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"~1
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• • "^
STIEBINa TIMES
VOL. I.
THE INNER LIFE OF SYRIA. PALESTINE, AND THE HOLY LAND.
By MRS. RICHARD BURTON.
With Maps, Photographs, and Coloured Plates. 2 vols. Second Edition. Demy 8to. cloth, price 24«.
' Vivid pictmes of the outer as well m the inner life of Syria.'
Pall Mall QAzrrre.
* Her aocoant of harem Ule is one of the I est and most truthful that has yet appeared.' Acadsmt.
'ViTld, derer, and brilliant sketches of Damamms and the Mahom* medan and Christian raoes of Syria.' Edinburgh Rkvibw.
C. KEGAN PAUL & CO., 1 Paternoster Square, London.
STIREINQ: TIMES
OB
RECORDS FROM JERUSALEM CONSULAR CHRONICLES
OF 1853 TO 1866
BY THB LATB
JAMES FINN, M.E.A.S.
KBtBOKR OP TBS SOCltit ABXATIQnB DE PABIS; HXR UAJtgn*B CONSUL FOB JBBUSAUQI
Am) PALBIRTNB FROM 1846 TO 1868; PBBSroBNT OF THB JBBU8AXBM LirBBJLBT
eOCXBTT FBOM 1849 TO 1868; ADTBOR OF 'BTBWATB IB PALBBI1NB'
'BBPBARDDC' *OBPBAB OOLOlTr OF JBWB DT CEDfA*
EDITED AND COMPILED BY HIS WIDOW
WITH A PREFACE BY THE VISCOUNTESS STRANGFORD
Diimx tl *«!>(, DtHt oult. (Oonnoll «t Clermont)
IN TWO VOLUMES VOL. I.
LONDON 0. KEGAN PAUL A Ca, 1 PATEBNGSTEE SQUARE
1878
(The rights of trandaiitm and of reproduction are reserved)
v
I
^
*>
DEDICATION.
With graiefvl heart we lay our tribtUe down
Before the feet of those whose patient zeal
In far-off lands still soiight their oou/ntrf/'s weal,
No moHial fwme they craved, nor hhod-stairhed crown.
On field, or breach, or deck, with corpses strown.
Guardicms of right, and deaf to no appeal
From helpless poor, they made each tyrant feel
That quiet courage fears no mortal frown.
But some we mourn of those true hearts a/nd brave.
Who waged with wrong the stem vmsqual fight :
Wearied and worn, amid the strife they fell.
And sank to early rest. They sought the right —
Then lay we reverently upon their grane
Records of trvlh—fcr crown of Immortdle.
E. A* F.
PEEFACE.
To THB PUBLISHEBS.
I would gladly have complied more fully with the request to write a Preface to Mr. Finn's valuable book, had I been able to study it carefully ; but, as you are aware, the proof-sheets of the work failed to reach me, shut up as I was for so many weeks in Sofia ; and since it arrived here, I have been totally unable to give it the attention it justly claims, for, as you will easily beheve, my work here is very hard and absorbing. Any attempt at an exhaustive Preface, therefore, would be an impertinence on my part : all I can venture to do is to tell you what strikes me most from my hasty glance at its pages, though I cannot believe my opinion or my thoughts are of any importance. Naturally the book impressed me the more, as the experience of a good many years has realised to me the enormous power, in a quiet way, that Consuls have for improving or disim- proving the people in whose country they are placed — a power that is scarcely appreciated at home. If it were, perhaps more pains would have been taken in their selection, their salaries would be more carefully adjusted
277143
VI U PREFACE.
to their needs, and their representations would be in many cases less unheeded.
We have in these pages a faithful picture drawn day by day of events that often seemed trifling enough at the time, and that were indeed only the. affairs of daily hfe in such a country as Sytia ; and a stranger staying for a few weeks in the district might have called them ' much ado about nothing.' Taken as a whole, however — illuminated with retrospective light-^they become a deeply interesting story. These are the small acts, the fine threads which weave the woof of history ; here are the germs of those events which later on v^ill be written in undying pages.
ji
It is not to be denied that the book bears witness to the incapacity and feebleness of the Turkish Government in many . places and in many ways ; yet abundant as- surance may also be gathered from its pages of the sohd wealth of goodness and vast capacity for improvement of nearly all the unofficial natives, and in many, or some at least, of its rulers, who are too often, alas ! overlooked by the Central Government.
How easily, indeed, these simple-minded people may be led 1 It is impossible to calculate how great the advance in civilisation would have been in forty or fifty years, had the Consuls been allowed to interfere as much for the advantage and improvement of the people as they did interfere for political purposes to their disadvantage and injury.^ Had the English Con-
' See chapters x., xi., and xii.
PREFACE. IX
Sills been permitted by their Government to do as much good as other Consuls were instructed to do mischief, the state of the country would now. be very different ; and how much bloodshed, misery, and destruction of property, would have been saved ! V
To help the oppressed, of whatever creed or nation ; to investigate cases of wrong ; to check evil doings ; to set the example of true justice and equal rights ; to pre- vent human suffering and to succour the distressed ; and to do it all * quietly, so that few were aware that anything was being done' — all this is but the simple duty of a Consul.^ Yet how few have done it 1 how rarely have they been instructed or permitted to do it — nay, how often have those that tried so to act been snubbed for * inter- ference' and * giving trouble at home!' Was not that policy a short-sighted one which left to the most aggres- sive, rapacious, and intolerant Power on earth any pretext for a tremendous and disastrous interference, in order to ' protect the Christians of the East ' ? From the days of the Crusaders France and Italy have schemed and bribed and fought for the undivided protection of all the Chris- tians in the East, with what variations of success, with how many Treaties, Firmfins, and Hatti Shereefs, other books relate to us besides the interesting sketch given by Mr. Finn. But Eussian claim to any such right of protection, even for those of their own orthodoxy, is of very modem date.
1 See pp. 186-197.
' Perhaps there has never been a more touching petition than one of those olTered to Mr. Finn, addressed to ' him to whom Uie persecuted run.'
X PREFACE.
It is, however, none the less a sharp and murderous weapon when wielded in such hands as theirs. But surely some of us may permit oimselves to regret that England has so continuously refused to accept the noble mission, not of a high-handed, blustering * protection,' which meant a great deal more, but of the gentle, quiet work of a protector who strengthens the upright, comforts the weak-hearted, defends the desolate and oppressed, executes justice, and maintains truth, without a thought of greed or self- interest. Mr. Finn says: 'By the time the Crimean War broke out the vigilance and industry of the British authorities had produced an appreciable effect. ... A few more years, and the non-Moslems of the East would have grown happy and prosperous, and would have needed neither defender nor champion, for they would have been strong enough to take care of themselves. But what would then have become of the champions ? ' ^ The fact also of any Christian Power being openly united with the Sultan would prevent there ever being a really dangerous war, for recourse could not then be had to a Holy War of Moslem against Christian, including the pious slaughter of all but the professors of Islam.
We live so fast in these days that patience has be- come an old fashioned virtue, the mark of a degraded and effete people. Time to grow is disallowed ; de- velopment must be pushed on as in a forcing-house ; and what formerly took a year must to-day be accomplished
' P. 10.^.
PREFACE. XI
in a week. No one stops lo consider now what Turkey was a few years ago— the country must be taken by the throat and throttled, because it is not advanced in the same d^ree as Western countries who have centuries of growth behind them. ' The Turkish power in Europe/ which was announced by the Duke of Wellington in 1829 as * gone,' was indeed so hampered by internal rebellion, fomented entirely by foreign intrigue, that its struggle for existence has been fraught with all the evils of despair.
Hence have arisen much of the venality and corrup- tion of the upper classes, making hay while the short summer lasted, knowing themselves unable to stand against the ceaseless and interminable intrigues which pervaded most of their provinces. A bold, intelligent policy would have removed every pretext for external interference ; but the Turk was not accustomed to trust to policy, and he knew well the power of his sword of old. Thus, while he doubted, the evil hand of the foreigner led him to the pit which it had already dug for him among his own people. Unassisted by intrigue, few would have rebelled against the Government of their country, to whom many are still loyal : they rebelled only against the misgovemment of the Pashks ; they asked the fiilfilment of the law already given, not by any means a new law or another yoke. As among the intelligent por- tion of the Bulgarians in Eoumelia since the calamities of May, 1876, so among the Arabs in these past years, Mr. Finn tells us : * There was nothing to endanger the safety
Xll PREFACE.
of Turkish dominion in Palestine, Left to themselves, the peasant factions of the Bedawy tribes, the Druses and the Maronites, might and did fight against each other ; but of any insurrection against their lord, the Sultan, there was not the slightest danger. Local dissensions and hos- tilities might be fomented by intrigue from without . . . but of rebellion against the Sultan and his government there was no idea whatever,' ^ for the village laws were good, adapted to the country and the creed, and in Syria they were for the most part well carried out.
Whatever else their virtues and their vices, and how- ever steadily they were advancing in civilisation, as most undoubtedly they were, the Turks were ah-eady far in advance of many a Western nation in one remarkable virtue, viz., religious toleration. Fanatically attached to their own religion, they keep it to themselves, and allow freedom of worship to others ; religious persecution in the East is the exclusive property of the Christians, who have frequently invoked the aid of the Moslem against each other, to stifle progress, or to gain a temporary advantage for themselves. Yet how can we blame this apparent anomaly, when, at home in England, we find the very persons who are most active in sending missions to Kussia, ' to convert the Eussians to true Christianity,' are now the most enthusiastic in their praises of the * De- liverer of the Eastern Christians,' and the most anxious for their victory over the one nation that has permitted
» Pp. 217, 220.
PREFACE. XIU
the preaching of the gospel in their country with the utmost tolerance I These good people have no words hard enough to express their indignation at the fanaticism of the Moslem, at the spread of Islam by the sword, and at the massacres of the four thousand Bulgarians who perished two years ago by the brutahty of the Pomaks and Bashi Bozuks ; but if the blood of these poor crea- tures shed by the Moslems cried out then to Heaven, what an awfiil cry must now be raised by the hundreds of thousands slain and done to death by the Christians ? Mr. Finn rightly asks, 'Who instigated the Lebanon massacres of 1860 ? Who encouraged and revived the fast waning fanaticism of the Moslems ? '^ And we who see the terrible eflfects of the greed of Kussia may also ask what sort of Christianity is that taught by the acts of the invaders of to-day ?
