology ; and I believe it will be found that the word graal existed long before the idea of prefixing the epithet san was at all common, and conse- quently long before the corrupt etymology sang real was thought of. The history of the word is given at pp. 102, 378 of torn. ier of Les Romans de la table ronde, by M. Paulin Paris (see also the word gradale in Uucange). The many difficulties about the word are there carefully discussed. See also the edition of The History of the Holy Graal, edited by Mr. Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club, at the end of the first volume of which the original early French version of the romance was reprinted. At 1. 2653 of this romance the question is asked by some sinful men, \ and what is the name of the vessel ? ' The answer being — ' Qui a droit le vourra nummer, Par droit Graal Tapelera ' ; where the prefex san or saint is not used. The most ancient notice of the word is certainly to be found in Helinandus, who was a Cistercian monk in the abbey of Froidmond, in the diocese of Beauvais, and died either in 1219 or 1223. His works are printed in vol. ccxii. of Migne's Cursus Patrologicz. The passage is a curious one, and worthy of a corner in N. and Q. 'Anno 717. Hoc tempore, cuidam eremitae monstrata est mirabilis quaedam visio per angelum, de Sancto Josepho, decurione nobili, qui corpus Domini deposuit de cruce ; et de catino illo vel 62 'CRY BO TO A GOOSE.' paropside in quo Dominus coenavit cum discipulis suis ; de qua ab eodem eremita descripta est historia quae dicit[ur] Gradal. Gradalis autem vel gradate dicitur gallice scutella lata et aliquantulum pro- funda in qua preciosce dapes cum suo jure [gravy] divitibus solent apponi, et dicitur nomine graal," &c. The word Gradale sometimes means a service-book con- taining the responses, &c, sung before the steps (gradus) of the altar ; but in the sense of an open platter, it is said to be allied to cratella, the diminutive of crater, and four whole pages are devoted to a consideration of it in Roquefort's Glossaire de la Langue romane. I have no space to plunge into a long explanation of the shape of the vessel, or to decide whether it ought to be called a cup or a dish — it is safest to call it a vessel. Spenser calls it holy grayle (F. Q., b. ii. c. x. st. liii). As for the combination sang real, it is used in Old English as well as in French, but much more commonly in the sense of royal than of true blood. I give two examples : — ' Alle with taghte men and towne in togers sulle [? fulle] ryche, Of saunke realle in suyte, sexty at ones.' Morte Arthure (ed. Perry), 1. 178. ; He came of the sank royal/, That was cast out of a bochers stall.' Skelton, Why Come ye not to Court, 1. 490. Considerations as to space render this a very imperfect notice of the word. 75. ' Cry Bo to a Goose ' (4 S. vi. 221 ; 1870). I doubt the coincidence of this phrase with that of saying ' Bee to a battledore.5 This latter expression means rather to be possessed of elementary knowledge, to have learnt the rudiments. A hornbook, which was originally a flat board with a handle, with a piece of horn in front, was shaped something like a battledore, and was at times so named. (See the cut of one in Chambers's Book of Days, i. 47.) To be able to say B when B was pointed to in the hornbook, was called 'to say B to a battledore,' or sometimes 'to THE SIEGE OF METZ. 63 know B from a battledore,' the words to and from in these phrases being nearly equal to at the sight of, or as exhibited upon. The phrase means, proverbially, to be possessed of a knowledge of the alphabet, &c., as already said. 76. The Siege of Metz (4 S. vi. 296 ; 1870). It is perhaps not generally known that Metz was once besieged by King Arthur. It was defended by the Duke of Lorraine ; some of whose men complained that he had defrauded them of their pay, and urged him to treat for peace. The Duke refused, and charged Arthur's knights upon a dromedary. Arthur's knights assaulted the city, throwing down stone steeples and most of the inns. At last the city surrendered, and Arthur (to quote Mr. Perry's words) ' provides for the government of Lorraine, which he had conquered.' See the long account in Morte Arthure (ed. Perry, 1865, for the Early English Text Society), pp. 71-91. The whole passage is very curious. 77. Peas or Pease ? (4 S. vi. 139 ; 1870). The explanation of this word ought to be well known. It is not a plural at all, but a singular noun, the plural of which ought to be peasen, sometimes misspelt peason, as in Nares. It is the A.S. pisa, Lat. pisum ; cf. Ital. pisello. In Mid. English it ispese in the singular, pesen in the plural, as a few extracts will show. 1 Pese, frute of corne. — Pisa.' — Prompt. Parvnloriim, ed. Way. P- 395- ' The vaunting poets found nought worth a pease! Spenser, Shep. Cal.. Oct. 69. ' He poureth pcscn upon the hacches slidre.' Chaucer, Leg. G. IV., Cleop. 69. See also the numerous examples in Nares, s. v. Peason. In Langland's Vision of Piers the Plowman, edited by me, in the Clarendon Press Series, the word is fully 64 CHATTERTON'S KNOWLEDGE OF ANGLO-SAXON. explained in the Glossary. Langland's scribe uses pees in the singular, and both pesen and peses in the plural. The French pots and Welsh pys also show clearly that the final s is not inflexional. In composition we find the words peascod, pease-porridge, where peas or pease is still the singular noun ; cf. the Mid. Eng. pese-codde used by Langland. Thus the e in pease is merely a relic of the old spelling pese ; but when, in process of time, this final e was dropped, the word peas came to be regarded as a plural, and the singular word pea was invented by some one ' with a turn for grammar l ' ; just as the words alms and riches, once singular nouns, are beginning to be used as plurals, and only await the touch of genius to develop the singulars aim and rich. 78. Chatterton's knowledge of Anglo-Saxon (4 S. vii. 278 ; 1871). In the paper written by Rowley on the ' Rise of Paint- ing in England in 1469,' and communicated by Chatterton to Walpole, are several Anglo-Saxon words. Most of these are used wrongly ; but if we rightly explain them, and tabulate them in alphabetical order, they are as follows : — Acid, a heap. Adronct, drowned. Adrifene {fatu), embossed (vessels'). JEccedfcet, an acid-vat, vessel for vinegar. AE.sc, a ship ; lit. an ash. At dell ice, nobly. Afcegrod, coloured, adorned. A/god, an idol. Agra/en, engraven. Ahrered, reared up. It thus appears that Rowley was possessed of an Anglo-Saxon dictionary (the earliest was printed in 165^, and he only 1 Beau Brummel said that he 'once ate a pea] a saying which has often been quoted for its imagined brilliancy. 'BY HOOK OR BY CROOK.' 65 succeeded in acquiring some knowledge of the language as far as Ah. Chatterton's letter on ' Saxon Achievements,' printed in Southey's edition, vol. iii. p. 89, exhibits precisely the same singular result. He there explains the words Aadod, Afgod, Afgodod, Afraten, Amezz, with the addition of Thimder-flozgod. The last of these he explains by ' thun- der-blasted,' but he has mistaken /for s. The word which suggested this notion to him is Thimder-slozge, a clap of thunder. The exception in Rowley's letter is Heofnas, which he uses for the colour azure. This is how he came by it; he looked into Bailey, and found ''Azure, blue (in heraldry),' <xx., and again 'Azure, the sky or firmament.' This suggested the idea of heaven. He then found that Bailey gives heafian as the derivation of the word. This led him to look into an Anglo-Saxon dictionary, and he accordingly found heofon, pi. heofenas, and he adopted the plural as quainter-looking. Afraten is either miscopied from ' Afsetan, to appoint, design,' or simply made up from the heraldic word fret. Amezz is miscopied from ' Amett, decked, adorned.' It thus appears that Chatterton knew no more Anglo-Saxon than he might have picked up in an hour from a glossary, and was unable to distinguish between s and f, and probably misread other letters also. [PS. Chatterton is known to have used Benson's Anglo- Saxon Vocabulary, printed in 170 1. It is a miserable com- pilation, made from Somners Dictionary.] 79. 'By Hook or by Crook' (4 S. viii. 133 ; 1871). This proverb is at least a century older than Skelton's time. It occurs in the works of Wyclif. See Mr. Arnolds new edition of Wyclif s English Works, iii. 331. On the very next page is the proverb about ' turning the cat in the pan,' which Bacon has also in his Essays : see Essay xxii. 1 On Cunning.' 66 CHAUCER'S 'MAN OF LA WES TALE.' 80. Chaucer's * Man of Lawes Tale ' (4 S. viii. 201 ; 1871). It may be interesting to note that the events narrated in the Man of Lawes Tale, and in Gower's Confessio Amantis, lib. ii. (where the same story occurs), may be connected more or less with the date a. d. 580 or thereabouts. Gower gives the name of the Emperor of Rome as Tiberius Con- stantinus. A Latin note in the MSS. of Gower refers to Pelagius as pope. The son of Constance is Maurice, after- wards emperor. Constance marries ^Ella, king of Northum- bria. The name of the constable's wife, Hermegyld, may have been suggested by the so-called martyrdom of the Visi-Gothic prince St. Hermenegild l. The following are the dates : — Tiberius II, emperor (not of Rome, but of the East), a.d. 578. Succeeded by Maurice of Cappadocia, a. d. 582. Pelagius II, pope, a.d. 578-590. ^Ella of Northumbria, a. d. 560-588. Martyrdom of St. Hermenegild, a.d. 584, or 586. Thus the story has a certain consistency, but is open to the objection that Tiberius, reigning only four years, could hardly have been succeeded in 582 by his own grandson, born (according to Chaucer) later than 578. 81. English Prepositions (4 S. viii. 241 ; 187 1). I observe that in some remarks upon the word partake (the accuracy of which, by the way, I do not admit) your correspondent C. A. W. says : — k I wish there was a good treatise upon English prepositions, their individual significance, their significance in composition, and their power of modifying meaning when used in connection with verbs.' Permit me to refer him to Matzner's Englische Grammatik, 1 [So spelt in Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints, under April 13. Better Hermengild.~\ PORTRESS. 67 wherein, to take but one example, the word of is discussed at the length of forty pages of close type, with quotations (to the number of several hundreds) from English writers of every date, from Layamon to Dickens. (See part ii. p. 222.) English prepositions are also treated of in Koch's Gramm. der engl. Sprac/ie, in Diefenbach's Gothic Glossary, in March's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, &c. ; but the grammars by Matzner and Koch give the most copious examples from English authors. There is plenty of infor- mation to be obtained by those who will seek for it, and who will remember that philology has made some advances since the days of Dr. Johnson. 82. Portress (4 S. viii. 271 ; 187 1). I do not think this is a very rare word. A much earlier example than the one in Milton is the following : — ' And fayre Observaunce, the goodly porires, Did us receyve with solempne- gladnes.' Stephen Hawes, Pastime 0/ Pleasure, cap. xxxiii. st. 26. 83. Amperzand. (4 S. viii. 468 ; 187 1). [In reply to the guess that it was originally and-pussy-and, and that its shape (&) suggests a cat sitting up, and raising one fore-paw !] This word has been explained long ago. It is merely a corruption of And-per-se-and, which means that the character &, standing by itself (Lat. per se), spells 'and.' The old lady who pronounced it 'and-pussy-and' came much nearer to the old pronunciation than the modern spelling does. It does not follow that it is therefore derived from a pussy-cat. As for the shape of it, I have nowhere seen an explanation. Yet it is not far to seek ; it is merely a rough and ready way of writing the Latin word et. How this is so I cannot here show without a diagram ; but any one may see it repeatedly occurring in the Rush- F 2 68 ' BLAKEBERYED ' IN CHAUCER. worth MS. at Oxford, or in any tolerably Old Latin MS. The shape of the character has, in fact, no more to do with a cat than the etymology has. Why should the English language be selected as the ' corpus vile ' on which to make such unmeaning experiments ? Any one who should derive the Latin vicus, a street, from via, a way, and causa, a cause, whence a cause-way, a street, would not get a hearing. But in English etymology (so low is the general level of English scholarship), grotesqueness seems to be especially aimed at. The phrase per se is not confined to this character only. The letter A was often called the A-per-se because it can constitute a whole word when standing alone. From its position at the head of the alphabet, the A-per-se became a proverbial symbol of excellence. It was said of Melu- sine: — , c, A 1 ' She was a woman A-per-se, alone. Romans of Partenay, ed. Skeat, 1. 