Many an interesting parallel will be drawn from these pages of the situation of the years treated about in this book, with that of this year — of the origin of that war, which began in the heart of Jerusalem, in the Holy Sepul- chre itself, though it afterwards became the war of the Crimea, and the war of 1877. Both wars owe their origin to Eussian aggression and falsehood, for the Eussians, in 1853, had, according to their usual custom, made the mis- take of confusing protection and possession ; they boldly asserted their * right to protect ; ' — that is, to have the custody of ^ — ^the Holy Places, to which, in truth, they had
» P. 484. » Pp. 6 and 58.
XIV PREFACR
not the very slightest right ; while now, in 1877, after as- serting their * right to protect ' the Bulgarians, the desire for protection was, as usual also, when convenient, changed into the right to possess them.
Turkey has suffered more than any country in the world by her visitors; no country has been so much visited by travellers, and none has been so imperfectly un- derstood. The flood of travellers and travellers' books have made everything so familiar to the eye and to the ear that people have been led to think that, what they saw so easily, they must have as easily understood ; whereas in all probability two-thirds of the stories they have read were but the imaginations of the writer, not the facts of the country. It is invariably he who has been the shortest time in these lands who thinks he un- derstands them best ; those who live there longest learn best how little they know. An intelligent traveller can ' see with his own eyes,' no doubt ; but httle good will that do him unless he knows the ' reason why ' of what he has seen : the origin, the root of it contains pro- bably the whole meaning. Hence the value of a book detailing the experience of a twenty years' resident, fluent in the languages which came daily and hourly to his ears. Mr. Finn rightly points out ^ that the lumping together of all the various races in Turkey, and believing that the same legislation and rule will do for all alike, is absurd ; still more grossly absurd is the idea that, be-
> Pp. 212, 213. *
PREFACE. XV
cause acquaintance has been made with one race, the rest can be understood, and are known simply because they profess the same religion. This is all the less pos- sible as Islam has almost as many diversities as Chris- tianity. Yet no doubt after the present war not a few of the siu'geons who have dressed the wounds of a Bosniak, or of an Arab, or of a Pomak, or of an Arnaout, will firmly believe that he knows the national character of all the ' Turks/
In the same manner it is perfectly sickening to hear people, whose attention has only lately, for the first time, been drawn to Turkey, talking of the * general state of European Turkey for the last four hundred (!) years' as similar to what intrigue and violence made part of it for one miserable month ; and asserting that the normal con- dition of the country from end to end has been that of ceaseless massacre and rapine. A moment's thought, on the part of those who wished to speak the truth for truth's sake, would convince them that no human beings could have flourished as the Arabs and the Bulgarians have done had this been the case. Precisely so might a foreigner assert that the state of all the streets of London, and of all the towns in our provinces, was one vast scene of daily and nightly murder, burglary, lust, and bruta- lity, after studying a monthly Eeport of the Metropo- litan Police-office, and an annual volume of the *Ees- cue Society,' — in which latter production it may truly be said there are more sorrowful horrors detailed as
XVI PREFACE.
happening in the heart of our civilised capital, in one year, than in ten years of Turkish provincial history. But how few of our pohticians, who have chosen their * side/ care to learn the real facts, the true reahties of the subject I
If they do, here indeed is a book which vnll teach them much ; here they will learn not only the events*, but the motives from which they sprung ; they will see a faithfiil statement of facts made without prejudice or misrepresentation ; they will find a mine from which to dig much ore. For this reason I rejoice that you have decided to publish Mr. Finn's writings.
I remain, yours very truly,
E. STRANGFORD.
COKBTAKHNOPLB :
Apra, 1878.
PREFACE BY THE AUTHOR.
In this work there are no doughty deeds or high achieve- ments to be recorded, and we are unable to strike the bold key-note of
Oanto r anne pietose, e 1 gran Capitano.
For although my subject is one that has relation to great events, Jerusalem herself performed but little, visibly, among the acts done during the Eussian war of 1853 to 1856. Her part was more passive than aggressive.
Neither does our scope include the large politics of Europe which moved and sustained the war, for we are confined to local affairs, described after an interval of several years from notes taken at the time.
Our topics are not, however, limited to description of Turkish relations with their own subjects and with the officisils of foreign countries residing in Palestine. Our plan is rather to narrate any events that occurred within the prescribed limits of time, even though some of them may include details referring personally to the writer, and to give notices of the general condition of the country and of its inhabitants, the whole forming a kind of kalei- doscopic variety.
VOL. x^ a
XVm PREFACE BY THE AUTHOR.
And yet not a mere kaleidoscopic medley for amuse- ment, since these pages will exhibit the gravity of the issues involved in the war, the critical state of the whole country of Palestine at the time, the anarchy of the dis- tricts, the slight hold which the Turkish Government was able to maintain, and the facility presented for intrigues of foreigners. Considerations of some value in our days, and in the light of the Gortschakoff Circular of October, 1870, will be presented to our minds by the above topics.
The first rough draft of this sketch of the Holy Land during the Crimean War was made in 1870. The world was then in outward peace. The Prussians with their allies were at home ; the French Empire was in existence,
as well as the temporal sovereignty of the Pope ; and the neutrality of the Black Sea was guarded by the Treaty of Paris. Great changes have taken place in all these affairs, and the security of Turkey, including Palestine, cannot but be affected by the disturbance of the relations to each other of the Powers involved in those changes.
Omitting speculations on the future, we may remark that the effect of the Eussian war of 1853-6 was to set up the Turkish dominion on a firmer basis than before, certainly so in Palestine. Eoughly speaking, however, the old routine of government continued with none but very paltry improvements in administration.
One more observation, and that in reference to the distant combatants.
PREFAOE BY THE AUTHOR. xix
The acclamation of * God wills it,' which impelled the first Crusade, bore against the Moslem holders of the Holy Sepulchre ; but the shouts of the war we are now con- sidering were directed by representatives of the same nations, who fought in that first Crusade ; but now they were fighting in defence of the Moslem holders of that same treasure, against a power which has only become fully Christian since the crusades, and which equally covets possession of the Holy Sepulchre.
Such are the changes which time brings about.
This was the outward aspect of events at the com- mencement of the struggle in 1853, but circumstances expanded in size as events progressed, the war lost the religious character of its beginning, and the vnrestling upon that small * arena ' of the Crimea became one for mastery over vast regions of land and sea.
Opportunities cannot fail to recur so long as the same temptations exist.
Written m 1872.
It haa been observed in connection with the competi- tion of all European nations at present for influence in Jerusalem, and the decay at the same time of the Ottoman power, that all the Consulates (except the British) bear
a2
XX NOTE BY THE AUTHOR.
the Eagle for armorial ensigns — the Eussian, the Aus- trian, the French, the Prussian.
* For wheresoever the carcase is, there will the Eagles be gathered together.'
' NOTE BY THE AUTHOR.
INTEODUOTOEY NOTICE BY THE EDITOB.
The Eastern Qaeotion and the Orusades from the Jerusalem point of yiew — The object of the contest — The combatants as represented by their champions — The Anthor of this History, Mr. Finn, H. M. Consul for Jerusalem and Palestine from 1846 to 1863.
The Eastern Question which is engrossing men's minds was the cause of the Crimean war, as we now call the Eussian war of 1853-6. It was not a purely political question, in which nothing is involved beyond the posses- sion of Constantinople. From first to last the question of the Holy Places in Palestine has been inextricably mixed up with the politics of the Eastern Question. The peace of 1856 was regarded by few as a final settlement of the dispute, though none could say when it might again break out and involve East and West once more in a sanguinary struggle.
The Eastern Question (and some will say, ' What is the Eastern Question?') has once again involved the nations of Europe in perplexity, has now once more been referred to the arbitrament of the sword.
If Jerusalem and the Holy Land be intimately and inseparably bound up with the Eastern Question, it may be of use to bring forward, at this juncture, all information which bears upon the subject ; all which may throw light upon the origin of the disputes that led to the last war ;
XXll INTRODUCTORY NOTICE BY THE EDITOR. -
all that may enable us to understand better the actual condition of the Holy Land then — for without these facts before us, we shall scarcely be able rightly to estimate subsequent events in their bearing upon the present com- plications. As a contribution to this useful knowledge, the present volumes of * Jerusalem Consular Chronicles ' are offered.
The intent of this history is to show the condition in
which Jerusalem and the Holy Land, the first cause and aim of the war, were during its course, and how they were thereby affected.
Jerusalem took no part in the war — ^her part was pas- sive, not aggressive — and yet Jerusalem was in very deed the cause of the war — the prize, for possession of which two of the combatants were striving — ^the one (Eussia) in attack upon Turkey, the other (France) in
defence, with Turkey.
We had in the Crimean War one more Crusade waged for rescue of the Holy Places, only this time the Crusade was being fought by the champion of the Eastern Church, and there was room for doubt as to the purity of the motives which animated that champion in his zeal.
Fully to understand the significance of the early Cm- sades, it is necessary to have lived at Jerusalem.
The terms Eastern and Western Churches convey but little living reality to the mind, until one has beheld the thronging multitudes surge around the grand central
• INTRODUCTORY NOTICE BY THE EDITOR. XXllI
point to which all thie branches of those Eastern and Western Churches gravitate ; till one has beheld on the spot the ceaseless strife, the never-ending antagonism and rivalry between the two great divisions of the Eoman World christianized. Though Eussia was not included in the ancient Eoman World, she now appears in the lists as champion of the same Eastern or Greek Church — known in the East not as the Church of the GreekSj but by the appellation imder which that church is always called on the spot, the Church of the 'Eoom' {Le. Eomans).
The very heart and kernel of the Eastern Question can only be reached in the Holy City, Jerusalem, where the Eastern and the Western Churches are still wrestling as of old for the mastery, with all the forces, spiritual and secular, that each can bring to bear.