1148. In Old English MSS., any letter which constituted a word in itself, as A, I, O, and even E (Old English for eye), was frequently written with a point before and after it ; to isolate it, as it were. Examples may be seen in the Vernon MS. at Oxford. As another example of guessing etymology I may refer to prise, a word which also received attention in the last number of N. and Q., and was said to be short for upraise (!). It is merely the French prise, which denoted an advantageous way of seizing a thing, as explained by Cotgrave two centuries and a half ago ; from which we have developed a word prise, to seize with advantage, to force by leverage. The root is the Latin prehendere. 84. ' Blakeberyed. ' in Chaucer (4 S. x. 222 ; 1872). This word presents a difficulty, as is well known ; and occurs once only, viz., in the lines where the Pardoner says, in his prologue or preamble : — ' BLAKEBERYED ' IN CHAUCER. 69 ' I rekke neuere, whan that they been beryed, Though that hir soules goon a blakeberyed.'' Six-Text Edition, ed. Furnivall, C. 405, p. 316. The obvious meaning is — ' I care not a whit, after people are buried, what becomes of their souls.' The only question is, as to the literal meaning. We know, first of all, that when Chaucer uses identical sounds in place of a rime, he invariably takes care that the words denoted by those sounds shall differ in meaning. Thus seke (to seek), in the seventeenth line of his Prologue, rimes with seke (sick) in the line following, because the word seke is used with different meanings. Hence we know, at the outset, that the word blakeberyed has nothing to do with burying; and the suggested explanation ' buried in black ' (which gives no good sense after all) falls through. When we consider further that blakebery means simply a blackberry, we are driven to suppose that goon a blakeberyed means ' go a black-berrying,' which is simply a phrase for 'go where they list'; just like to kgo a wool-gathering,' or to 'go pipen in an ivy leef ' (Knightes Tale, 1. 980). The only difficulty is in the construction ; we have to find instances in which ' go ' is used with words ending in -ed ; and it is because I have met with this construction that I write the present note. For, if no examples could be furnished, the explanation would remain a mere guess, and valueless, as such guesses generally are ; but now that other examples have been found, the guess becomes, I venture to think, a certainty. The instances are these : — 1. ' Hye treuthe wolde That no faiterye were founde : in folk that gon abegged." Piers the Ploivman (C-text, pass. ix. 136) ; see Whitaker's edition, p. 135. Here three MSS. read a-begged or abegged; one has a-beggyd, another abeggeth, and a sixth and beggen. No one can doubt that gon abegged has here the meaning of go a-begging. 70 DR. JOHNSON'S DEFINITION OF 'OATS.' 2. 'In somere for his slewthe: he shal haue defaute, And gon abrybcth and beggen : and no man bete his hunger. Piers the Plowman (C-text, pass. ix. 244) ; see Whitaker's edition, p. 141. Here two MSS. have gon abrybeth, but two others have gon abribed or abribid ; one has gon abribeth and abeggeth, whilst another has gon abribid and a-begged. So that we have here not only fresh evidence of gon abegged for to go a-begging, but are introduced to the phrase gon abribed for to go a-bribing — i. e. to go a-robbing, since bribe in Mid. English means to rob. No doubt fresh instances of this peculiar construction will be found. I think, too, it can be explained ; but the explanation is long, and of less conse- quence than the fact of its occurrence. [The suffix -ed, -eth, represents A. S. -aft, -off, in hunt-ad. \ 85. Dr. Johnson's Definition of ' Oats ' (4 S. x. 309 ; 1872). Dr. Johnson's definition of Oats, as ' a grain which in England is given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people,' is well known. It is also reported that he declared Burton's A?iatomy of Melancholy to have been the only book which ever took him out of bed two hours sooner than he wished to rise. Putting these two things together, it is interesting to observe that something very like the famous definition of ' oats ' occurs in Burton. Here is the passage : — 'John Mayor, in the first book of his History 0/ Scotland, contends much for the wholesomeness of oaten bread. It was objected to him, then living at Paris, in France, that his countrymen fed on oats and base grain, as a disgrace. . . . And yet Wecker i^out of Galen) calls it horscmcat, and fitter for jinnents [beasts of burden] than men to feed on.' — Anatomy of Melancholy, Part I., sec. 2, mem. 2, sub-sec. 1. 86. * -mas ' (4 S. x. 397 ; 1872). The ending -///as in Christmas, Lammas, Michaelmas, Martinmas, &c, is the A. S. mcesse, Ger. and Dan. messe, ■MAS : LAMMAS. 7 1 Swed. and Icel. messa ; and the most probable account of it is, that it is from Lat. missa. Grein explains A. S. mcesse as the mass, or the festival on which high mass is said. We find also A. S. mcesse-dceg, a festival ; mazsse-afen, a vigil before a festival ; mcESse-boc, a mass-book, &c. In the rubrics to my A. S. edition of St. Mark's Gospel, we find that the passage beginning at Mark vi. 17 is to be read on ' sancte iohannes maessan,' i. e. on the festival of St. John the Baptist; and the passage beginning at Mark viii. 27 is to be read on 'sancte petres maesse-daege/' on the festival of St. Peter. The occurrence of the single s in -mas is really due to the loss of the final e in Old English. Thus richesse has been cut down to riches, not richess, probably on account of the accent being thrown back. Lammas is certainly the A. S. hlaf-mcesse or loaf-mass, a festival of first- fruits on the 1 st of August. 87. -mas: Lammas (4 S. x. 521 ; 1872). After working for many years at English etymology, I am well aware of the doubtfulness of many derivations that have been proposed. But of the derivation of Lammas no one who cares to look at the authorities can have the slightest doubt ; it is merely the modernized spelling of the A. S. hlaf-mcesse, and its sense is Loaf-mass. The difficulty of supposing that first-fruits should have been offered on the 1 st of August vanishes on examination. A couple of loaves made of new corn could as easily be made before the general harvest as after it; it would not be necessary that they should be eatable loaves, and they may have been made of any small quantity of new corn that could be obtained, whether properly ripened or not. But, however this may have been, the testimony of our old authors is most express. Not only was the 1st of August called hlaf-mcBSsan dceg, but the 7th was actually named ' Harvest,' irrespective of the fact that the real harvest must frequently have been 72 -MAS : LAMMAS. much later1. This we know on the best possible authority, viz. the so-called Menologium, or Metrical Calendar of the Months, wherein we read that 'bringeth Agustus yrmen- theodum hlaf-msessan daeg ; Swa thaes haerfest cymth ymb other swylc, butan anre wanan, wlitig waestmum hladen ; wela byth geyped fsegere on foldan/ i.e. 'August brings to all men the loaf-mass day ; so afterwards, harvest comes about another such space (of seven days) later, wanting one day ; fair (harvest), laden with fruits ; abundance is fairly manifested upon the earth.' In the next sentence, by way of making sure that Lammas-day is the first, and ' Harvest' the seventh of the month, we are told that three days later is Lawrence's day ; and this we know to be the tenth. See Grein, Bibliothek der Angelsiichstschen Poesie, vol. ii. p. 4. The word also occurs in Alfred's translation of Orosius, where we are told that Octavianus defeated Antonius and Cleopatra ' on thsere tide [Calendas] Agustus, and on tham daege the we hatath hlafmczssan1 \ i.e. on the Calends of August, on the day which we call loaf-mass ; where Calendas is a reading taken from the older, or Lauderdale MS. This battle, by the way, is not the sea-fight of Actium ; for that is mentioned in the next sentence, and we know that it occurred on the 2nd of September, B.C. 31. See Dr. Bos- worth's edition of Orosius, p. 113. But in the A. S. Chronicle, under the date a.d. 1009, we get various spellings of the word in the MSS. Where two of them have after lafima?ssan, a third has after hlammcessan, which enables us to state confidently that the internal change from fin to mm must have been made before the 1 [The precession of the equinoxes makes some difference. The sun entered Aries on March 12 in Chaucer's time, but the vernal equinox is now some eight days later. Four centuries earlier than Chaucer, it was some six days earlier ; giving a difference of nearly a fortnight between 993 and 1893. Harvest in the tenth century may have been (nominally) two weeks earlier than now.] TYING A KNOT IN A HANDKERCHIEF. 73 time of Stephen, as this MS. ends with the year 11 54, and the events of Stephen's reign seem to have been written down at the time. In later authors the word occurs more than once ; see the quotations given for lammasse from Robert of Gloucester and Robert of Brunne in Richardson's Dictionary. The word occurs also in many later authors. To show that harvest was expected to take place by Lammas-time, I need but quote a well-known passage in Piers the Plozvman, B-text, vi. 291 : — ' And bi this lyflode we mot lyue til lammasse tyme, And. bi that, I hope to haue heruest in my croft.' It is thus clearly traced from early times through the successive spellings hlafmcesse, (h)lafmcesse, hlammcEsse, lammasse, down to lammas. It were to be wished that all our English words could be traced as easily. See the article on Lammas in Chambers's Book of Days. The suggestion that lammas is from Vinculamass is obviously a guess, and nothing more. I have never seen the latter expression in any Old English MS., and should be much surprised to meet with it. I may add, that harvest was not generally used in so restricted a sense as it is in the Menologium. 88. Tying a knot in a handkerchief (4 S. xi. 53 ; 1873). There is an early allusion to a similar practice in the Ancren Riwle (ed. Morton, p. 396), written about a.d. 1230 : — ' Mon knut his kurtel uorte habben J^ouht of one f inge ; auh ure louerd, uor he nolde neuer uorgiten us, he dude merke of f urlunge ine bo two his honden ' : a man ties a knot in his girdle, to remember a thing ; but our Lord, in order never to forget us, made a mark of piercing in both His hands. Kurtel is more correctly written gurdel in the Cotton MS. 74 SUPPRESSION OF S IN THE GENITIVE. 89. Suppression of s in the Genitive (4 S. xi. 79 ; 1873). The tolerably common usage here referred to is explained and exemplified in Morris's Historical Accidence, p. 102. sect. 100 ; and in Abbott's Shakespearian Grammar, 3rd ed. p. 356, sect. 471. A very common example of the suppres- sion of s to avoid too much sibilation occurs in the phrase 'for conscience sake,' sometimes written with an apostrophe at the end of conscience, though the apostrophe is hardly needed. We find ' for al Conscience caste,' i. e. ' for all Conscience's contrivance,' in Piers the Plounnan, B-text, pass. iii. 1. 19. Observe also ' for goodness sake,' Psalm xxv. 7; and 'righteousness sake,' Isaiah xlii. 21. 90. Galoches : a Term for Unattached. Students (4 S. xi. 112 ; 1873). It would appear from Cotgrave's Fre?ich Dictionary that the idea of admitting unattached students to the universities is not a new one. In former times they were termed ' galoches ' or ' galloches ' (the word being spelt with one or two V s indifferently). The following are the quotations explaining the words : — ' Galoclic. f. : A woodden Shoe, or Patten, made all of a piece, without any latchet, or tie of leather, and worne by the poor Clowne in winter.' • Galloches, m. : Schollers in Universities, admitted of no Colledge. but lying in the Towne, and being at liberty to resort unto what publike) readers or lectures they please : tearmed thus, because, in passing in the streets, they commonly weare galloches.' 91. ' To hell a building' (4 S. xi. 392 : 1873). The verb hell is more often spelt hele in Old English, being the A. S. helan, to cover, hide, cognate with the Latin celare, and therefore related to the latter syllable in conceal. It was once so common that we may expect to find it in many parts of England still. Thus, Halliwell gives hele as a Devonshire word, with the sense of to roof ENGLISH DIALECTS. 75 or slate, to earth up potatoes, cover anything up ; hellier, a thatcher or tiler, he marks as West of England ; hiling, a covering, occurs in the Chester Plays. He also cites hull, a covering, shell, and huttings, husks, but without assigning their locality. The verb hylle?i, to cover, is in the Promp- torium Parvulorum, which is Norfolk. With the spelling hele, it is used by John of Trevisa, a Cornishman. Hull a shell, is in Atkinson's Cleveland Glossary, which is York- shire. The verb was used also by Barbour and Gawain Douglas. It must have been once in common use in almost every district from Cornwall to Scotland, and probably survives locally in many counties. This can only be ascertained by consulting all the various extant county glossaries. 92. English Dialects ( S. xi. 385 ; 1873). It certainly would be a good plan to make a new list of books in the English dialects, as supplementary to that published some years ago by Mr. Smith. Instead, however, of sending occasional notes to N. and Q. about such works, how much better it would be if some one would undertake to receive all such notes, with a view to their publication in JY. and Q., when a considerable number of them, enough to fill a page at least, has been accumulated ! If the editor approves, this may easily be done ' ; and failing any one else, I am ready to undertake the work of receiving and arranging the titles of the works in question. What is wanted is that we should have the correct titles, the authors' names (when known), the date and place of publication, &c. A very brief description of the drift of each book would be useful, but all wandering talk and irrelevant remarks 1 We highly approve of our valued correspondent's suggestion, and gladly accept his kind offer. All communications, therefore, on this subject should be addressed to the Rev. \V. W. Skeat, Cintra Terrace, Cambridge. — Ed. N. and O. 76 ENGLISH DIALECTS. would, of course, be rigidly suppressed. The best way of collecting titles is to adhere strictly to the indispensable rule, that everything must be written lengthways — on o?ie side only of half-a-shcet of note-paper of the ordinary size. I subjoin a title as a specimen : — ' Laj-cock, Samuel. Lancashire Songs. London : Simpkin and Marshall, 1866; pp. i-vi, 1-77. Contains 20 Songs, in various metres, in a Lancashire dialect.' If we can also, in the same way, accumulate a list of all works in MS. upon this subject, it will be a great gain : as also a list of workers who really understand the subject. All this must be done before a complete provincial glossary can be made. Some years ago, when this subject was discussed, Mr. Ellis very properly insisted that some uniform spelling, such as Glossic or Palaeotype, should be employed ; but the result was, that the whole scheme fell through. Palaeotype is not likely to be understood by those who have made no special and careful study of it ; and, if employed incorrectly, is worse than useless. The only practical plan seems to be for each word-collector to use his own method of recording sounds 'for which he should certainly employ Glossic, if he can, or most of the Glossic symbols, or at least give an account of his own system of spelling according to the pronunciation given by Walker or Webster), and then the Glossic or Palaeotype spelling can be inserted afterwards, between brackets, by some one who understands it. The following rules ought also to be strictly observed by word-collectors : — 1 . Avoid etymology ; leave it to those who have made it a special study. Strive rather to record the words themselves, with their meanings ; add also scraps of real (not invented) talk, to illustrate the occasional uses of the words. 2. Put down everything that is not in standard English. To miss a word current in Shropshire, because it is also used in Herefordshire, is an utter mistake ; indeed, many good TENNYSON: 'ALL THE SWINE JVERE SOWS.' 77 lists have been ruined this way. Words can always be struck out, but they are hard to put in. Accordingly, the locality of every word should be noted, without stopping to ascertain if it is peculiar to that locality. ' Other rules can be supplied to those who apply for them. [A second letter on the same subject appeared in N. and Q. 4 S. xi. 406, on May 17 of the same year. These letters led to considerable results, tending to establish the English Dialect Society, which was started in 1873, and (in 1895) is still vigorous. The first publication of the Society was ' A Bibliographical List of the Works that have been published, or are known to exist in MS., illustrative of the various dialects of Eng- lish ; compiled by members of the E. D. S., and edited by the Rev. W. W. Skeat and J. H. Nodal. London: Triibner, 1873-7-'] 93. Tennyson : ' All the swine were sows ' (The Princess) (4 S. xi. 346 ; 1873). It seems hard that Tennyson should be accused of an error on the ground that ' swine is the plural of sow"1 \ an assertion of which no proof is offered. In English it is certainly not the case ; the A.S. sivhi was a collective neuter noun, commonly used as a plural ; but it could also be used as a singular. See the example in Bosworth's Dictionary, in which swines is used as the genitive singular, meaning of a pig; the gen. pi. was swhia, as in sw'ina heord, a herd of swine. Another example of the singular is in Swlnes-Juefed, now Swineshead, in Huntingdonshire ; whilst the adjective swinen, like the modern swinish, is derived from swine as distinct from sow* In German, the sing, is Schwein, and the pi. Schweine ; cf. also the Dutch zwijn, Icel. svln, &c. But so7c is the A. S. sugu, which is not even of the same gender with swine, being a feminine noun, like the G. Sau, and Icel. syr. The plural of sugu would be suga ; in German the 78 'MUCH' IN THE SENSE OF 'GREAT.' plural has two forms, Siiue and Sauen. I may here also correct the singular error in a new grammar edited by Dr. Smith, viz. that kine is contracted from cowen, for which eccentric form no authority is cited. The A. S. cii, a cow, made its plural in the form cy, by vowel-change ; the Mid. Eng. kin was formed from cy by adding the plural ending -en, whence ky-en or kin ; the final -e is a modern addition. 94. ' Much' in the sense of 'Great' (4 S. xi. 220 ; 1873). Instances of much used in the sense of great are probably common. Thus, every Shropshire man must know oiMuch Wenlock, as distinguished from Little Wenlock. Three examples of this use of the word in English poetry at once occur to me : — 'vi). 4A muche mon, me thouhte, lyk to myselue.' Piers the Plowman, A. ix. 61. From which interesting allusion we gather that the author of the poem was a big man, as regarded his stature. (2). ;The uiuckle devil blaw ye south.' Burns — Author s Earnest Cry. (3). 4 Rise, lass, and mak a clean fireside, Put on the mucklc pot.' Mickle — There s Nae Luck about the House. Besides which, the common surname, Mitchell, simply stands for mickle, i. e. a tall or big man ; cf. Lat. magnus, &c. Observe that one quotation is from Mickle ! 95. ' Exceptio probat regulam ' (4 S. xi. 197 ; 1873). I wish to point out that the phrase 'Exceptio probat regulam ' involves no mistake, and is a maxim of perfectly sound sense. It means, 'The exception tests the rule,' a maxim of the highest value in all scientific investigations. The older English equivalent, ' The exception proves the rule,' had once the same signification, the use of prove for test being familiar to all readers of the Bible ; as, e. g., in the wise advice of St. Paul that we should 'prove (i.e test) all ' EXCEPTIO PROBAT REGULAM.' 79 things,' so that we may know how ' to hold fast that which is good.' Unhappily, the expression, ' The exception proves the rule,' has become meaningless to all who forget that it is an old, not a modern expression ; and perhaps no really wise saying has ever been so frequently taken to mean utter nonsense. Ever}' one who reflects for an instant must see that an exception does not prove, but rather tends to invali- date, a rule. It tests it, and we hence obtain one of three results : either (1) the exception can be perfectly explained, in which case it ceases to be an exception, and the rule becomes, in relation to it, absolute; or (2) the exception resists all explanation, because the rule itself is wrong ; or (3) the exception resists explanation, not because the rule itself is wrong, but because the power to explain the excep- tion fails, from a lack of sufficient knowledge. In like manner, the proverb, ' The more haste, the worse speed,' is now often taken to mean, ' The more haste, the worse haste,' which is but harsh, and tends to nonsense. But, when we remember that speed really meant success in Old English, the sense becomes ' The more haste, the worse success,' which is a perfectly wise and sensible saying. So also ' God speed the plough ' does not mean ' God hasten the plough,' but ' God prosper the plough.' In the proverb 'God sends the shrewd cow short horns,' shrewd means mischievous or ill-tempered, not clever or intelligent. In the proverb ' Handsome is as handsome does,' hand- some means neat, with reference to skilfulness of execution, not beautiful in the usual modern sense. In ' Good wine needs no bush,' the bush is well known to be that which was tied to the end of an ale-stake. In ' To buy a pig in a poke,' we have the old spelling of pouch, with the sense of bag. And of course there are numerous other examples of the perfectly general rule, that all our proverbs have come down 80 BRIG A. to us from olden times, and must be interpreted according to the sense of words in old, not in modern English. 96. Briga (4 S. xii. 457 ; 1873). [N.B. This article is a skit upon the usual methods employed by guessing etymologists. Many readers, I believe, took it quite seriously !] At the last reference W. B. traces a large number of English words from briga, which he says is from the root earth. Has he really secured the right root} Surely all the words which he mentions, and many more, are rather to be referred to the Latin terra. Thus plough and breeches, which he instances, are obviously not from earth, but from terra, as a little reflection will show. From terra would come terrare, to tear the earth (our English tear), and by the well-known interchange of p with / (cf. Gk. tessares with JEo\ pisures) we get a dialectal form perra re, also to till the earth, whence perratum or pratum, a meadow, Eng. prairie. By the usual shifting of r (as in bird, from Old Eng. brid) we get preare ; and, by the common change of r into /, pleare, a word adopted by the Anglo-Saxons as pleogan, to till ; and hence our plough. From the same root, pleogan, come play and ply, and the adjective pliafit. So, too, with breeks {braced). The compound word terri-braccce, breeches to protect from the earth or soil, is the obvious origin of our supposed nautical word tarry-breeks, or, by loss of the first part of the word, breeks. The liability of these to tear (the connexion of which word with terra has been already shown) gives the verb to break, as also the substantive brick, literally broken pieces of earth. Just as we find bacca written for vacca, in Old Latin, we may suppose breeks to become vreeks, whence the Southern-English vrock, our standard English frock. By loss oi f, comes the German Rock, also meaning coat, the garment which covers the ridge or back, since in Old English rugge often occurs with the sense of back. WHY ADAM MEANS NORTH, SOUTH, ETC. 8l Rock is clearly the same as rug or rag, also used for covering the body. All these, it will be observed, are obviously from the Latin terra. Then, again, the earth was regarded as an object of mystery or wonder, whence our terror; as, also, terrier, lit. the scarer, the dog who terrifies or scares the sheep. The English drag is known to be cognate with Lat. trahere ; but this is a shortened form of ter-rahere, lit. to drag or draw along the ground ; so that from the same root, terra, come also such words as drag or draw, trail, and, by loss of /, rail {rails still are laid along the earth) ; and by loss of r, ail or ale (made from the produce of the earth) ; by loss of a, ill (from the effects produced by ale), and so on. It is especially curious to see how W. B., not remembering the Latin terra, has failed to solve the word Albion. Granting that Albion is, as he says, from arb, heights, he must allow that arb or arp is merely a metathesis of the pra in pratum, the connexion of which with terra has been shown above. This is verified by observing the Latin arbor, lit. the fruit of the earth, just as our tree (Old Eng. tre) is short for terre, the old spelling of terrae, the genitive case of terra. I have thus shown that tree, Albion, ill, ale, drag, &c, are all from the Latin terra, and I am prepared to derive from this pro- lific root, not merely all the words which W. B. mentions, but every ivord in our la?iguage ; so that, instead of referring all our words to a few roots, I would refer them all to one root, and that root is the Latin terra, and not the Armenian ard. If W. B. is serious, I am sure that my derivations are quite as convincing. But, alas, that English etymology should ever, in these days, be trailed through the dirt after such a fashion. 