Now as heretofore, disguise the object as they may, they are striving for a prize which has not been destined by Divine Providence for either ; and this prize is no less than a virtual dominion over the Christian World, from a throne of government within the Sanctuaries of the Holy City, and the possession of that throne would involve possession of the key to universal dominion.
Kinglake has well observed in respect to the con- nection of the Crimean War with the Holy Places at Jerusalem : * The mystery of Holy Shrines lies deep in human nature. . . . For men strongly moved by the Christian Faith it was natural to yearn after the scenes of
XXIV mTRODUCTORY NOTICE BY THE EDITOR.
the Gospel narrative/ (' Invasion of the Crimea/ vol. i. 40-41.)
And a Latin monk expressed simply and truly the feeling of most of those who have joined, or who are ready to join in these modem Crusades, when on being remonstrated with about a fight which had taken place in the very Church of the Nativity, at Bethlehem, and being asked, * What must unbeUeving Moslems think of such doings?' he answered, 'They see how much we love our religion, and that we are ready to fight and die
for it;
Mr. Finn, the author of this sketch, had ample oppor- tunities for observing the condition of Jerusalem and Palestine before as well as during the Crimean War. He was Consul for Jerusalem and Palestine from 1845 till 1863, and lived in the land for more than seventeen years. Long previous study and a deep practical interest in the Holy Land had fitted and prepared him for enter- ing with intelhgence upon his official duties. Conversant with political affairs, and having a personal knowledge of European countries, he was also ready as a scholar and linguist, to enter at once upon the variety of interesting questions and subjects which present themselves for con- sideration in the Holy Land.
USEFUL DATES,
Napoleon Buonaparte in Syria
Greek War of Independence begun
I^Tptians occupied Syria
The Hattri Shereef of Gulbane granted by the Sultan
The Battle of Nezib, June 24. Sultan Mahhmood died five days after ....
Syria restored to Turkey
The Tanzim&t Hairiyeh promulgated .
War between Turkey and Rujssia
France and England, as allies of Turkey, declared war against
XvuBBia .....
Sardinia joined January 10 . Sebastopol taken September 8 .
Hatt-i Humayoon granted February 13 Peace concluded March 30 .
YBAB
1799 1821 1831 1838
1839 1840 1841 1853
1854 1855
1855
1856 1856
CONTENTS
OP
THE FIRST VOLUME.
>0i ■
CHAPTER I.
THB EA£rrEBN QUESTION — APPROACH OP WAR.
PAGE
Departure of the Turkish battalion from Jerusalem, September 19, 1863, for the War — Guardianship of the Christian Sanctuaries — Stealing the silyer star at Bethlehem — ^^Ihe question of the Sanctuaries mooted in Constantinople — 'Afeef Bej — Turkish Commissioner in Jerusalem assembles the Christian Patriarchs at the Holy Sepulchre — Scene at the Virgin's Sepulchre at the foot of Olivet — Settlement of the Dispute about the Sanctuaries, April 22, 1853 — Question of Christian protection in Turkey by Europeans now sprang up— Riimours of War — ^Russian invasion of the Principalities 3
CHAPTER II.
THE PARTIES IN DISPUTE— GREEKS AND LATINS — THE EASTERN AND THE WESTERN CHURCH — THEIR HISTORY.
Greek Church regarded by the Turks as Church of the countxy, since Conquest by Omar, 636— Greeks in Palestine consist of native laity and parish priests, with foreign Greek higher clergy and bishops — Crusades to them a ' Papal Aggression ' — Natives of Palestine ex- cluded from the monasteries — ^Hence all the Higher Clergy are Foreign Greeks — Greek Convent, i.e. * Daii^ivRoom * — ^Patriarchate — Patriarch Cyril — ^Wealth of the Convents — ^Honse property in Jerusalem and Lands beyond the walls — Archimandrite Nikephoros — Greek Church at the Holy Sepnlchre— Russian Gold in the Bazaars — Armenians, their Convent and Patriarch — Their supreme Pontifi', the Cathoghigos at Utch-Miazin, now a Russian subject — ^Russian Church — Byzantine Empire new Rome — Syrian, Coptic and Abys- sinian Churches in Jerusalem — Latin or Western Church — Old Rome — Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem — Crusades — Franciscan Friars established in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, 1234 — ' Terra-Santa * Pil-
XXVIU CONTENTS OF
PAOB
grimages — Latin Convents — Alms from Europe — Casa-Nuoya Hospice — Convent Authorities — Statistics — Latin Festivals at various Sanc- tuaries— Pilgrim Certificate—Bevival of Latin Patriarchate in 1848 Monsignor Joseph Yalerga — His State entrv into Jerusalem — ^Firat public Latin ceremonial since fall of the Crusading Kingdom — Position of the Latin Patriarch towards other Churches, and towards the Latin Terra-Santa Convents — Licence to a Priest— Ship's Patent for Terra-Santa 28
CHAPTER III.
SECULAB REPBESE19TATIVES OF LATIN AND QBEEK CHBISTIANITT IN
JERUSALEM.
The French ' Protectors of Christianity in the East * — ^Treaty of King Francis L — ^Roman Catholic Christianity protected — ^Terra Santa Con- vents— ^Their Archives — ^French Consul in State at the Sanctuaries of Jerusalem and Bethlehem — Invasion of Syria by Napoleon Buonar parte — ^His adoption of Moslem formula — Sir Sidney Smith in 1801 Protector of Christians — Portion of his Flagstaff on roof of Latin Convent in Jerusalem — Richard Cceur de lion at Acre — ^Prince Edward of England at Nazareth — ^Archhishop of Canterbury and Bishop of Salisbury at the taking of Acre in 1191 — French tricolor flag over Carmel Convent — ^Turks regard the French as the leading Roman Catholic Power — Treaties — Guizot — Latin Patriarch — Curious Firm&ns in the Latin Convent — Franks, &c.— French — Feel- ings of the Monks — ^French visitors and pilgrims — Preparations for receiving the Pope — Greek Catholic Patriarch — Sir John Chardin on French negotiations in Constantinople — French Consul M. P. E. Botta, of Nineveh celebrity — Russian Protectorate of Eastern (Greek and Armenian) Christians — M. Basili, Russian Consul-General — Russian travellers — Russian Sculors in English Church — Promise by Turkey that Russia should have a Church and Hospice at Jeru- salem— ^Archimandrite Porphyrios — Russian contributions to Greek Convent — Purchase of Lands by Greek Convent .... 66
CHAPTER IV.
OTHER EUROPEAN CONSULATES IN JERUSALEM.
British Consulate^ the first founded in 1838— France and Russia founded theirs in 1843^ Austrian in 1849 — Sardinian Consulate- Spanish in 1864 — Protection of Anglican Bishopric by English and' Prussian Consuls — M. Pizzamano^ Austrian Consul — Br. Schidtz, first Prussian Consul — Succeeded by Br. G. Rosen — Prussian Congrega- tion and Institutions — ^Commercial and Political Consulates — ^Legal functions of Consuls — ^Various people protected by the several Con- sulates— ^The 'Capitulations' — Rank and precedence of Consuls —
THE FIRST VOLUME. XXIX
PAOK
yice-Consulfi and Oancellidies — ^Interpreters ' dragomams ' — Thdr posi- tion— Eawwdsses or Janissaries — Editor^sNote — ^Mr. Finn, the British Ck>n8iil — ^The yarious peoples within the territory over which the Consulate extended — ^People protected — ^Amoiint of business trans- acted— Consulate House . . . . < i « . . 8i
CHAPTER V.
FOSmON OF JEWS IN PALESTINE — ^PERSECUTION — ENGLISH PROTEC-' TION OF JEWS — TBANSFEB OF RUSSIAN JEWS.
Position of Jews in Palestine — ^Four holy Cities : Jerusalem, Hebron^ Tiberias, and Safed — Sephardim, or Spanish Jews — * First in Zion/ i.e. Chief Babbi — ^HJs Council or Beth-din — Synagogues — Anhkenazinif or European Jews from Germany, Russia, &c. — Lord Palmerston's protection of Jews in Palestine, 1839 — ^Blood-persecution in Da- mascus, 1840 — Further action of Lord Palmerston, 1841 — Threatened persecution in 1847 by the Greek Christians — Scene in the Pashli's Court — Action of ^itish Consul — Jews excluded £rom the Church of the Holy Sepulchre — ^Transfer of Russian Jews to British protec- tion— Special fiists observed by the Jews — ^Visit of Sir M. Montefiore — Jewish coinage — Anointing of the Keys of Jerusalem by the Jews — ^Dues paid to Moslems — Wailing place — ^Rachel's Sepulchre-^ Place of Slaughtering — Employment of Jews at Industrial Plantation and Urtas — ^Industrial plans of Sir M* Montefiore — Rothschild and the 'Hebrew Alliance' — System of SkUichuthj or Messengers — Attachment of Israelites to the Holy Land — Chaltika, or distribu* tion of Alms — ^Hebrew language living still — Used in the British Consulate — ^Hebron and Safed Jews — Excellent moral character of the Jews — Translation of Address from Russian Jews . . . 101
CHAPTER VI.
PROTESTANTS IN PALESTINE.
The Protestants in Jerusalem — ^Natives — Arabs — Europeans — Hebrew- Christianfl — English — Germans — American Missionaries — Jewish Mission resolve on building a Church — British authorities co-operate — ^Egyptian Government favourable — Ottoman Government refuses — Engliah Bishopric established in 1841 — Action of the King of Prussia — Consecration of Bishop Alexander — Firm&n authorising the build- ing of the Church as Consular Chapel, granted in 1841 — Consecration of church, 1849 — ^English Mission — Origin of Native Protestantism — Early Missionaries, English and American — Second English Bishop — Firm&n of toleration for Protestants, 1850 — ^Nazareth disturbances, 1852 — ^Translation of the Sultan's firmans — and of the Vizierial letter 133
yyy CONTENTS OF
CHAPTER Vn.
TURKISH GOVERNMENT IN PALESTINE.