97. Why Adam means North, South, East, and West (5 S. i. 305; l874). In the Dialogue of Solomon and Saturn, ed. Kemble, p. 1 78, is the following singular passage : — ' Tell me, whence G 82 SHAKESPEARE'S NAME. was the name of Adam formed ? Answer. I tell thee, of four stars. Tell me, how are they called ? Answer. I tell thee, Arthox, Dux, Arotholem, Minsymbrie ' (I give here Kemble's translation, instead of the Anglo-Saxon original, because it answers my purpose quite as well). These names have never been explained, to my knowledge, and I confess that I never expected to know what they mean. There are no stars with such names. But in the Cursor Mundi, ed. Morris, p. 42, is a passage, equally hopeless as it stands, to this effect : — ' Hear now the reason of his name, why he was called Adam. In this name are laid four letters, that are derived from the four ways ; so that Adam is as much as to say, as East, West, North, and South.' It is obvious that the initials of these words do not make up Adam in E?iglish. The two passages, both unintelligible in themselves, com- pletely explain each other ; for, though these words do not spell Adam in English, they do so in Greek. Here, then, is the answer to the riddle ; the ' four stars ' is a mistake for the four ' quarters,' and the words, apparently so mysterious, are merely Arctos,.Dusis, Anatole, Mesembria; ap/cros, Svats, avaToXrj, /xeo-^/x^pta. Moral : never guess, but wait for fresh information to turn up. 98. Shakespeare's Name (5 S. ii. 444 ; 1874). What is meant by saying that ' Fewtarspeare is, doubtless, a local surname,' I cannot understand. Just as Shakespeare means a man who shakes a spear, just as Breakspear means one who breaks a spear, so Fewtarspeare means one who feivtars or feutres a spear, i. e. who lays it in rest. ' His spcare he fcutrcd, and at him it bore.' F. Q. iv. 5, 45. I do not see why English etymology should be considered a fit subject for such unintelligent guess-work. ' O THER WHILES. ' 83 [With Shake-spear and Fewtar-speare, cf. Wag-staff. I once saw the name Shake-shaft over a shop door at Lichfield.] 99. * Other-whiles ' (5 S. ii. 435 ; 1874). Certainly this word is nothing new. See Dr. Stratmann's Old English Dictionary (which correspondents should con- sult for themselves), where these references are given. Otherwhile, Layamon, 1. 7062 ; Reliquiae Antiquae, vol. i. p. no; Robert of Gloucester, p. 100; other hwule, Ancren Riwle, p. 82 ; other hwiles, another reading, at the last reference. Besides which, I may add a reference to Piers the Plowman, B. xix. 99. 100. < A Stick of Eels' (5 S. ii. 52 ; 1874). The following quotation furnishes an answer to the query, how much is a stick} 1 A stick of fish, a term applied to eels when strung on a row, " sic dicta, quod trajecta vimine quod stic dicimus) connectabantur "; Spelman. A stica consisted of 25 eels, and 10 sticce made a binde ; Glanv. lib. ii. c. 9.' This is a note by Sir F. Madden, reprinted in my edition of Havelok the Dane, s. v. Stac, in the Glossarial Index, p. 144. 101. English Etymology in 1875. (From a note upon 'Fangled' in N. and Q. 5 S. iii. 310.) . . . This brings me to the great principle to which I wish to draw attention, viz., that the publications of the Early English Text Society, the investigations of Mr. Ellis, the strictly scientific methods pursued at the present day in Greek and Latin etymology, and other similar aids, are fast tending to revolutionize, none too soon, the whole study of English etymology. I have great hope that we pioneers have done real good ; and that the next generation of philo- logists, applying to English the same strictly scientific methods as have already been applied to Latin and Greek, G 2 84 THE SUFFIX -STER IN ENGLISH. will make a clean sweep of the thousand and one ludicrous guesses with which even the best of our dictionaries are still encumbered, and will unhesitatingly reject, as useless lumber, all that is of the nature of guess-work, all that cannot be supported by ample, or, at any rate, by sufficient evidence. If in this process some of my work is swept away with the rest, I can fully forgive, by anticipation, those who weigh it and find it wanting. . . . Etymology is, in fact, not a personal matter at all ; if an etymology rests merely on the basis that so-and-so suggested it, it is rotten and useless ; and I entirely repudiate the notion, so extremely common even in our best periodicals, that etymology is a mere system of bad puns, and that anything may be ' derived ' from anything else, provided there is some ' apparent ' out- ward likeness between the forms compared. 102. The suffix -ster in English. I (5 S. hi. 371 ; 1875). See, on this suffix, Marsh's Lectures on the English Language, ed. Smith, 1862, pp. 207, 208, and the note at p. 217 ; Matzner's Eng. Gram. i. 434; Loth's Eng. Gram. p. 309 ; Koch's Eng. Gram. iii. 47 ; and Morris's Historical Outlines of English Accidence, p. 89. The accounts given by Marsh and Koch are much more satisfactory, in my opinion, than that given by Dr. Brewer. The assertion that ' -ster is not a female suffix at all, and never was ' (?), argues a very slight acquaintance with our older literature. Granting that it was not exclusively so, and that, in the fourteenth century, the distinction between -er and -ster was not always well preserved, there are quite enough examples extant to show that the termination was very often used as a feminine suffix, and that, too, by evident design. Several examples will be found at the references cited above, to which I add the following. Lye and Manning's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary gives the following examples : — ' Fithclere, fidicen,' as distinguished from iJUhelstr*i fidicina'; THE SUFFIX -STER IN ENGLISH. 85 hearpere, a harper, as distinguished from hearpcstre, a female harper ; //oppere, a dancer ; hoppestre, a female dancer ; sangere, a singer ; aangestre, a female singer ; scamcstre, a sempster ; txppere, a male tapster ; fa'ppcstre, a female tapster ; zvcbba, a male weaver ; wcbbestrc, a female weaver. To some of these words references are given, and they may be found in ^Elfric's Glossary, printed at the end of Somner's A.-S. Dictionary, and in another copy of the same, to be found in the Bodley MS. Junius 77 ; see also the MSS. of ^Elfric's Glossary described by Wanley. Bosworth's Diction- ary also gives cennestre, genitrix ; crencestre, a female weaver ; luristre, a female teacher ; myltestre, meretrix (which occurs in the A.-S. version of Lev. xix. 29; Gen. xxxviii. 15; and Matt. xxi. 31). Many more examples will be found in the books cited above. But in order to establish the case, one example is quite sufficient. We find, then, in the A.-S. version of the Gospels that the word witega occurs repeatedly in the sense of prophet. Thus, in St. Mark i. 2, we have, ' Swa awriten is on J?ses witegan bee isaiam,' — as it is written in the book of the prophet Isaiah. But when it is intended to express the idea of prophetess instead of prophet, the feminine termination is duly added, as in St. Luke ii. 36, ' And Anna waes 7vitegystre, fanueles dohtor,' — and Anna was a pro- phetess, the daughter of Phanuel. 103. The suffix -ster in English. II (5 S.iii. 449; 1875). It is quite true, at the same time, though it has long been notorious, that the termination -ster in a great many in- stances lost its feminine force, and, in some instances, never had that force at all. This was simply due to course of time, and probably in some measure to confusion with the Old French ending -stre, as seen in Chaucer's idolastre or ydolastre, in the sense of idolater. But we have had something like this before ; see N. and Q. 1 S. vi. 409, 86 A FEAT IN SWIMMING. 568 ; 3 S. iv. 350 ; especially the article at the first of these references. Each word has its separate history, and should be kept apart from the rest ; the chronology is, in each case, of the highest importance. There are some words, such as bakester, which appear in Anglo-Saxon, cf. A. S. bcecestre ; there are others, such as pufister, which are of modern formation ; and there are others again, such as lobster, holster, which are not properly personal substantives at all. To show how necessary it is to take words separately, I will instance lobster. It is clear that A. S. loppe, a flea, North- Eng. lop, meant a leaper ; and it is probable that the A. S. loppestre was made to match it, with the same signification of leaper, but with no very definite idea of gender, merely by way of giving the word a sort of sense. The alternative spelling lopust (for loppestre) makes it highly probable that the word was merely a vulgar adaptation of the Lat. locus ta or locus ta marina, as suggested in Mahn's Webster, in Wedgwood, and in E. Miiller. Cf. crayfish, from ecrevisse. 104. A Feat in Swimming (5 S. iv. 186 ; 1875). In connexion with Captain Webb's achievement, recent as it is, it is well worthy of notice that the notion of swim- ming for a very protracted time is to be found, with full particulars, in the very oldest piece of writing which exists in the English language ; proving, as I think, that our English race has always been familiar with the exercise. In the poem of Beowulf is a long and full account of the swimming match between Beowulf and Breca. I fear the description is exaggerated, as it tells us that these two athletes swam side by side for five days, whilst ' the ocean boiled with waves, with winter's fury ' ; or whilst, in the words of the original, ' geofon ythum weol, wintres wylme.' At the end of the five days, says Beowulf, ' unc flod todraf,' the flood drave us two asunder ; after which he met with COMETS. 87 some thrilling adventures, attacking and killing several sea-monsters with his sword, and (amongst the rest) slaying ' niceras nigene,' i. e. nine nickers, or water-demons ; and finally he landed on the shores of Finland. The whole account in Thorpe's edition of Beowulf, pp. 35-40, is worth referring to. And I think we may congratulate our gallant countryman that, though he was unfortunately stung by a jelly-fish, he was not under the necessity of slaying nine nickers, nor of remaining, as Beowulf is said to have done, for more than seven days in the water. 105. Comets (5 S. iv. 146 ; 1875). Milton has — , T .. . , ,, 'Like a comet burn a That fires the length of Ophiuchus huge In the Arctic sky, and from his horrid hair Shakes pestilence and war.' — P. L. ii. 708. In Batman uppon Bartholome, lib. viii. c. 32, we read that — ' Cometa is a starre beclipped with burning gleames, as Beda doth say, and is sodeinly bred, and betokeneth changing of kings, and is a token of pestilence, or of ivar, or of winds, or of great heate . . . and they spread their beames toward the North, and never towards the West.' With the phrase, ' changing of kings,' cf. Paradise Lost, i. jy h oy i And with fear of change Perplexes monarchs.' 106. * Tetter' (5 S. iv. 126 ; 1875). The word is in Hamlet, i. 5. The German form Zitter- mal shows that tetter is a Low German (English or Dutch) form of the same word. Cf. A. S. teter. 1 Impetigo, Zerua and Zarua, called of the Greekes Lichen, of some Lichena. There are two kinds, the viscous scab and watrie is called a Ringworme, the other is a drye Tettar: this is infectious, and is soone taken by lyeing in an vncleane bedde. The drye scabbe 88 ' SPIT WHITE. ' commeth of melancholy, the wet commeth of putrified fleame and corrupt bloud.' — Batman nppon Bartholomc, Addition to lib. vii. c. 49. 107. 'Spit white' (5 S. iv. 106 ; 1875.) Falstaff says, ' If it be a hot day, and I brandish anything but a bottle, I would I might never spit white again.' This means, of course, ' be in perfect health again.' See the Addition to lib. vii. c. 29 of Batman uppon Bartho/ome (ed. 1582, fol. 97), where all kinds of spittle are described with reference to health : — ■' If the spettle be white viscus, the sickenesse commeth of fleame ; if black ... of melan- choly . . . The whitte [sic] spettle not knottie, signifieth health? [Dr. Schmidt, in his admirable Shakespeare Lexicon, observes — ' Nares adduces some passages from contem- porary writers to prove that to spit white was thought to be the consequence of intemperance in drinking ; but he has forgotten to ascertain the colour of other people's spittle.' The remark is just ; but our ancestors did not go by facts, but by opinions ; and the above extract shows that there was a notion that people could spit ' black.' I leave my note as I wrote it, though it excited some derision ; I know not why.] 108. Cicero speaking Greek (5 S. iv. 266 ; 1875). ' Cassius. Did Cicero say anything ? Casca. Ay, he spoke Greek.' _ , . .. Julius Caesar, i. 2. 281. Compare the following : — 'Wherefore when he [Cicero] came to Rome, at the first he pro- ceeded very warily and discreetly, and did vnwillingly seeke for any Office, and when he did, he was not greatly esteemed : for they commonly called him the Grecian and scholer, which are two words which the Artificers (and such base Mechanicall people at Rome) have euer readie at their tongues' end.' — North's Plutarch, 'Life of Cicero,' ed. 1612, p. 861 ; see the whole passage. [This note afterwards appeared in Mr. W. Aldis Wright's TREENWARE. 