PAOE
Pash&a — Military force — Regulars — ' Nizam ' — Irregularfl — ' BasM- Bozuk' — ^Their pay and their duties — ^Taxation — Jaffa as Seaport — Law Courts — ^Kadi — Mufti — Christian Evidence — Municipal Courts — Mejlia — Reforms — Arab Office-holders — Jewish 'Beth-din* — Weak points in the administration of Law — ^The laws in Turkey are good in themselves — Benefits of Consular vigilance — Check upon unjust rulers — Effect upon the Pash&s of Consular reports to the British Embassy at Constantinople — Progress and improvement before Crimean War — Condition of Christians materially improved before 1853 — ^Influence of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe — Injurious effect of Russian War, in reviving fanaticism and checking progress — ^Testi- mony of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe 159
CHAPTER Vin.
GENERAL MOSLEM POPULATION OF PALESTINE.
Improved condition of the Christians — Moslem pilgrimages to Jeru- salem — Hharam-eshrShereef — 'Noble Sanctuary' jealously closed against Non-^Moslems — ^Murder of a Moslem at prayer in the Sanc- tuary— Nabloos fanaticism — Death to Apostates — Various kinds of Moslems — jy/aAA«cn ' Peasantry ' — BeUadeen 'Town Arabs' — ^Their dislike of Turks — Peasant or Fellah Code of Law — Thftr, or 'blood revenge' — Influence of Village clan Shaikhs — ^Turkish yoke not heavy — ' Balance of power' — ' Divide et impera' — Turkish system of self-government — Its disadvantages — Reforms .... 200
CHAPTER IX.
STATE OF THE COUNTRY.
Crisis as to Turkish dominion was expected in 1853 — Peasantry or Fellahheen — KaIs and Yemen factions — Abu Gosh clan — 'Othman el Lahham of Bait Atab and his faction — Mohamn^d 'Abd-en-Nebi and Nimmer el 'Amleh — ^Muslehh of Bait Jibreen — ^'Abderrahhman el Amer of Hebron — Nabloos (Shechem) — Its rival clans — Tokan and 'Abdul Hady — Peasant Warfare — Thdr or Blood revenge — Dissen- sion— Legend of the -Devil and his son — Stirring up fitction fight — Influence of the Shaikhs — Hafiz Pashd of Jerusalem — Hebron troubles in 1862 — ^The Austrian and British Consuls go thither to succour the Jews — ^'AbderrahhnuLn el 'Amer dismisses the Turkish Governor — ^Terror of the people — ^Nabloos district and the North also disturbed — Consular visits to those districts — State of the country in 1853 when visited — Fighting — Truce effected by the Pasha 226
THE FIRST VOLUME. xxxi
CHAPTER X.
ffTATE OP THE COUNTRY — COnttntied.
PAOB
Oonsular tour to tlie North — Protection of British interests — Moral influence only — ^Tyre and Sidon — Lebanon — Excitement in Bayroot — State kept up by the Pashft — Dresses — Reduction of Tobacco dues — ^Moslem gratitude — Sidon and Tyre — Tibneen — Persian Prince — Nazareth — Ghililee — Nabloos and Samaria — Return to Jerusalem . 267
CHAPTER XI.
PANICS AND FIGHTS.
Panic among the Christians — ^PashU of Jerusalem old and helpless — Fights dose to our camp — ^The attack at sunrise — Nightly preparar tions for fight — Efforts to set Government in motion — Battles — Shiukh Hhamd&n — Successful intervontion — A Truce effected — A Comet 300
CHAPTER XII.
JEBUSALEM WITHOUT A GARRISON.
Incursions of Bedaween — Our garrison of troops ordered off to the War — ^French pilgrims — Comet and omens at departure of troops — Mohammedan view of politics and affairs — Fears of the Christians — Sir Hugh Rose — Why the European (Frank) Sovereigns help the Sultan 327
CHAPTER XIII.
JERUSALEM AND PALESTINE WITHOUT TURKISH TROOPS.
Tufenkchies — ^Thievery in the City — News of the Russian War — Latin Patriarch at Bait Jala — A lodgement effected in behalf of the Latins — General Sir Charles CDonnell — Convent bigotiy — Protestanta in Bethlehem — The Rev. John Nicolayson — Safety in our Camp — Fighting in the Villages — Endeavours to stop the Slaughter — 800 Bedaween between Jerusalem and Bethlehem — Bedaween in Beth- lehem— Strange contrasts of W^ar and Peace 349
1 i
XXXU CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
CHAPTER XIV.
QUIET AMIDBT DISTURBANCES.
PAoa
Arrival of Troope — Proclamation of the War — ^Robberies near the City — ^Village Fightings— Uneasiness in Nabloos and in Jaffii — Ab- derrahhman at Hebron Troublesome — ^Departure of the TsaiA — Petition of the Moslems — Daily life — Safety of the English Colony and Immunity from Annoyance ..».,.« S83
CHAPTER XV. ^
THE JERUSALEM DISTRICT WITHOUT A PABhI.
TurMah diplomacy in ruling — Condition of Nabloos and North Pales- % tine — ^LuHvility of the Militajy Commandant and of the Kadi checked — ^'Akeeli Aga and his career — Mission of the Consular Kaww&s — Emir-Sa'ad ed Deen Shehabi of Hhasbeya Tisits Constantinople against his will) and learns a lesson there 4
CHAPTER XVI.
CORN AT FAMINE PRICE.
Distress in Jerusalem — Com kept out of the Market — Poor Jews suffering — Com sent for by us — Distribution of loaves — Corn brought in by a natiT^*— Snow and rain — Charitable conduct of a Moslem-^ Another Moslem loweiB the price — Good harvest .... 436
CHAPTER XVII.
ARRIVAL OF TAKOOB PAShI.
A PashjL of ancient fiunily — Quiet restored — Pilgrims — Oreeks-^Moe- lems — Indian and Tartar Durweeshes and Convents — Establishment of a Spanish Consulate — ^French war-ships on the coast — French pilgrims — Latin Patriarch^s triumph in Bait Jaki-^English Travellers — Queen's Birthday — ^Eubrisli Pashjl now Grand Vizier — Arrest of ' three Effendis — Chief of the Police arrested at the instance of the British Consulate and convicted of robbery — No English ships on the coast — ^News and rumours— Position of Austria and Prussia — News of the War, both true and false . ., 450
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E.WtUcr.lith.UMaoi
PART I.
PRECEDING THE DECLAMTION OF WAE
VOL. I. B
CHAPTER I.
THE EASTERN QUESTION — ^APPBOACH OF WAR.
Departure of the Turkish battalion from Jeruaalem, September 10, 1863, for the War — ^Guardianship of the Ohristian Sanctuaries — Stealing the silyer star at Bethlehem — Ihe question of the Sanctuaries mooted in Constan- tinople— ^'Afeef Bej — Turkish Commissioner in Jerusalem assembles the Christian Patriarchs at the Holy Sepulchre — Scene at the Virgin's Sepulchre at the foot of Olivet — Settlement of the Dispute about the Sanctuaries, April 22, 1853 — Question of Christian protection in Turkey by Europeans now sprang up — Rumours of War— ^Russian invasion of the Principalities.
On September 19, 1853, a large proportion of the in- habitants of Jerusalem was assembled on the Meid&n or public promenade, at that time in existence ^ to the west of the city, and near the walls, to witness a benediction of the battalion with its colours, which was leaving us for scenes of warfare in defence of D&ru'l Islftm^ or territory of Mohammedan possession.
Such an event had not occurred there since the era of the Crusades, for at the period of the French invasion of Egjrpt and Expedition to Palestine, in 1799, Jerusalem had no force to send out : it was then a poor deteriorated town, although enclosed then, as now, by crenellated Walls with gates and stout towers for a citadel, its only mili- tary occupation being that of a handful of Bashi-bozuk ;
' The new Russian buildings, erected since the Crimean war, now occupy the space formerly devoted to the Public Promenade or Meidan.
B 2
4 DEPARTURE OF TROOPS FROM JERUSALEM.
and therefore the French general was entirely in the right for his strategical object when he advanced straight towards Acre, without apprehension of consequences from leaving Jerusalem in his rear. At that time the strongest edifices in the city were the several Christian convents, strong as buildings, but tenanted only by timid ill-used monks. A peculiar character of sanctity was, indeed, impressed upon the place, in accordance with the several creeds of its population, whether derived from possession of the Holy Sepulchre by the professors of one faith, or of the Hharam esh Shereef by those of another, or by the reverence of a third community, who lived comparatively unnoticed, for a fragment of the western wall of the old Temple of Israel. But a slumber of ages had at that time eliminated from Jerusalem all public spirit, or means even of self-defence, much more every possibility of con- tributing to external warfare.
Our parade inspection and the pubhc prayers were followed by acclamations of the multitude ; and as the column marched off, with the Syrian sun glinting along the moving steel — for they marched with fixed bayonets — and as the latest trumpet-notes died away in the dis- tance, we were left behind with leisure for meditation on the novel condition of affairs and speculation as to the eventualities of an unknown future.
Nineteen years ^ having now elapsed since that date, we have sufiicient opportunity for reviewing, in the light of other transactions, the motives and the acts which for some time before had been preparing the crisis of that day ; and in so doing we are assisted by the fact that the
* These words were written in 1872 bj the author. — Ed.
ORIGIN OF THE CRIMEAN WAR. 5
originating circumstances were connected with Jerusalem itself, for all the world knows that the Eussian war of 1853 to 1856 sprang from a controversy about the rights of guardianship at the Christian Sanctuaries of Jerusalem and Bethlehem, as claimed by the convents respectively of Latin and Greek rite.
The near connection in which the Latin and Greek communities stand as either joint or part guardians of the Sanctuaries which belong to our Lord's history — a matter of such solemn import to both — soon degenerated into hostility and strife, not for a dogma or a creed, as Christendom has in other places so often witnessed, but for possession or custody of locality, inch by inch ; and this state of things was perpetuated through the lapse of several centuries. The animosity ripened into personal violence, to the scandal of other Christians who heard of such doings from a distance, and the ridicule or contempt of unbelievers.
The weapons used in such warfare were indeed carnal, even bodily fists, besides crucifixes and huge wax tapers taken from the very altars. In 1846 the author had in hand, fresh fijom such a battle, a narrow plank of cedar wood which had covered one of the rents in the rock of traditional Calvary, and was inscribed with a Greek state- ment to that purport in characters of silver laid on : this had been torn up from its site, and spUt across in the fray.
Such combats were not, however, confined to Greeks and Latins, though these were the antagonists in ques- tions of proprietorship of the main objects of rever- ence. I have known of two such occurrences between Greeks and Armenians — one in Bethlehem, when the
6 DISPUTES, GUARDIANSHIP OF SANCTUARIES,
«
former laid down a carpet over nearly all the approach to the altar of the Armenians, and then defied the latter to tread upon it. This of course led to altercation of tongue and to violence, in which severe wounds were inflicted, and on hearing of which the townspeople rushed into the church, breaking down the locked and bolted door, and took share in the proceedings according to their re- spective factions. The other was in Jerusalem between the same parties for first receiving of the Holy Fire from the Sepulchre on Easter Eve in 1853.
Similar scenes have been occasionally described in the published journals of travellers, but we are here limited to what was actually witnessed within a given epoch by residents in the country, to doings which are scarcely to be mentioned with patient moderation of language, con- sidering the character of the places, and the professional offices of the personages concerned.
It is an error, however common, to apply the term ' rights of property ' to what should rather be designated as * custody ' of the Holy places ; for strictly speaking the property is that of the Sultan of Turkey, as its terri- torial suzerain. This proprietor had at diflerent pre- vious epochs accorded, by Firm&ns or other documents, the care of the venerated objects to one or other of the Christian communities, and thus much indeed is implied in the very fact of appealing to those documents during the dispute. It is important to bear this distinction in mind, as it follows necessarily therefrom that the terri- torial sovereign might, upon sufficient cause appearing to himself, transfer his indulgence to either party fix)m the other as he pleased. This, however, is but an abstract
SULTAN OF TURKEY, PROPRIETOR. GREEKS AND LATINS. 7
position : it does not appear that the contrarieties lately complained of as existing among the documents emanating from the Porte on these matters were ever based upon a calculation of either deserving or undeserving.
In past ages the Turks at the capital were in the habit of bestowing or withdrawing such favours in amusing alternation, at one time patronising the Greek church as consisting mainly of their own subjects ; at another keep- ing these in check by chastisements in the form of depri- vation, and thus flattering the French kings as represen- tatives of Latin Christianity : in both instances receiving large pecuniary presents and fees, while at the same time proudly upholding their own prerogative of dominion, which they never frittered away for money consideration.
Local quarrels at Jerusalem frequently took place between the parties interested, when the Vizierial letters, or Firmfi^ns, relating to the Sanctuaries, were antagonistic, until in 1757 they became so serious that by a Hhatti Shereef the Latins were deprived of the church at Beth- lehem, the tomb of the Virgin Mary near Gethsemane, and the custody of the Holy Sepulchre, with only tolera- tion to worship at each, all prior concessions notwith- standing.
■
After the fire in 1808, which consumed large portions of the contiguous buildings, besides the chapel itself, of the Holy Sepulchre, the Greek Christians, in respect of the above Hhatti Shereef, and of their being subjects of the Porte, Were authorised (most happy privilege !) to repair the damages at their own expense. Hence it is that to this day we see Greek inscriptions, in an artistic quaint character, about the Sepulchre and the Stone of
8 ALTERCATIONS. FRANCE AND RUSSIA INTERFERE
the Angel, and Greek pictures on the exterior of the chapel.
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After the repairs had been made by the Greeks, fresh altercation ensued, so violent that in 1819 the French and Eussian Governments were called into action on be- half of their respective chents there. King Louis XVIII. and the Emperor Alexander, though recently made friends by the most intimate political ties, were thus drawn into a dispute about Jerusalem, not for a crusade against imbelievers, but in opposition to each other — the former as hereditary * Protector of Christianity in the East,*^ meaning his own section of Christendom ; the latter as monarch of the majority of adherents to the Greek Orthodox Church, to which also the majority of Christians in Turkey belonged : neither of them having the least item of poHtical right for intervention beyond the meanings of words which might be wrung out of friendly favours granted by the sovereign of the country.
As a desirable prehminary, envoys from each side were sent into Palestine for collecting information on the spot, M. Marcellus in the French interest, and M. Dashkoff in that of the Eussians. All seemed in a fair way towards adjustment when the Greek war of Inde-
THE EGYPTIAN OCCUPATION OF SYRIA. 9
pendence broke out (1821), and the enthusiasm of the French in aid of the revolt brought about a new complica- tion. The Turks would then listen to no overtures from either sid^, but treated Greek orthodox and French Cathohcs as hostile to Ottoman domination, and so both the convents, with their adherents in Jerusalem, had to shift for themselves, subject to personal severities and pecuniary imposts, which might have ended in massacres had the inmates been laity instead of clergy and monks.
The episode of the Egyptian hold upon Syria, from 1832 to 1840, placed other obstacles in the way of coming to an understanding respecting the Sanctuaries. If he had taken part with either side, Mohammed Ali would probably have favoured the Latins, in consideration of the number of Franks employed in his military and civil service ; but owing to his indifference for any creed, his policy became rather that of keeping down all such litigation with an arm of iron, in the temper which pervaded his whole administration, — ^for under him the natives felt the roughshod ruling to correspond with their own proverb —
Ez-Zulmeh 1)e-flaweejeh Adaleh le ra' aeeyeh
(tyranny with equaUty is righteousness to its subjects), and they preferred that style of government to the alter- nate slip-shod heedlessness and viUanous cruelty of the old Turkish era. Such disputes therefore had no exist- ence in the Egyptian period.
The Turks were restored to Syria at the end of 1840, rather more liberal in profession than they had been before leaving the country, and next year promulgated the Hhatti Shereef of Gulhftneh, which conceded a theo-
10 SYRIA RESTORED TO TURKEY.
retical equality (far firom practical) among all classes of subjects.
In 1846 they had a man of vigour for the Governor of Jerusalem and its dependencies, Mehemet Kubrusli Pashk, who made short work with monkish dissensions in his day.^ The two Easters, European and Oriental, happening to come together that year, the disputants, for first turn of celebration on the altar of Calvary in the eve of Good Friday, became combatants : many woimds were both given and received from articles of sacred use. At last his Excellency brought up a military force, and with his own hands removed the Greek altar-cloth of coloured silk and gold, which had been forcibly placed above the Latin altar-cloth of white linen. Complaint was made at Constantinople of his sacrilegious partiality, but with no result.
The next year, however (1847), another governor of inferior mental calibre being in office, we learned one morning in November that a strange affair had occurred m Bethlehem. Close adjoining the Holy Manger there is another site of even higher veneration, which is sur- rounded by lamps of silver and gold perpetually burning, and marked out by a silver star let into a slab of marble on the floor, and the star contains these words in Latin — ' Here Jesus Christ was bom of the Virgin Mary ' — an inscription admirable in its very simplicity. This had been placed there above a century ago by devout votaries of the Latin communion, and surely
^ This Pasha afterwards rose to be Ambassador in England ; then Seri- asker, or Oonimander-in-Ohief ; and he firally attained to the highest dig^ nity of all — ^the office of Gmnd Vizier. He died only a few years ago.
STEALING THE SILVER STAR FROM BETHLEHEM. 11
any stranger to the habitual rivalries of the place would suppose that there at least all animosities should be hushed, seeing that both parties concurred in the belief that the words were true ; but alas ! they axe in Latin and not Greek — the star was therefore regarded as a badge of conquest, intolerable to the Orientals, although on the other part we have never heard of the Latins attempting to deface the Greek inscriptions at the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
News however arrived among us that, on repairing to the Sanctuary for early morning sernce, the Latin monks found the silver star was no longer there, and that tokens of violence used in wrenching it away were evident. This event proved a turning point for questions of pro- tection of the holy places in higher quarters, which the French authorities then took up in thorough earnest.
The abstraction of the silver star fix)m the crypt at Bethlehem had, it seems, been preceded by a bodily conflict in the church. The Greek monks during one night had run up a temporary wall in a certain situation, which would shut out the Latin processions from access to the Sanctuary for performance of daily services at the ' Manger.' The Latin president, with his brethren, at once proceeded to remove that obstruction, when the others rushed out, and a fight ensued, in which several Greek priests, and (it is said) a bishop, took part, and wounds were inflicted on both sides.
Either on the succeeding night, or very speedily after it, the star w^as stolen, and what became of it has never yet been ascertained. The Latin monks, with tiieir clergy and laity, declare that the Greeks took it, and
12 ACCUSATIONS AND COUNTER- ACCUSATIONS,
carried it off to their convent of Mar Saba in the wil- derness, where great rejoicing was made over the booty acquired from their adversaries. They assert likewise that a certain Greek priest of Bethlehem, who was named, was missing from his convent at that precise time without returning thither.^ They argue, with every probability of reason, that the sacrilege cannot be laid to their charge, for the star was a pennanent token of their property in the spot where it was laid, and inscribed in their own language : their object of desire must therefore have always been to keep it there, or if any motive could have led them towards such a pro- ceeding, they would not have torn the star away by hasty violence, as in this instance was apparent, for one of the screws was still in its place with a fragment of the silver attached to it, as I myself saw to be the case.
In after controversy on the subject, it was argued on the other side that the Latins did it with a design of casting odium on their suffering rivals, and of exciting compassion on their own behalf; also that five years previously the Latins had complained at the Porte of the Greeks designing to steal it, when they alone had even dreamed of such a thing, and, in consequence, had obtained an injunction against its removal. This fact showed that the deed, when at last committed, was that of the Latins, for the Greeks, being subjects of Turkey, would not have ventiu:ed to disobey the Vizierial
' The object stolen is not the same, but this event bears a curious I'esem- blance to that of Tasso's * Jerusalem DeliTered/ Canto II. 8 : —
Non rivide I'immagine doT* ella
Fu posta; 6 invan* cerconne in altro lato^ etc.