89 edition of Julius Caesar, published in 1878. But of course Mr. Wright observed the coincidence for himself.] 109. Treenware (5 S. iv. 331 ; 1875). Without doubt the explanation of tree?iware by ' earthen vessels ' is, at least etymologically, incorrect. Of course, it ought to mean ' wooden vessels.' But the explanation occurs in both the early editions of Ray's Collection, and it hardly seemed to me to be worth a note. It is possible, after all, that Ray noted correctly the use of the word as current in his own day, for nothing is more common than a change of meaning in English words in course of time. Names are often retained long after the things which they denote have suffered alteration. Thus, a turee?i (formerly terrene) means a vessel made of earth ; but for all that, people do not hesitate to talk of a ' silver soup-tureen,' for the simple reason that the vessels which were once made of earth are now often made of silver. Similarly, the name of treeiiware may very well have been continued in use long after the vessels themselves had ceased to be invariably of wood. I add a good example of tre in the old sense of wood. In Trevisa's Description of Britain {Specimens of English, ed. Morris and Skeat, p. 239) we have a description of a petrifying well that turned wooden things into stone : — ' Thar ys also a pond that turneth tre into yre [iron], and [if] hyt be ther-ynne al a yer [year] ; and so tren [pieces of wood] buth yschape [are made] into whestones ' [ivhet- s tones]. 110. 'Nuncheon.' I (5 S. iv. 366 ; 1875). The etymology of this word is a puzzle of long standing *. The guess-work writers have long ago made the desperate 1 It had been solved, previously and independently, by Mr. Walford ; see the next article. 90 ' NUNCHEON.' attempt to connect it with noon-shun, because (note the 'because,' that marks the work of your guesser) labourers shun the heat of noon when they eat their nuncheon. But of course it is obvious that the labourer does not shun the noon itself, but only the heat of it. When the etymology of a word is unknown, there is but one thing to do, viz. to wait in patience till the light comes. In this case the first ray of light came when Mr. Riley printed his valuable and well-edited Memorials of London. We there find, at p. 265 : ' These donations for drink to workmen are called in Letter-Book G, fol. iv. (27 Edw. III\ nonechenche, probably "noon's quench," whence the later nuncheon or luncheon.' This half solves the difficulty, as it gives the old form of the word ; but the suggestion of quench is rather too much of a wrench. The reader of Middle English may here recognize the word sche7iche, meaning a drink ; and the verb schetiche?i (A. S. scencan^, to pour out drink. Cf. G. schenk, a cup-bearer, in English a skinker ; and schenken, to skink, or pour out liquor. Thus nonechejiche simply means the noon-drink, with the implied sense of its being poured out and carried round in fixed quantities, in accordance with the skinker's known duties. Thus nuncheon is merely noon-ski?ik, with the usual palatalisation of the k to ch which so abounds in English. When nuncheon lost all meaning, popular etymology, always at work to corrupt, desperately confused it with the lump of bread instead of the cup of drink, thus producing the absurd lu?icheon, which has so baffled all inquirers. [Similarly, the A. S. non-mete, M. E. nbnmete, ?ionmet, i. e. noon-meat, is now the Southern prov. E. nammet, nummet, a luncheon. See nuncheon and hmcheon in my Etym. Diet., larger edition.] 'NUNCHEOK.' 91 111. ' Nuncheon.' II (5 S. iv. 398 ; 1875). It is evident, from Mr. Skeat's note, that he was not aware that the same etymology of the word nuncheon had been given by me, about twenty-five years ago, in the Proceedings of the Bury and Suffolk Archaeological Institute. I have not the volume by me, but I believe it was in vol. i. p. 180. It will there be seen to be probable that the word noonscench came to mean something to eat, as well as some- thing to drink, between meals. W. S. Walford, F.S.A. 112. 'Nuncheon.' III (5 S. iv. 434; 1875). I am glad to know that Mr. Walford had already solved this word, and cheerfully accord to him whatever merit attaches to the first enunciation of the truth concerning it. I had noted it some years ago, independently, but omitted to publish the result. Mr. K. has made a curious mistake ; for his parallel does not hold. He thinks that chenche is put for quench, because we find church put for kirk. With a slight amendment I accept his reasoning, and admit that I do not see how chenche can come out of quench, because I am quite sure that church is not a corruption of quirk. Chenche is an instance of that common substitution of ch for sh or sch with which all readers of Early English manuscripts must be familiar. There was not only the term nonechenche for noon-drink, but none-mete for noon-meat, or noon-eating. See Halliwell's Dictionary. The Spanish words cited by Mr. Peacock are hardly to the point. Mere resemblances prove little, and it is far more likely that luncheon was an extension of the provincial-English lunch, meaning a lump, than that our labourers took to talking Spanish. The Spanish word loncha, meaning a slice of meat, not 92 'AWN'D,' 'AUND.' a lump of it, was suggested by Minshew, and rejected by Richardson ; and rightly, in my opinion. 113. 'Awn'd,' ' Aund' (5 S. iv. 384; 1875). In Halliwell's excellent Dictionary is the following entry : — ' Awn'd, ordained; Yorksh. Kennett (MS. Lansd. 1033) gives the example — I am awn'd to ill luck, i. e. it is my peculiar destiny or fortune.' In Ray's Glossary of North Country Words is the entry : 'An/id, ordained; forsan per contractionem. I am awid to this luck ; *. e. ordained.' In reprinting Ray's collection for the English Dialect Society I added the note, by way of protest against such a guess, that ' aund being short for ordained is out of the question.' I now ' make a note ' that the true etymology has appeared. Mr. Atkinson, in his Cleveland Glossary, has the right idea. He connects the word with the ' O. N. audidj meaning thereby the Icelandic audit. But if any one who consults Cleasby and Vigfusson's Icelandic Dictionary will (after finding audit on p. 31) just turn over the leaf and examine the word audna — to be ordained by fate — he will find there all that he wants. He will also find that the verb audita is a derivative of the substantive audr, fate, of which the Old Swedish form was ode. This is the very result which Mr. Atkinson suspected. I have merely supplied the missing link in the chain of his evidence. [This provincial word is not in the New Eng. Diet.] 114. <Vant'(5 S. iv. 455 ; 1S75). With respect to the suggestion that vant may have been 'a stupid churchwarden's spelling o( font,' I would suggest that this peculiar spelling might have been due to the fact of the churchwarden's being familiar with the dialect of his county. Perhaps he may even have been familiar with GLOVE. 93 English literature. The spelling is not new. but may be found in Robert of Gloucester, who wrote in 1298. In Hearne's edition of that poet we find (under the word 1 vonge ' in the Glossary) this note : ' To vang, in some parts of England, is even now used for "to answer at the font as godfather," particularly in Somersetshire, where Mr. Somner, in his Dictionary, observes that the country people have this expression " he vanged to me at the vant," i. e. " in baptisterio pro me suscepit." ' It is instructive to find that, in some cases, this substitution of v for /has been accepted as standard English. The word fitches (A. V. Isa. xxviii. 25 ; Ezek. iv. 9) has been supplanted by the South- country form vetches. The word fat (Joel ii. 24; iii. 13), with its derivative winefat (Isa. lxiii. 2; Mark xii. 1), has been ousted by the Kentish [or Dutch] form vat, with the derivative winevat, probably owing to the influence of the hop interest. We all use vixen (for fixeti) as the feminine of fox. The word fane (A. S. find) is now spelt vane. Milton turned fans into vans {P. L. ii. 927). Shakespeare wrote vade for fade (Sonnet 54). But I do not allow that these poets were ' stupid.' 115. Glove (5 S. iv. 409 ; 1875). The notion that glove is of Gaelic origin is easily shown to be out of the question. Dr. Mackay knows, as well as I do, that there is no such word in Gaelic as ceillamh with the sense of glove ; or if there is, perhaps he will kindly give us the reference to the passage in which he has foimd it. The Gaelic for glove is la?nhainn, from lamh, a hand. There is no mystery about the Gaelic words ceill or lamh. The first is cognate with the Latin celare, A. S. helan, and, in the form hele, is still one of the commonest of our dialectal words. If we had wished to express the idea in English, we could have said hele-hand, or helland, without taking the slightest trouble to search for the Gaelic equivalent. The 94 GLOVE. derivation of glove from the Icelandic glbfi is, again, just one of those mistakes which are made by those to whom chronology is of no importance ; for it just so happens that the borrowing has been in the other direction, and that the Icelandic glbfi was borrowed from England. I know of nothing so useless as the attempt that is made by so many to ' derive ' English words from some other language. Are there, I would ask, no native words ? Must wre never rest till we have chased every word to death, and are we to write ourselves down as a nation whose language has not a single native word in it ? Nothing can be clearer than that glove is a word of our own. We can boast the oldest monument in all Teutonic literature (the Mceso-Gothic frag- ments being excepted), viz. the poem of Beowulf. And in this poem we find the word 'glof'; see Thorpe's edition, p. 140, 1. 4177. How could the word glof have been known in Anglo-Saxon, if, as Dr. Mackay pretends, it was a corrup- tion of a compound Gaelic word, of which I can find no proof that it existed, till it pleased our Gaelic friend to coin it ? I think writers would do well to let English etymology alone unless they can take pains with their chronology, and can condescend to give quotations in place of inventions. It is quite a mistake to suppose that Gaelic is the only language that lends itself to a system of verbal quibbles. When once we begin to coin etymologies, any language will serve the turn. For every Gaelic etymology that Dr. Mackay can invent, I can easily invent one in some other tongue that will look quite as well. Take, for instance, glove, and try a Sanskrit dictionary. I do this, and find at once that kalapa means a quiver or case ; see the Mahdbhdrata, 3, 1 1454. Suppose it pleased me to say that glove is an obvious corruption of kalapa} The change from one form to the other is not very violent, and the change in meaning is conceivable. Or again, if we try Greek, we at once light upon KaX.v7TTeiv, to hide or cover. Or again, the Icelandic 'GHAUTS.' 95 lofi, the palm, comes as near to glove as the Gaelic lamh does. But I am very strongly of opinion that this sort of guessing is (or ought to be) out of date, and that it is high time for those who propose ' derivations ' to propose them in a credible form. 116. 'Ghauts.' I (5 S. iv. 456; 1875). Beyond all question, the Whitby gaut is a mere variation of gote, a drain. Cf. Icel. gjbta, Dan. gyde, a narrow lane, and see * gote or water-schetelys, goote or water-schedyllys, aquagium, sinoglocitorium] in Prompt. Parv. Another form of the word is gut, a channel ; every Cambridge rowing man knows whereabouts on the Cam to find ' The Gut.' The root is the A. S.geotan, to pour, cognate with the Greek \Uur. Much more might be added, but perhaps it will suffice to learn the lesson that ghaut, as a mis-spelling of gaut, furnishes an additional instance of the absurdity whereby gost has been turned into ghost, and gastly and agast into ghastly and aghast. It is odd that g should be unable to run alone in all cases. [The Whitby Glossary (E. D. S.) gives ' Gauts or Gotes ; see Gooatsl Also ' Gooats or Gotes, openings or slopes from the streets to the water-side. Spelt goutes in Camden.'] 117. ' Ghauts.' II (5 S. v. 114; 1876). C. S. G. confidently affirms that ghaut cannot be another form of gote or gut, because the latter form always means a canal or drain for water, and has no other signification. I commend to his consideration the following instance, which I found in almost the first book I consulted, viz. Richardson's Dictionary : — ' You pass a narrow gut between two stone terrasses, that rose above your head, and which were crowned by a line of pyramidal yews.' — Walpole, ' On Gardening.' 