EXCITEMENT. THE CONSULS INTERFERE. 13
order. This does not seem to be a valid plea ; it might rather tell in the opposite direction, namely, that five years before 1847 there had been grounds for fearing that the sacrilege 'was intended.
However, the tidings spread rapidly over the country, and M. Marabutti, the Eussian Vice-Consul at Jaffa (there was then no Consular office in the Greek interest at Jerusalem), hastened up to make enquiries on the spot. The French Consul in Jerusalem, M. Helouis-Jorelle, appears to have been rather apathetic on the matter, so much so that the discontented Franciscans^ threatened to place themselves (which, however, would not have been possible) under Turkish rule, and to register in the British Consulate a deed declaratory of their reason for doing so.
The Sardinian Consul then began to take up the matter on the ground of the president of * Terra Santa ' being an Itahan subject. The friars, however, did not attach much importance to his good ofiices ; but this step being taken, the French Consul began to stir himself, and ran to an opposite extreme. He repaired to the Pashk, and * in the name of France ' demanded to have the star replaced, without trusting to the dilatoriness of any investigation whatever.
Civic Councils of the Mohammedan Grandees were held for deliberation, and reports were forwarded to superior authorities on all sides at Bayroot and Constan- tinople. In one of these to his Government, the Pashk stated : * I should have been able to recover the star at
^ At this period the Franciscans were the sole representatives of the Latin Church.
14 THE MATTER TAKEN UP IN CONSTANTINOPLE.
the very beginning if the French Consul had not meddled in the business,' — a very Turkish expression, capable of various and opposite interpretations, but which, at any rate, showed his inadequate conception of the gravity of the case : looking upon it as he would have done on any police affair of petty larceny, imagining that if the article was restored, no more need be said about it, and no party be held amenable to the accusation of sacrilege.
The business was transferred to Constantinople, and the discussions between the Porte and the Ambassadors inevitably brought up that of rights pertaining to the two leading Christian Churches in Jerusalem and Bethle- hem, as the arrangers of the theft doubtless intended it should do — ^rights which, so long as the Turkish monarch abstained from disturbing them (and by no conceivable sort of circumstances could it be imagined he would pre- sume to abrogate them in the face of all Christendom), practically amounted to those of actual property. The Mohammedan ruler would seem to have reserved to himself no more than the power to adjust the conditions of custody.
The French were the first to moot the subject of these general claims in Constantinople. This was done in 1850 when General Aupick, the ambassador, appealed to the Treaty of 1740 between Prance and the Porte, in which the 33rd article runs thus : —
* The Latin monks residing at present, as heretofore, within and without Jerusalem, and in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, called Edmame,^ shall continue to pos-
' Sometimes in Turkish written Kemameli : its real name is Ki&meh, t.^. the Resurrection. The term employed in this text is a most opprohrious epithet invented by the Moslem rulers^
FRENCH CLAIMS TO PROTECTORATE OF CHRISTIANS. 15
sess the places of pilgrimage which they now possess, in the same manner as they have heretofore possessed them ; and they shall not be molested by demands for contribu- tions ; and if they should be engaged in any law-suit which cannot be decided on the spot, it shall be referred to our Sublime Porte.'
This treaty, however, owing probably to the political events in France during the interval, had been long suf- fered to pass unnoticed, while the Greek convents had procured several concessions to their advantage ; yet taking up the document as it stands, and pointing to this cited clause, we have the topic still open to discussion, in what manner, and to what extent did the Latins hold the ' places of pilgrimage * heretofore, Le. previous to 1740.
General Aupick assured Sir S. Canning that the appeal for decision was in nowise a political one ; it was on a mere question of property already defined by express treaty. But our ambassador, reporting this at home, saw that it would be extremely diflScult to separate that ques- tion from national politics and embarrassments of the highest class.
During the discussion the French accused the Greek ecclesiastics, among other matters, of having some time before wilfully destroyed the venerable tombs of Godfrey de Bouillon and Guy de Lusignan.
The directions from London were to watch proceed- ings, but in no way to take part in them.
At Jerusalem the feeling was as keen upon the subject of the great dome over the Sepulchre, as upon any other. The fact was apparent that the dome had been by re- peated acts rapidly, and piece by piece, stripped of sheets
16 DOME OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE WILFULLY INJURED.
of lead on its southern side ; each party, Latin and Greek, accused the other of having done this; but a stranger might naturally ask what could be the motive for doing it at all ? The explanation lies in the maxim of Turkish law, that whosoever is owner of the covering of a house, is owner of the house ; and, of course, the owner has the right or duty of keeping it in repair. Now each of these parties would have been most happy to provide funds for obtaining in this way a property so much coveted : the repairing of the cupola being allowed to prove the right to proprietorship. Both were willing to represent at Constantinople the fact of rain in the winter season pouring down through the dismantled por- tion upon the pavement below, and to call attention to the disturbance of divine services by the twittering of numerous martens and swallows visiting their nests within the dome and galleries ; also to the circumstance of the huge timbers of the cupola having become so rotted by exposure to the weather, that danger to life and limb was imminent from the expected fall of the same ; and both parties were eager to outbid the other in money at the Porte for licence to rebuild.
This topic scarcely, if at all, appears in the corre- spondence laid before Parliament.
It would appear that, in official form^ the appeal as to the Sanctuaries was first laid before the Porte by M. de Lavalette, who had at the beginning of 1852 succeeded General Aupick in the embassy.
By February 9 the business was so far advanced that the Turks promised, in the shape of a * Note,' to concede to the French the right of officiating at the
FRAKCE AND RUSSIA IN DISPUTE. 17
Sepulchre of the Virgin Mary near Gethsemane, and to leave all the other points in statu quo antk. These were not satisfied ; but after a time agreed to the arrangement on condition of the Ottoman Government declaring the old treaty of 1740 to be still in force.
The Eussians, patronising the Greek orthodox claims in the dispute, were angry at so much being conceded to their rivals, and were only appeased by the issuing of a * Firm&n,' which virtually nullified the ' Note ' given to the French. These in turn took umbrage at the tergiver- sation contained in the * Firman ; ' and the Turks, tortured between the two, both screwing their pretensions by threats to the utmost, at length promised the French that the Firm4n for the Orthodox should not be publicly read in Jerusalem. To the Eussians they promised to evade delivering to the Latins the keys of the Bethlehem church and of the Virgin's Sepulchre ; each device being of course kept secret from the party which was to lose by it. The wonder is how the Turkish Dvvkn could hope by such very short-sighted expedients to content the powerful parties before them ; for the period would be so very brief before an explosion must take place, leaving themselves in discredit and dishonour from both sides of the appel- lants ; but, indeed, the Ottoman Government was unable to meet the peril of the emergency, should it be pushed to extremity : they could only hope for a miraculous in- tervention of Providence to aid them in their duplicity.
'Afeef Bey was commissioned by them to execute at Jerusalem the opposite acts of the Council.
In the flush of triumph attained through the Firmdn, the Greek Patriarch of Jerusalem (who usually resides at
VOL. I. c
18 'AFEEF bey the TURKISH COMMISSIONER.
Constantinople) repaired to his diocese, where he was met by M. Basili, the Eussian Consul-General of Syria, with Prince Garan (the latter bearing for the occasion the nominal office of Vice-Consul) and a suitable train of minor officials ; they entered Jerusalem together in great pomp of reception by the native community.
This was in the first week of September, and on the 15th they were followed by the important Commissioner, 'Afeef Bey. On the approach of the latter, the grandees of the city, including the two native Patriarchs (Greek and Armenian) and the Pashk in person, rode out to afford him an honourable welcome.
The next day I paid him a visit, and found him a gentleman of refined address, tempered by habit and office. He very blandly said that he should pay special attention to any information or counsel I might be willing to give him ; but it became my duty to assure him that I was precluded from mixing ia the transactions then in hand. And, indeed, during all the time of his stay I limited my intercourse with him to topics of common and pubhc attention. This was neces- sary, not on account of any directions ad hocj received from official superiors, for such were generally very rare, and in this stage of proceedings absolutely none : but also from the difficulty of getting exact knowledge on these matters from the parties concerned; and it was evident, as the double-dealing of the Turks soon after- wards came to lights that this was the best line of con- duct to pursue.
Other Consuls, even those not chiefs in the transaction, were not so delicate on the subject, and among the actors
CHRISTIAN PATRIAEOHS AT THE HOLt SEPULCHRE. 19
of the scenes and their adherents, what schemings, what heart-palpitations, what reservations, what guessings at motives, what scannings of words, one by one, as they dropped from the Commissioner, were set in motion during the last three months of the year 1852 I
On October 26 'Afeef Bey invited the Patriarchs and those Consuls whose business it became, to meet him in the Ki&meh, i.e. beneath the great dome and in front of the Holy Sepulchre. There he made an oration, eulogising the well-known anxiety of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan to bestow contentment on all classes and degrees of his subjects, and of which such abundant tokens had been afforded to his illustrious allies, etc., etc., which harangue he protracted till the Greek Patriarch and the Eussian Archimandrite waxed impatient for the reading of the Firm&n which was to secure them the long-expected victory.
Thereupon the Bey invited all the parties to meet him again at the Sepulchre of the Virgin, and when assembled there he slowly read in their hearing an order of the Sultan conferring upon the Latins the privilege of saying mass upon that tomb on the usual commemoration day, from which function they had been many years ex- cluded : this grace was, however, counterbalanced by a regulation that the altar and its orthodox ornaments or furniture were not to be disturbed for that celebration. Here a perfect storm arose on the part of the Latins at this qualification of their privilege, for they declared it impossible to oflSciate with schismatic vessels and a cruci- fix of uncanonical material and form.
The Commissioner rushed hastily out of the hubbub
0 3
20 SCENE AT THE VIRGIN'S SEPULCHRE.
to his lodgings, but thither he was pursued by the Rus- sians who now opened their eyes to the momentous fact that after all the Firm&n had not been read. 'What Firm&n ? * ' Why that Firm&n which you yourself drew up in my presence at Constantinople/ said the Prince Vice-Consul. * Ah I that Firmftn ; well I must say that I have it not with me.' Basili stamped with rage, and at last 'Afeef Bey confessed that he had received no in- structions to bring it, or to communicate its contents.
The Russians then demanded to have a city council of the Moslem grandees convened, with themselves and the Greek Patriarch present, at which meeting an oflScial answer should be given and recorded respecting the Firmfi^n. Poor old Hafiz Pashk (at that time Governor of Jerusalem) summoned the Effendis and the military com- mandant to form the council ; but when they came to- gether, there was no commissioner in attendance, and the Pashk could only say that he had no power to enforce the presence of a commissioner coming on a special duty direct from the Porte — that he knew nothing about the business on which M. Basili had desired them to meet ; he only knew of the Sultan's benevolent disposition towards all classes and degrees of his subjects, etc., etc. And so ended for the moment the solemn farce, the details of which were given me immediately afterwards by one of the personages officially present on the Latin side, who chuckled with admiration at the legerdemain of the Turks to the confusion of both parties.
M. Basili promptly dispatched his Prince Vice-Consul to Jafia to lay hold of any Arab vessel (shakhtoor) that could be got, for conveying the tidings to Constantinople.
Next day I visited the French Consul, M. Botta, and
FIRMANS ARE NOT TREATIES. 21
found him profoundly occupied in writing, surrounded by a mass of protocol-sized papers ; he was in excellent spirits and said that, so far from the litigation about the Sanctu- aries being terminated, it was only then at its proper beginning, and it certainly seemed that this opinion of so laborious a worker in the agitation ought to be considered to a good extent well founded.
In the above proceedings it was natural for the Eussians to attach so much importance to the Firm&n, seeing that in such matters they had nothing but Firmans to rest upon, and could have no other documents, the Greeks of Jerusalem being Eayahs (subjects of the Sultan), while the Latin cause was based upon the superior obligations of a treaty : the difference is this> that a Firm&n is a temporary grant from the Sultan to his subjects, which may possibly on after occasions be re- voked or changed ; but a treaty is a mutual covenant between equals, which can only be cancelled by consent of both parties.
The Turks then adroitly crowned their diplomacy, by sending a new silver star to Bethlehem, as a present from the Sultan, and thus removed this dangerous cause of dispute ; the inscription is again in Latin.^ The replace-
^ Does it not seem incredible that, notwithstcmding all these proceedings and the great war that followed, the very same sacrilege should he attempted afresh in 1S63 or 1864 P The following is found in Consul Rhodes's * Jeru- salem as it is' (London, 1805). At Bethlehem 'we remarked that the nails which secured the points of the silver star to the marble slab, on the birth- place, had been drawn out and the star loosened. This had been done bj the Greeks the night previous to our arrival with the design of removing the star, because of the Latin inscription it bears, which is very obnoxious to them .... The Greeks, however, in their attempt to tear off the star, were surprised by a body of Franciscan monks, who called in the usual peace- makers between the quarrelling Christians of Palestine, the Turkish soldiers, who at once put a stop to the vandalism.' (P. 122.)
22 KEYS GIVEN TO THE LATINS. ANGER OF RUSSIA.
ment was performed with much ceremony by the Latin Patriarch, to the infinite delight of his spiritual subjects, three days before Christmas, so as to be ready for the midnight Mass. At the same time the keys of both the great church there, and of the Crypt of the Holy Manger, were delivered to the Latins by the Commissioner, whose labours thus were closed.
The anger and disappointment of the Orthodox Church both in Syria and Eussia were extreme. Our Parlia- mentary Blue-Books describe the state of mind of the great Czar at this betrayal of what he considered his rights; and the despatch to Baron Brunnow declaring the Imperial sentiment was immediately followed by the march of the fifth corps darmee to the frontier of the Danube, to be followed again by the fourth, the total amounting to 144,000 men, and shortly afterwards, during the Austrian remonstrance against the Turks putting down by force the insurrection of Montenegro (or Kara-dagh, in Turkish), the Russians took the opportunity of grafting upon that remonstrance (which, however, did not belong to them, being entirely an Austrian question) a protest and threat of their own; but these are matters of European history rather than ours, and would have been so exclusively, had not the Czar appended to the instruc- tions given to their mission extraordinary at Constanti- nople the subject of the Holy places in Palestine.
The connecting link between Montenegro and Jeru- salem was a thread of extreme tenuity, scarcely percep- tible without explanation, namely that in both localities the Turks were supposed to be oppressors of Christianity under the form of that orthodox creed which Bussia upholds.
PRINCE MENSHIKOFP AND BRITISH AMBASSADOR. 23
The European politics of the Latin cause received an additional impetus at the same tilne from the elevation of Louis Napoleon to the Empire of the French, a circum- stance which undoubtedly threw immense weight into that scale.
Prince Menshikoff arrived at Constantinople on the special mission with the new year 1853, during the absence of the chiefs of both French and English Embassies. The comportment of the Prince forms an episode in history not easily forgotten by students of the Blue-Books, or of the pictorial pages of Kinglake.
The English Ambassador, now raised to the peerage, returned from London just in time to mediate, at their own request, between the disputants for the Holy places, with respect to which two great points had been already de- cided : — L The silver star and the keys of Bethlehem ; 2. The annual service at the Virgin's Sepulchre. But some delicate though minor items were as yet unsettled. They were matters chiefly of routine or precedence which the outside world would regard as of little value, but which were not so considered by the heated parties engaged about them. In little more than a fortnight all was concluded upon a footing which stiU subsists, and is likely to do so until some national convulsion, such as a European conquest of Syria, shall require a new arrange- ment.
The Sultan's share in the happy termination amounted to this, that the silver star was to be looked upon as his donation, without conferring any exclusive right upon the Latins notwithstanding the language of its inscription, and the great Cupola of the Ki&meh was to be repaired at
24 DISPUTE SETTLED.
his cost, without alteration in its forra.^ And thus ended the controversy upon Convent privileges or rights in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, April 22, 1853.
Yet the matter of Christian protection in Turkey by Europeans, which had been called up, now showed itself like the cockatrice from the serpent's root CIsaiah xvi. 29). The simile of a Phoenix springing from the ashes of its predecessor would not here apply, inasmuch as the new apparition was no creature of beauty, but a ghastly monster which arose, menacing sorrow and destruction to large hosts of mankind.
In this sketch of Palestine during the Eussian war it is not intended to discuss the politics of London, Paris, St. Petersburg, Constantinople or Vienna : these can be suflSciently learned elsewhere, and indeed they were not clearly understood at the time in Jerusalem, excepting such incidents as the never-to-be-forgotten conversations of the Czar with Sir H. Seymour respecting * the sick man,' and the division of his property — the proceedings of Prince Menshikoff at the Porte, and the fate that befell his ultimatum. In the expected dislocation of Eastern aflairs we should probably have been surprised at no unusual occurrence, hardly perhaps at a French or Russian invasion, which, however, among oflScials, was a topic kept out of conversation : of rumours we had an ample fci^iDply. Those were not the days for us of daily telegraphic oe^mtches, but the uneasy pubhc mind re- quired food for s^culation. That food was provided by
» This item was afteiwards modified by consent of aU concerned. The dome was repaired and Tl^hXy decorated in 1869, at the joint expense of the three Emperors (French, Russian, and Turlrish), after protracted delays since the project was first hrouLht forward.
I
RUMOURS OF WAR. GUNPOWDER SMUGGLED. 25
foreign consuls and their dependants, by travellers, by the convents, and by the Turkish employes or bazaar newsmongers. Strange was the medley; and feverish restlessness was the effect created.
Sometimes the German Consular folk circulated (often prematurely) inconsistent intelligence about Eussia and Austria at Constantinople ; for the after policy of the German Powers was not at that time exactly defined. Then a traveller from the United States reported what he had seen of the French fleet at Toulon, where there were thirty-seven ships of the line, four of them above 120 guns each, ready to set sail at command in thirty minutes.
Again in the middle of April, at Jaffa, an attempt was discovered to smuggle in twenty-three barrels of gun- powder by a Bethlehemite of the Greek rite ; the powder was seized and sequestrated into the castle there ; the lighterman was imprisoned, ki such a crisis the circum- stance was not without its significancy. Were the native Greeks preparing to help the Eussian cause directly, or only indirectly, by selling gunpowder to the peasantry and thus promoting their faction fights, by which the country might be thrown into a state of anarchy? About the same time our English travellers in the hotel became accustomed, as I w«s told, to indulge in plain speaking on the subject of Eussian spies. This was done with unusual emphasis one day, expressing a hope that if there should be any such unhappy persons among the strangers present, they should hear something that might do them good ; and at that moment a gentleman, not English, was seated in a comer of the long sofa, reading my ' Britannia ' news- paper, which had been sent down for travellers' use.
26 RUSSIAN EMBASSY LEAVES THE CAPITAL.
The speakers went on, each one retailing anecdotes that had come to his knowledge while traversing the conti- nent of Europe, about spies frequenting the ' tables d'h6te.' Thus was mere daily chat infected with the all-pervading topic.
Next in the same month of April we learned from *the ordinary, sources of public intelligence' that the authorities in Trieste were carrying out martial law with vigour against the English, as well as against the inhabi- tants of the place, but that had possibly no immediate connection with the great Eastern question which ab- sorbed our attention. War gossip filled the air.
Then, at the end of May, we were assured that H. E. Easheed Pashk being again in office as Grand Vizier, war had been declared by Turkey against Kussia. The French and Prussian Consuls were positive on the sub- ject, but the Austrian was diplomatically not so certain. On the contrary, June 3, Count Nostitz, commander of a Eussian ship of war, on his arrival told us that he had left Alexandria on the 21st ult., where at that date they had not heard of Prince Menshikoff leaving Con- stantinople.
On the 7th we heard for certain that the Bussian Embassy had left the capital ; but it was said that this did not of itself amount to a declaration of war.