96 WRITER'S ERRORS. Will C. S. G. seriously contend that gut in this passage means a channel for water ? When we find in Icelandic the word gjota, a narrow lane, taking the same form as gjota, to pour ; when we find in Danish gyde, a narrow lane, again taking the same form as gyde, to pour, what is the use of going to India 1 for an explanation that can be had from Denmark ? I suppose that the spelling ghaut (of course it should be gaut) originated with some one else who had learnt a little geography at school, and chose to spell it so. It looks as if it originated with some one ignorant of Anglo-Saxon, Ice- landic, and Danish. What is the authority for it ? 118. Writer's Errors (5 S. v. 206 ; 1876). As the phrase ' clerical errors ' has by some been deemed ambiguous, I would point out that it can be avoided by saying ' errors of the scribe,' or ' errors of the writer,' or simply ' writer's errors.' To say that such or such a mistake was due to ' a writer's error,' or to an ' error in writing,' is intelligible enough, and is distinct from an author's error on the one hand, and from a printer's error, or error of the press, on the other. I have seen ' scribal error ' used, but the adjective sounds, to me, rather clumsy. I was reminded of this by having just discovered one of the oddest writer's errors I ever remember to have seen. I had occasion to quote the text, from 1 Tim. vi. 10, that ' the love of money is the root of all evil 2,' and just as I was writing it out, some noise called off my attention. On looking again at the MS. I found, to my great surprise, that, instead of ' money,' I had inadvertently written ' woman.' I am glad the quotation did not go to press in that remarkable form. 1 I. e. the Ghauts, from the Hindustani ghat. 2 In my note on the Title of the Pardoneres Tale. ALLITERATIVE POETRY. 97 119. Alliterative Poetry (5 S. v. 224 ; 1876). Many of your readers who are aware that much of our early poetry is alliterative may be at a loss where to find an easy example of the force and swing of it. I have ventured to throw together the following lines by way of specimen, in imitation rather of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries than of the earlier examples. All that the reader need observe is that there are commonly three emphatic syllables in a line which begin with the same letter. To these syllables a special stress may be given, and the result is a metre of a rough but forcible character, by no means unsuited to the genius of the language. If the stress falls upon initial vowels, the vowels need not be the same ; and, in fact, are most often different. It will be understood that the subject is chosen in accordance with the national character of the metre. An Englishman's Song. A curse on the croakers who cowardly prattle How England is aging to abject abasement, No longer a leader, no law to the nations ! Though foul birds defile thus the nest that defends them, The hearts of our heroes beat high in their yearning, Where dangers are densest, to dash to the onset ! Sweet Peace let us prize, with her pleasures and treasures, Nor ween to wage wars of a wanton aggression ; Ever firm for defence, not defiant in folly, Yet weighing with wisdom the words that we utter, As conscious, though calm, that our counsels are heeded. We rest, but we rust not : once roused into action, The life of the old land will leap up in earnest, With prayers to the Prime Source of progress in goodness. With trust in the triumph of truth, though it tarry, And woe to the workers of wicked devices ! The hate of all harm that is hostile to justice Still steels us to sternness and steady endeavour. Unfolding the flag that is feared by oppressors. We dare to the death, never daunted by evil, Still foremost in fighting where Freedom leads onward! H 98 CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH. 120. Chronology of English (5 S. v. 302 ; 1876.) With the editor's permission, I propose to contribute, occasionally, some remarks on the chronology of English, not by way of proposing anything new, but of tabulating what is old, in a more accessible form than heretofore. Our etymology is, perhaps, in want rather of a Kepler than Newton. One of the most important matters is the date of the introduction of French words. Dr. Morris has given us a most important list of words introduced into English from French before a.d. 1300, at p. 337 of his Historical Outlines of English Accidence, but I find it wants to be recast into an alphabetical form before it can be easily used. I now attempt a first instalment of such work, in a form that seems to me more convenient. List I. — Erench words in the Saxon Chronicle, with their dates (I have verified both spellings and dates, and added the modern forms) : Cuntesse (countess), 1 140. Curt (acourt), 1 154. Dubbade (dubbed as a knight), 1086. Emperice (empress), 1140. Justise (justice), 1137. Miracles, 1137. Pais (peace), 1135. Prisun (prison^ 1137. Priuiligies (privileges), 1137. Processiun, 1154. Rentes (rents of lands), 1 137. Standard, n 38. Tresor (treasure), 1137. Tur (^tower), 1140. I am surprised to find that Dr. Morris has omitted the word charity. This occurs in the true Old French form, viz. carited, in 1137. It ought decidedly to be included in the list; so ought castel1 (castle\ 1053, 1069, 1075; and serfs (service), 1070. Repeated in the shortest form, we here have authority for these words : — castle, charity, countess, court, dub, empress, justice, miracle, peace, prison, privilege, procession, rent, service, standard, treasure, tower. 1 Castel is of French origin, according to Kiuge, though it occurs in the A. S. Gospels. CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH. 99 List II. — French words in Old E?iglish Homilies, ed. Morris, first series. This volume contains several pieces, and the lists of French words in each are given separately by Dr. Morris. For convenience, I throw all into one list, with symbols to give the references, which are to the pages of the volume. The pieces are : — ' Lambeth Homilies," before 1200, denoted by /. h. ; 'An Orison of our Lord,' about 12 20, o./d.; 'An Orison of our Lady,' o.ly.; 'A Lofsong (Hymn of Praise) of our Lady,' /. ly. ; 'A Lofsong of our Lord,' /. Id. ; ' Soul's Ward,' s.w. ; ' Wooing of our Lord,' w. /. The words are these, omitting some which I shall discuss afterwards. I have verified the spellings, added the meanings, and, in one or two places, corrected the references : — Abandun (in subjection), o. Id., 189. Asottie (to besot), 1. h., 17. Beastes (beast's^, w. 1., 277. Blanchet (fine wheaten flour), 1. h., 53. Buffet (both as vb. and sb. ), w. 1., 281. Buffetunge ^buffeting), 1. ly., 207. Cachepol (catchpoll), 1. h., 97. Calenges (2 p. s. challengest), w. 1., 275. Chaumbre (chamber), w. 1., 285. 1-cheret (pp. lit. cheered, i.e. having the appearance), s. w\. 257. Cherite (charity), o. ly., 199; 1. h., 69. Cherubine (cherubim;, o. ly., 191. Ciclatune (a rich stuff, mentioned in Chaucer's Sir Thopas. o. ly., 193. Clerk, 1. h., 133. Crune (crown, sb.), w. 1., 281. Cruneth (crowns), Crunede (crowned, pt. t.), s. w., 247 ; 1. h.. 129. Crununge (crowning), 1. ly., 207. Cunestable (constable), s. w., 247. Cunfessurs (confessors), s. w., 261. Cunfort (comfort), o. Id., 185. Cunig (coney, rabbit; cf. O. F. court), 1. h., 181. Debonairte, w. 1., 269, 275; Deboneirschipe, w. 1., 275. Delit (delight, sb.), o. Id., 187. H 2 IOO CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH. Derennedes (2 p. didst fight out ; Chaucer's dereyne or darrayne^. w. I., 285). Dol (sorrow), w. 1., 285. Druri xlove-token), w. 1., 271. Druth (love), w. 1., 269. Eise (ease\ w. 1., 287. Erites (heretics), 1. h., 143. Ermine, 1. h., 181. Ewangeliste, 1. h., 81 ; 1. Id., 209. Fals (false", o. Id., 185. Flum (river, Lat. /lumen), 1. h., 141. Font (in fon-stan for fontstan, i. e. font-stone"1, 1. h., 73. Fou (yellow, Fr. fauve), 1. h., 181. Fructe v fruit), 1. h., 7. Gentile (gentle), Gentiller, Gentileste, w. 1., 273. Grace, 1. ly., 207 ; s. w., 255 ; w. 1., 275. Hardi (bold, hardy), w. 1., 271. Jugulere (juggler), 1. h., 29. Keiser (emperor), pi. Keiseres, w. 1., 271 ; s. w., 261. Krune (crown, sb.), o. ly., 193 ; see Crune. I-kruned (crowned), o. ly., 193. Large (liberaF, w. 1., 271 ; 1. h., 143. Largesce (liberality), w. 1., 269. Lechurs (lechers', 1. h., 53. Lettres (letters), w. 1., 283. Liureisun (delivery, award), 1. h., 85. Mealies ;malls, mallets), s. w., 253. Manere (manner), 1. h., 51. Medicine, o. Id., 187 [not 185]. Meister (master), 1. h. 41 ; Meistre, s. w., 247; Meoster, s. w., 257. Meistreth (mastereth), s. w., 247. Meosure (measure), s. w., 247 ; Mesure, 255. Merci, 1. h., 43; 1. Id., 209. Merciable (merciful). 1. Id., 211. Mesaise (misease), w. 1., 279. Noble, w. 1., 273. Noblesce (nobility), w. 1., 269. Obedience, 1. Id., 213. Offrien (to offer), 1. h., 87; I-offred (offered), 87. Orison, see Ureisun. Paie (v. to pay, satisfy), w. 1., 285. Palefrai (palfrey), 1. h., 5. Paradise, o. ly., 191, 193 ; Parais, 1. h., 61. *®/4ft \P CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH. IOI Passiun, 1 h., 119 ; 1. ly., 205 ; w. 1., 275. Piler (pillar), w. 1.. 281. Pouerte (poverty), 1. h., 143. Poure (poor), w. 1., 277 ; Pourere (poorer), 277. Praie (sb. prey\ w. 1., 273. Prei (pray thou), w. 1., 287. Preoouin to prove), s. w., 249. Prince, w. 1., 281. Pris price, praise), 1. ly., 205. Prisun (prisoner, not prison), w. 1., 273. Priuete 'privity \ o. Id., 185. Processiun, 1. h., 5 [not 3]. Prophete, 1. h., 5. Prud (proud), 1. h., 5; pi. prude, 1. h., 143; prude (pride), Lly., 205. Psalm, Psalter ; see Salm, Saltere. Ribauz (ribalds\ w. 1., 279. Riche, 1. h., 53 ; Richere, \v. 1.. 271. Robbedes isdidst rob), w. 1., 273 ; I-robbet (pp. robbed), s. \\\. 247. Rubbere (robber), 1. h., 29 jwt 19 ] ; Rupere. 1. h.. 29. Sabeline (sable, fur\ 1. h., 181. Sacrement, 1. ly., 207 ; pi. Sacremens, 1. h., 5. Sacreth (consecrates), 1. ly., 207; I-sacred, 1. Id. 209. Salm (psalm), 1. h.. 73. Saltere (psalter), 1. h., 7 [not 5] ; Sauter, 1. h., 155; Sawter. 1. Id.. 215. Salue (salvation), o. Id., 187. Salui (to save\ o. Id.. 189; Unsauuet (unsaved), o. Id., 187; Sauuin (^to save\ 187. Schurges (scourges), w. 1., 283. Seinte ^saint), 1. h., 131. Semblant (semblance), s. w., 247. Seraphine (seraphs\ o. ly., 191. Sermonen (vb. to discourse), 1. h.. 81. Seruise (service), o. ly., 193. Seruunge (serving), 1. Id., 215; Of-seruunge (deserving\ 215; Un-ofserued ^undeserved), 215. Sottes (sots', 1. h.. 29. Spuse (spouse), w. 1., 277 : Spus-had matrimony", 1. h., 143. Treitur (traitor), \v. 1., 279. Tresor (treasure), s. w., 247; Tresur, 247. Tresun (treason"", \v. 1 , 279. Trones (thrones , s. \v., 261. 102 CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH. Turnen (to turn). 1. Id., 213 ; A-turnet, s. w., 257. Ureisun (orison), o. Id., 183 ; Ureisuns, 1. h., 51. Warant (sb. warrant, guard), 1. Id., 211. This list does not include the following, which seem to me to be mistaken or uncertain. Carpe (to speak), w. 1., 287 ; possibly from Lat. carpere, but proof of it in French is wanting; there is an Icelandic karpa, to boast, brag. . . Elmesse (alms), clearly A. S. ceimesse, introduced long before this, and found in the A. S. version of the Gospels. Messe (mass) is A. S. mcesse ; Munt (mount) is A. S. munt, both used long ere this. Munek, Munuch (monk), A. S. munuc, direct from moiiachus. Ocquer?ie (a squirrel), 1. h., 181 ; which is A. S. acivern. Strete, which goes back to the time of the Romans in England. . . On the other hand, I would insert chatels (chattels, wealth), w. 1., 271. I repeat the list, partly modernized, marking by italics the words in the Chro?iicle, and by a dagger those that are obsolete : — Abandon, assot, beast, blanchett, buffet, castle, catchpoll, challenge, chamber, charity, chattel, cheer, cherubim, ciclatount, clerk, comfort, coney, confessor, constable, crown, crowning, debonair, delight, darraynet, doolt, drutht, druryt, ease, ermine, evangelist, fals, flumt, font, fout, fruit, gentle, grace, hardy, juggler, keisert, large, largesse, lecher, letter, livreisont, mall (mallet), manner, master, measure, medicine, mercy, merciablet, miseasef, noble, noblesset, obedience, offer, orison, palfrey, paradise, passion, pay, pillar, poor, poverty, pray, prey, price, prince, prison, privity, procession, prophet, proud, prove, psalm, psalter, ribald, rich, rob, sable (fur), sacret, sacrament, saint, save, scourge, semblantt, seraphin, sermon, serve, service, sot, spouse, throne, traitor, treason, treasure, turn, warrant. Lists like these, I venture to think, give us a surer footing in attempting to make our way amidst the difficulties that attend English etymology. 'AS DRUNK AS MICE.' 1 03 121. ■ As drunk as mice • (5 S. v. 314 ; 1876). The explanation is very simple. A mouse is a small animal, and it takes very little to make him extremely drunk. The phrase is familiar to readers of Chaucer. See his K?iightes Tale, 1. 402 ; and my note on the same. 122. ' Buft ' and < Miff' (5 S. vi. 114 ; 1876). Buft is a mere variation of buff, to stammer, which is duly entered in the Herefordshire Glossary. In the east of England we have buffle and boffle with the same meaning. Hence the familiar buffer, a stammerer, or secondarily, a bungler. Lydgate has buffard, with the sense of foolish fellow. All these terms are in Halliwell. Cf. O. Fr. bufer, to puff, and our own puff '. Chaucer uses buf X.o denote the sound of eructation. The verb to buff also means to strike with a rebound, whence a buffet (a blow) and the railway buffer. Miff, a tiff", is common in many counties. It is entered in Halliwell as known to various dialects, but is omitted in the Herefordshire Glossary. 123. ' Mill' in the sense of ' Conflict ' (5 S. vi. 186 ; 1876). The word mill is generally regarded as a slang term, but it was not always so. It is a contraction of the old Lowland Scottish melle or mellay, a conflict, fight, battle, which was merely borrowed from the Old French meslee, signifying (1) a mixture, (2) a fray. In other words, mill is still in use in the refined form melee. Jamieson gives the verb mell, to intermeddle, to join in battle, showing the shortened form of it. In Barbour's Bruce (vii. 622 in my edition) it is said that Clifford and Vaux came to blows, and that they maid a melle, or in other words, ' had a mill.* The derivation is, accordingly, from the Lat. misculare, which is from miscere. In a fray, the combatants are sometimes considerably 4 mixed up.' 104 ' EDYLLYS BE.' Perhaps I ought to add that, at school, at a time when it was generally believed that all English was derived from Greek and Latin, we were taught to regard mill as a shortened form of the Greek a/xiA\a ; and even to this day there are many whose only notion of etymology is, that any connexion suggested by a mere jingle of sound is superior to all historical investigation. 124. ' Edyllys be ' (5 S. vi. 209 ; 1876). ■ After just ten years, I think I have hit upon a possible, perhaps a probable, solution of this phrase, which seems hitherto to have baffled every one. It occurs in Mr. Furni- wall's Babees Book, p. 22, note 14, where a tract for teaching children courtesy is thus entitled. One title of the tract is The Lytylle Childrenes Lytil Boke, and the other is given by the line, 'Lernythe thys boke that ys called Edyllys be.' My view of the matter is that it means ' these be secrets,' and thus the phrase means no more than ' learn these secrets which will teach you true courtesy.' This idea pervades the whole tract. I proceed to show how it is possible for the word edyllys to mean 'secrets,' though I should be prepared to maintain that the word is not very correctly applied, but only used, in a freak, by a writer who scarcely knew the true sense of a word which, even in the fifteenth century, was obsolescent. Even if my solution be incorrect, it will teach something by the way, and afford some cor- rections for the dictionaries. The A. S. hydels means a hiding-place. It is not very common, perhaps, but regularly derived from liydan, to hide. It occurs in the Rushworth MS. of the Northum- brian Gospels, where the phrase ' speluncam latronum ' (Mark xi. 17) is glossed by 'cofa vel hydels Seafana,' a cove or a hiding-place of thieves. Upon this I would observe as follows : — 1. Mr. Wedgwood, in his long article on cove, ignores ' EDYLLYS BE.' 105 the A. S. cofa, which, however, is cited by Mahn and E. Miiller. . 2. In Lye's Dictionary the reference for cofa is wrongly given as ' Mat. xi. 17.' For ' Mat.' read ' Mk.' 3. In Bosworth's Dictionary the reference is still more wrongly given as 'Mat. xi. 1.' 4. The word hyd-els belongs to the set of substantives with the suffix -els, on which see March's A.-S. Grammar, p. 120. Other examples are: — radels, a riddle; metels, a dream ; byrigels, a sepulchre ; and others, for which see Koch, Englische Grammatih, iii. 44. 5. The ending in s is deceptive ; such words are easily mistaken for plurals, just as eaves is often mistaken for a plural. Yet the plural eveses occurs in Piers the Plow- man, B. 17. 227. 6. Mr. Halliwell, in his Dictionary, has fallen, I think, into the trap. He gives hidel as a singular substantive, though it is quite an improper form, and the sole example which he offers is a sentence saying that ' they went and helde thame in hidils,' i. e., in a hiding-place. See several more examples in Stratmann, s. v. hudels, which is the form which the word takes in the Ancren Rhvle. 7. Hence, naturally enough, as the word became obso- lescent, the false form hidel or hiddel arose, with a false plural hideles or hiddelis. Of this there is an example in Barbour's Bruce (bk. v. 1. 306, of my edition), where Sir James Douglas is said to have lurked ' in hyddilis and in preuate,' that is, in hiding-places and in privacy. Here -is is the usual Lowland Scottish plural ending, used as a false interpretation of the s in the A. S. suffix -els. 8. The word hiddel being once thus manufactured, the sense of it had to be modified. It was then supposed to mean 'a secret.' The proof is in the existence of the adverb hiddil or hidlins, used in the sense of secretly, whilst the men of Perthshire and Fife developed the verb to hiddle, ic6 ' WICKS ' OF THE MOUTH. in the sense of to conceal or keep secret. For these words see Jamieson's Dictionary. 9. I conclude that, hiddil being thus at length falsely formed, and supposed to mean ' a secret,' the word hiddilis would, of course, at times mean ' secrets.' The dropping of the h would give idillis or ydyllys, from which the change to edyllys is easy enough. We have just such changes in the case of the A. S. yrnan, to run, which is spelt irnen, urnen, eornen (all three), in Layamon, and ernen in the Castle of Love, 1. 730, whilst the h appears in the Somerset- shire form to him. 10. If it be granted that edyllys can mean secrets, there is little difficulty in edyllys be being used to mean ' these be secrets.' [I find no reference to edyllys in the New Eng. Dictionary. Cf. hidel-like, secretly, in Genesis and Exodus, 2882 ; and see hudels in Stratmann.] 125. * Wicks' of the Mouth (5 S. vi. 271 ; 1876). I would beg leave to recommend that all who are in search of information concerning provincial English words should consult Halliwell's Dictionary. I have long observed that it is very rarely that words are inquired about which are not to be found there. In the present case, ' Wikes, the corners of the mouth,' is duly inserted therein. The word was noted by Ray more than two hundred years ago. See the reprint of Ray's Collection in the English Dialect Society's publications, p. 74. Thoresby, in 1703, made the note, ' Waivks, the, or corners of the mustachios.' This is also reprinted in the same volume, p. 108. In Bailey's Dictionary, ed. 1735, ^s tne entry, The wikes of the mouth, the corners of the mouth, N. C. ' ; where ' N. C means ' North Country.' Brockett, in the first edition of his North Country Words, FEN: FEND. 107 in 1825, has ' Wiks, wicks, corners; as, the wiks of the mouth. Su.-Goth. wik, angulus.' I find it also in Grose's Glossary, ed. 1790 ; in the Teesdale Glossary, 1849; in Mr. Atkinson's Cleveland Glossary; in the Whitby Glossary, where it is also spelt weaks ; and I suppose it may be found in half a dozen other books, as it is not likely that a glossary of Northern English would omit it. The word is Scandinavian, viz. Icel. vik ; Old Swedish wik, a corner ; Dan. mund-vig, the corner of the mouth. It is closely related to a verb which is represented by the Icel. vikja, to turn, to recede ; cf. G. weichen, Gk. eiKeiv. 126. Fen: Fend (5 S. vi. 412 ; 1876). The exclamation ' fen placings ' is short for ' I fend placings,' i. e. I forbid them. Fend is used for defend in Middle English (see Halliwell) ; and defend in olden times often meant to forbid. In place of fen, some boys say 'fain;' hence the unmeaning expression, 'fain I,' used to signify ' I decline that.' It really stands for ' I forbid you to choose me.' 127. The phrase * He dare not.' I (5 S. vii. 173 ; 1877). I wish that correspondents who are zealous for the purity of English would learn a little about the matter before proceeding to lay down the law. The phrase 'He dare not ' (though, perhaps, going out of fashion) is of course quite right. Dare is one of the verbs which use an old past tense for a present, and ' he dares ' is, grammatically, as bad as ' he mays,'' or ' he cans,' or ' he shalls' This fact is perfectly familiar to any one who has ever seen an old English MS. of any value or age. The appearance of ' he dares ' in a thirteenth-century or even in a fourteenth-century MS. would brand it as a forgery, just as poor Chatterton thought that its was good fifteenth-century English. The phrase ' He dear ' occurs in Beowulf 1. 684, which I do not think 108 THE USE OF 'DARE.' could have been written by ' one of the Kingsleys ' [who was credited with inventing he dare\. 128. The use of * Dare.' II (5 S. vii. 371 ; 187). I think our good friend C. S. need not have repeated his protest, because all readers of English can judge for themselves, and I hope the time is coming when students really will do so, and then questions like the present will cease to be a matter of opinion at all. He now appeals to the facts, as is quite right ; only, unluckily for him, the facts are the other way. It is needless to prove this, for it has been already admitted. His first protest against the use of dare was due to the fact that he supposed it to be modern. He now objects to it because it has been shown to be old. The admitted fact is that it is both. The statement that ' dares, dared, and durst have been used, and used exclusively, by good English writers for the last two or three centuries ' is a mere mistake. Dare has also been used, as we all know (for we have all read the Bible, Job xli. 10, and Shakespeare), as well as the other forms, but not quite so freely, because authors have probably been a little afraid of it1. Before making any wild statements, C. S. should have looked at his Shakespearian grammar, and he would have found ' But this thing dare not,' quoted from The Tempest, iii. 2. 63, with the remark that dare is ' stronger than dares.' Dr. Abbott quotes an excellent example of the indiscri- minate use of dare and dares from Beaumont and Fletcher, Faithful Shepherd, iii. 1 : — ' Here boldly spread thy hands ; no venomed weed Dares blister them, no slimy snail dare creep.' 1 I find it in the first book J open : — ' And scarce an arm dare rise to guard its head.' Byron, Corsair, c. ii. ' And who dare question aught that he decides.' Id., c. i. st. 8. THE USE OF 'DARE.' 1 09 As to the present use of the word, we might learn some- thing from the dialect of our peasantry. Surely no country- man uses 'he dares '; at least, I have never heard it. But I can certify that I have heard, ' He dar'n't do it,' and, ' He dus'n't do it ' (which, like ' I dus'n't do it,' is for ' durst not,' i. e. would not dare, the past tense subjunctive), at least a score of times; and I suppose the experience of others is much the same. If the appeal is to the facts, let us abide by the facts. Now the facts are that the modern usage admits of ' he dare not/ and ' he dares not,' both in the present tense ; and of ' he durst not ' and ' he dared not,' both in the past tense. Only, as is often the case when there are double forms, these are being gradually differentiated, and will some day be used differently. Already ' he dared not ' is beginning to be used more with reference to direct assertions, and ' he durst not ' with respect to hypotheses. See Matzner, Eng. Grammatik, vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 4. If your correspondent really means, as I suspect he does, that dare is going out of fashion, and will, if no longer wanted in indirect clauses, probable become obsolete, then I quite agree with him. But it is a very different way of putting the matter ; and it is well to remember that all ' protests ' are perfectly useless, and are so much effort thrown away. The language will go its own way, and the effect of critical dicta upon it has at all times been ridiculously small, except, perhaps, in a few cases ; of which I can, however, recall none. I hope it will be every day better understood that our plain duty is, before we criticize, to study the phenomena and to investigate the history. The notion that the study of Old English has nothing to do with Modern English is becoming obsolescent, and it will be a good thing when it is obsolete. But let me not be misunderstood to mean that the study of Old English is all-sufficient. I mean nothing less. We must study Old English, Middle English, Modern HO CHAUCER'S PROLOGUE, L. 152; TRETYS. English, and Dialectal English, all with equal care, and range over the whole literature of every date, if we would wish our remarks to be worth reading. I am very sorry if, by the expressions used by C. S., he thinks I have answered him unfairly ; for the study of English can make its own way, and needs not to be supported by any rudeness. I think, if my remarks be read again, it will be seen that the plainness of speech was no more than was fairly suited to the occasion. I do not see on what principle assertions are to be respected, when they are made in direct violation of historical facts. And for myself, I can promise that, when shown to have made an error, I will own it quite as frankly as I point out errors elsewhere. 129. Chaucer's Prologue. 1. 152; Tretys (5 S. vii. 291 ; 1877). The commentators on Chaucer have certainly taken small pains about explaining the reading tretys, which is perfectly right, streyt being but a gloss on it. Surely it is rather rash to pronounce a word in Chaucer to be wrong, tvithout even so much as glancing at Tyrtvhitfs i Glossary ' to see whether it occurs elsewhere ! I do not say that the particular trans- lation of the Roniaunt of the Rose which we possess is Chaucer's version l, but I do say that the word tretys occurs twice in it — 11. 1016, 1216; and that Tyrwhitt gives the references. Here are the passages : — 'As whyt as lily or rose on rys, Her face gentil and tretys.1 1 Her nose was wrought at point devys, For it was gentil and tretys.' Here we have tretys applied to a nose. We see that it is accented on the second syllable ; also, it rimes with rys ' [I now say that Fragment A of the Romaunt (11. 1-1705) really is Chaucer's own ; and both the quotations for tretys here cited occur within it.] SWEET-HEART. Ill (Mid. Eng. for bough, and pronounced as Mod. Eng. rees) ; and again with devys. We also see that nose, properly a dissyllable, was pronounced (occasionally, at least) almost as a monosyllable, the final e being very light; see 1. 123 of the Prologue. The word tretys is really common enough in Old French, which students of Middle English might study to some advantage. Roquefort gives seven spellings of it, and a quotation from the Romati de Gerard de Xevers. And Bartsch, in his Chrestomathie Francaise, has, ' Traitis, doux, joli, bien fait, siiss, niedlich, hiibsch,' giving explana- tions both in French and German, to show that he at least knows the word well. Instances in Bartsch are given at pp. 122, 178, 190 : — ' Plaint et sospir, qui d'araor vienent, Sont molt traitis, pres del coer tienent.' Roman d 'Eneas. ' Membres orent bien fais, vis formes et traitis.' Roman d Alixandre. 1 Clere ot le face, le vis traitis ases.' Huon de Bo deaux. Thus it was specially used as an epithet of the features. I think this may suffice for the present, though of course many more examples of so common a word may easily be found. My experience of the Chaucer MSS. is this, that when the Ellesmere, Hengwrt, and Cambridge MSS. agree, it is fifty to one that they are right. It is not a question of the fiumber of the MSS. that give the reading, but of their value. The Harleian MS., beautifully written as it'is, really exhibits several inferior readings ; and the Lansdowne MS. is a very poor one. 130. Sweet-heart (5 S. ix. in ; 1878). The origin of this phrase is much earlier than O. W. T. supposes. It is due to Chaucer, and to his great influence. In Troilus and Creseide, bk. iii. 1. 988, we have, ' Lo ! herte mine ! ' In the next stanza is ' my dere herte ' ; and, lastly, 112 BUCKLES ON SHOES. in 1. 1 1 73, the phrase, l swete herte myn, Creseide.'1 The talk about its derivation from sivetard'1 is all sheer inven- tion, and we may draw two morals : (i) that Chaucer has been neglected by the authorities ; and (2) that some etymo- logies are too clever to be true. Ingenuity is the sworn foe of true philology. 131. Buckles on Shoes (5 S. ix. 433; 1878). There are numerous examples of buckles on belts or girdles. Thus we have ' the bocle of the gerdle ' (Ayenbite of Inwit, ed. Morris, p. 236). As to buckles on shoes, they were certainly used in the fourteenth century. There is a well-known line in Chaucer, alluding to St. Mark, i. 7, ' Ne were worthy vnbokele his galoche ' (Squieres Tale, C. T. Group F, 555). Wyclif uses the word thwong, i.e. thong, not buckle. 132. ' Sparling' (5 S. x. 392 ; 1878). A sparli?ig or Sperling is a kind of small fish ; some say a smelt. The word occurs in Specimens of English, ed. Morris and Skeat, p. 90, 1. 48. The cognate German form is Spierling • but the Dutch has spiering. The root is uncertain. The G. Sperling, meaning a sparrow, is a different word (see Kluge). A moment's reflection will show that the Fr. eperlan stands for an Old Fr. esperlan, which is merely the Teutonic word in a French dress. To derive the English from the French word is impossible ; the stream runs the other way. 133. Embezzle, its etymology (5 S. x. 461 j 1878). [I wrote a long article on this word, which was only par- tially right. It is a compound from the verb to bezzle, for 1 [Not the only quotation ; sivcte herte occurs in Chaucer very many times.] 2 [No one pretends to have found a quotation for this imaginary form.] EMBEZZLE, ITS ETYMOLOGY. 113 which see the New Eng. Dictionary. But it was frequently regarded (as I endeavoured to show) as being connected with imbecil, which we now pronounce i?nbecile. I subjoin the quotations, which give some idea of the way in which it was formerly used.] Some of trie chief quotations for this word are the following : — 1. ' These wicked wretches, these houndes of hell, As I have told playn here in this sentence, Were not content my dere love thus to quell, But yet they must embesile his presence, As I perceive, by covert violence; They have him conveyed to my displeasure, For here is left but naked sepulture.' Lament 0/ Mary Magdalen. St. 39. In this fifteenth-century poem, often printed in Chaucer's works to fill up the place of his lost poem, entitled Origenes upon the Maudeleyne, Mary laments that the soldiers have embezzled, i. e. taken azvay, the body of her Lord. 2. ' I concele, I embesyll a thynge, I kepe a thing secret. I embesell. I hyde or consoyle [read conseyle], Je cele. I embesyll a thynge, or put it out of the way, Je substrays. He that embesylleth a thyng intendeth to steale it if he can convoye it clenly.' — Palsgrave's French Diet., temp. Hen. VIII. Observe that here to e?nbezzle is ?iot to steal, but to prepare to steal. It means, then, to take away or put aside, with the intention of filching. 3. ' Embler. to steal, filch, lurch, pilfer, nim, purloin, imbezel, convey away.' — Cotgrave's French Diet. 4. Imbeselcd is used as equivalent to 'conveyed out of the waye.' — Brende, Quint us Curtius, fol. 275. 5. ' Imbesselled and conueighed away underhand.' — North's Plutarch, p. 358 (Richardson). 6. ' Without any concealment or imbezling! — Milton, Observations on Peace with the Irish. These examples show the modern sense, nearly • but the following are more curious : — 1 1 14 EMBEZZLE, ITS ETYMOLOGY. 7. 'Of this full well thou art resolude [resolved] before Kyng Tullie gan So tyrannous a monarchic imbecelyng freedome, than, By vertues spray, the basest borne might be the noblest man.' Drant, tr. of Horace, Sat. i. 6, 11. 8-1 1. Imbecelyng is weakening, detracting from ; there is nothing answering to it in the Latin. 8. ' Those wryng and wrest the meaner sorte whose myndes and tongues are free, And so imbecill all theyr strengthe that they are naught to me.' Drant, tr. of Horace, Sat. i. 5. 9. ' This is imbeselynge and diminyshe [diminution] of their power and dominion, many landes and people falling from them.' — Udall, Revelation, c. 16. 10. ' Princes must ... be guardians of pupils and widows, not suffering their persons to be oppressed, or their states imbecilled.' — Bp. Taylor, Holy Living, c. iii. s. 2, subsect. 8. 11. 'It is a sad calamity that the fear of death shall so imbecill man's courage and understanding.' — Bp. Taylor, Holy Dying, c. iii. s. 7, subsect. 1. Hence also to imbezzle means to diminish from one's own substance by squandering it away, just as much as it means to diminish from the store of others by taking things to one- self; this is because the true sense is merely to diminish, without reference to the manner of it. 12. 'What, when thou hast embezeVd all thy store?' Dryden, Persius, Sat. vi. 13. Religion ' will not allow us to embezzle our money in drinking or gaming.' — Sharp, vol. i. ser. 1. PS. to 133 ; added in N. and Q. 5 S. xi. 30. A friend has kindly sent me a good new quotation. He writes : In a letter from Reginald (afterwards Cardinal) Pole to Henry VIII, dated July 7, 1530, he speaks of the consultation of divines at Paris in the king's ' great matter,' and says it was ' achieved ' according to the king's purpose. GORILLA. 115 The adverse party, he adds, use every means to embecyll the whole determination, that it may not take effect. See Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII, ed. Brewer, vol. iv. pt. iii.jp. 2927. Another friend tells me that he has often heard the word imbecile accented imbecile, which is to the purpose. 134. Gorilla (5 S. xi. 205; 1879). It is well known that this word occurs in the Periplus or Circumnavigation of Hanno the Carthaginian. As the book may not be known to some readers, I make a note of the passage. The original treatise, written probably in Punic, is lost, but a Greek translation has come down to us, from which a Latin translation was also made. The treatise is a very short one, and the passage about the gorillas occurs just at the end of it. I quote from an edition printed in 1675, which contains both the Latin and Greek trans- lations : — 1 Erant autem multo plures viris mulieres, corporibus hirsutae, quas interpretes nostri Gorillas vocabant. [Greek text — as 01 6pfxr)ve(s IkciKovv yopiWas]. Nos persequendo virum capere ullum nequivimus : omnes enim per praecipitia, quae facile scandebant, et lapides in nos conjiciebant, evaserunt. Foeminas tamen cepimus tres, quas, cum mordendo et lacerando abducturis reniterentur, occidimus, et pelles eis detractas in Carthaginem retulimus.' I. e. there were many more females than males, with their bodies covered with hair, whom our interpreters called gorillas. We could never take a male by pursuing him ; for they all got away up the precipices, which they easily climbed, whence they threw stones at us. But we caught three females, which, because they struggled with their captors by biting and tearing, we slew ; and having skinned them, we took their skins home to Carthage. In Smith's Dictionary we are told that the Periplus was also edited by Falconer in 1797, with an English translation. 1 2 Tl6 WAPPERED. 135. Wappered (5 S. xi. 264 ; 1879). The form wappened in Shakespeare is an old crux. Without wishing to discuss again what has been already discussed too much, I will merely make a note that I have found either the word itself, or something like it. In Caxton's translation of Reynard the Fox{\\^\), edit. Arber, p. 16, is a description of the sufferings of poor Bruin when beguiled by the fox. All the village came out against him. 1 They were alle fiers and wroth on the bere, grete and smal ; ye. Hughelyn wyth the croked lege, and Ludolf with the brode longe noose [nose] : they were booth wroth. That one had an leden malle. and that other a grete leden wapper ; therwyth they wappred and al for-sryngred hym.' I do not remember seeing the remarkable verb to for- slynger before. As usual, the suffix -er is frequentative, and to wapper means to beat continually, from the verb 7vap or whop, to beat. For-slynger is a similar frequenta- tive of sling, with the intensive prefix for. 136. The word ' Eighteen ' in Chaucer (5 S. xi. 503 ; 1879). A good deal turns upon Chaucer's spelling of the word eighteen, because the dates of the days on which the tales are supposed to be told depend upon the reading in the fifth line of the dialogue prefixed to the Man of Law's Prologue. All this I have explained at much length in my notes upon this line and upon 1. 3, in the Clarendon Press edition of the Prioress's Tale, &c. I have there shown that the abbreviation ' xviij. the ' is to be written at length eightetethe, and the word has four syllables. Similarly, if Chaucer has the word for eighteen, it must be eightete?ie, in four syllables. I have just found the right line ; and here it is, as printed in Tyrwhitt's edition : — THE WORD 'EIGHTEEN' IN CHAUCER. 117 ' Of eighteen yere she was, I gesse, of age.' Cant. Tales, 1. 3223. Of course, the reader will exclaim that the word is mani- festly a mere dissyllable, or the line cannot be scanned. But if the matter be considered carefully, it will be found that it proves exactly the converse. Turn to any old edition, and what do we find ? • Of eightene yere she was of age.' — Ed. 1532. So also in ed. 1561. Both these editions have the line in this form, in spite of the fact that it will not scan. This is very significant. Let us now turn to the splendid six-text edition, and consult the best MSS. Five of these have the line thus : — ' Of xviij. yeer she was of age.' The sixth, the Cambridge MS., has the same reading, but expands ' xviij. ' as eightene, incorrectly. The Harleian