The Austrian Consul was now sure that hostilities were to commence on the 3rd of Bairam (probably this meant Shawwal), that is to say after the lapse of a month, as it was probable the 'Ul^ma calculated upon that being a fortunate day for beginning so weighty an enterprise. At last on the 13th came intelligence of importance, for
RUSSIAN INVASION OF THE PMNCIPALmES. 27
we learned that the Muscovites had entered the Danubian principalities on the 27th ult., and that as this move very seriously concerned Austria as well as Turkey, the former had found it necessary to adopt correspondent action, and had pronounced itself to be in alliance with England and France. Prussia was said to have done so a fortnight earlier, but no Power had as yet in form declared war. In reality, however, the tedious Vienna conferences dragged on for three months longer, with the aim of averting if possible the evils of warfare upon so large a scale as was impending over us.
On receipt of the tidings that Eussia had really in- vaded the principalities, I sent to the Eussian Archiman- drite Porphyrios, enquiring if the news could be depended on. He replied that their army had really entered Wallachia (as the two provinces were then usually called throughout Turkey), and, pointing to luggage lying ready for transport upon mules and camels, said, ' See I am preparing to leave you at a minute's notice.'
That day the French and Prussian Consuls went off to Bayroot and Constantinople in search of information and instructions as to conduct ; they remained about three weeks absent.
28
CHAPTER n.
THE PARTIES IN DISPUTE — GREEKS ATO) LATINS — THE EASTERN AND THE WESTERN CHURCH — THEIR HISTORY.
Greek Church regarded by the Turks as Church of the country, since Con- quest by Omar, CdiV-Oreeks in Palestine consist of native laity and parish priests, with foreign Greek higher clergy and bishops — Crusades to them a 'Papal Aggression* — Natives of Palestine excluded from the monasteries — ^Hence all the Higher Cleiyry are Foreign Greeks — (h«ek Convent, i.e. 'Dair-er-Room* — Patriarchate — Patriarch Cyril — Wealth of the Convents — House property in Jerusalem and Lands beyond the Walls — Archimandrite Nikephoros — Greek Church at the Holy Sepulchre — Russian Gold in the Bazaars — Armenians, their Convent and Patri- arch— Their supreme Pontiff, the Cathoghigos at Utch-Miazin, now a Russian subject — ^Russian Church — Byzantine Empire new Rome — Syrian, Coptic and Abyssinian Churches in Jerusalem — Latin or Western Church — Old Rome — Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem— Crusades — Franciscan Friars established in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, 1234 — ' Terra-Santa' Pil- grimages— Latin Convents — Alms from Europe — Casa-Nuova Hospice — Convent Authorities — Statistics — Latin Festivals at various Sanctuaries — Pilgrim Certificate — ^Revival of Latin Patriarchate in 1848 — Monsignor Joseph Valesga — His State entry into Jerusalem — First public Latin ceremonial since fall of the Crusading Kingdom — Position of the Latin Patriarch towards other Churches, and towards the Latin Terra-Santa Convents — Licence to a Priest — Ship's Patent for Terra Santa.
Before proceeding with a narrative of events, it may be as well to remind ourselves with special clearness as to who were the parties in dispute for the Holy places, and how they were circumstanced.
In common parlance they are designated the Latins and the Greeks — i.e. the ' Catholic ' and the ' Orthodox '
THE GREEK CHURCH IN PALESTINE. 29
churches, respectively — ^whether correctly so named with regard to theology is not our concern ; but such are their self-assumed appellations. The Greek Church was re- garded by the Turkish Government as the church of the country, estabhshed before the Moslem conquest by Omar.
In Jerusalem the Greek commimion consists of native (Palestine) laity and their parish clergy, with foreign, that is to say, real Greek archimandrites and bishops presiding over them. These people, as a Church, are representatives of the primitive Hebrew and Syrian Christians of the coimtry, and also of the Greek Christian Empire, in succession of race, church, language, and residence. They are the same community that held out Jerusalem against the Caliph Omar, and with whom, on their surrender, he made his treaty of capitulation, a.d. 636. The fullest account of their ecclesiastical organisation is to be found in Williams's * Holy City,' second edition.
To them the period of the Crusades, beginning in the eleventh century, was one of sheer disaster. It was one of ' P^tpal aggression,' for the Latin Church then became dominant under a Latin Patriarch, and their ' Orthodox * clergy, being displaced, took refuge at first in Petra, then elsewhere as they could find shelter ; but on the restora- tion of Moslem rule by Saladin, the native Christians received once more their proper clergy, smiling, we may suppose, at their departing oppressors styling themsleves ' Catholic;
In the sixteenth century the Orthodox Committee in Constantinople, which is named the ' Brethren of the Holy Sepulchre,' under their Patriarch Germanus, passed
30 THE GREEK PATRIARCH OF JERUSALEM.
enactments excluding natives of Palestine from their monasteries for ever, and whereas in this, as in all Oriental churches, the bishops and other dignitaries are elected from among the monks only, the natives are thus ren- dered incapable of attaining to office or dignity ecclesias- tical ; they can only become secular clergy, that is to say, parish curates, who are commonly married men, miserably poor.
It so comes to pass that the entire administration of this ancient church throughout Palestine is understood to be in the hands of the ' Dair-er-Boom,' i.e. the Greek convent, the popular concrete designation of the whole.
The Patriarch of Jerusalem, ruling over the territories of Palestine, Phoenicia, Idumaea, and Arabia Petrasa, is always a foreigner, and almost always an absentee at Constantinople, conducting politics and intrigues with the Porte.
The Greek Patriarch in 1853 was Cyril, a fine old gentleman of great urbanity of manner — self-possessed and dignified — not easily to be forgotten by anyone whom he received in the spacious rooms of the Greek convent, where he lived when in Jerusalem. The great divan of scarlet, over which was spread a leopard-skin, was in good keeping with the stately figure of the Patriarch, in his robes of rich black satin, with immense diamonds and emeralds surrounding the enamel painting of the Eedeemer on his breast.
The Greek convent is to the Moslems and Turks the representative body of this chief among the Christian communities, as they naturally regard the Greek Church, which was the one in possession when Omar conquered
THE CHRISTIAN CONVENTS. 31
Jerusalem, and with whom the terms of capitulation were arranged. The other Churches have also their respective convents.
All the convents — Greek, Latin, and Armenian — possess untold riches in jewels and goi^eous vestments, the presents of foreign monarchs or other great benefactors — the vestments more numerous than can be crowded for exhibition into any single celebration with however many changes of mitres, dalmatics, or chasubles. Those of the Latin convent were in modem times derived mostly from Spain and Austria. The Greek and Armenian convents receive costly presents from Eussia, and from wealthy votaries in Constantinople. The latter has re- sources also among the richest merchants of their com- munity in Ladia.
These Oriental convents lay up vast stores annually of food and fuel, which their funds and influence enable them to procure from the villages at peculiar advantage. It need scarcely be added that the dignity of these insti- tutions is paramount among the laity of their respective communions, and was much more so in the old times, when these had no other protectors from the tyranny and rapacity of the dominant Moslems.
Even at this day, though with less of irregularity, the Efiendis of the town-council, together with those holding oflSces of governmental trust, such as police, etc., derive considerable emoluments from the dissensions among these establishments, which have so much money at command, and are always soliciting their votes and patronage in the council.
The Greek convents in Jerusalem are numerous,
32 GREEK HOUSE PROPERTY AND LANDS.
chiefly for residence of men, and the principal one is that of ' Constantine ; ' the ' monks live well, and show the effects of it in their portly presence ; also when they ride abroad, and that is not uncommon, they display the best horses that can be procured, short of the 'Aseeleh class of the wilderness ; or if mounted on mules, as old men may be seen mounted, they must have showy trappings.
It is unnecessary to describe in detail the several churches or other property belonging to this corporation within the walls further than to say that, besides main- taining without diminution its ancient property, it has for several years past pursued a scheme of buying up houses, or shops, or waste ground, or even fractions (kir&ts or twenty- fourth parts) of such properties all over the city indiscriminately, till it is believed that more than a quarter of the whole has come into their hands as free- hold piurchase.
Without the walls the * Greek Convent ' has, more- over, of late years made large acquisitions of land, which have been carefully dressed and planted, mostly with mul- berry trees for supply of silk works, a very praiseworthy undertaking. This species of property, together with the employment of the peasantry which the cultivation of it necessarily requires, gives them an influence among the rural population which other parties would be glad to obtain ; while their town acquisitions and their mone- tary wealth, freely used in the several judicial courts of local government, tell also in this latter direction, till the very name of ' Dair-er-Eoom ' becomes a tahsman of power far outside the circle of its ecclesiastical concerns.
Among the rules of this corporation it . may be noted
GREEK CHURCH AT THE HOLY SEPULCHRE. 33
■
that, on embracing the monastic profession, the votaries are not boxmd by a vow of poverty : consequently they retain their former possessions during life ; at death, how- ever, property falls into the general fund. Thus it hap- pens that when Archimandrite Nikephoros, or Priest Ben- jamin, purchases and improves lands (for such persons, being natives of the Turkish Archipelago, are, like other subjects of the Porte, at Uberty to purchase and hold lands or houses), they have a life-interest in the same, and in the process of improvement, they are preparing the estate to come to the Convent in better condition at their decease.
The large and gorgeously decorated Greek church, standing among the other places of worship which are grouped around the Holy Sepulchre, togetlier with their multitudinous pilgrims annually collected from many parts of the world, and their splendid processions, all these give likewise to the ' Orthodox ' community a great and envied position in the Holy City, besides the circumstance of having had at all times so conspicuous a share in guardianship of the Sanctuaries at Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth. The Greek authorities were anxious, when the war broke out, to remind all with whom they came into contact, thatat this juncture they were loyal subjects of the Porte, and were no more dependants of Eussia. Still it seemed that they must have some regard for that nation, of a kindred faith, who annually contributed for maintenance of the Sanctuaries no less a sum than 3,000i. a year.
Eussian gold five-rouble pieces had been well knqwn and very common in Jerusalem three years before the
VOL. L D
34 RUSSIAN GOLD. ARMENIANS. RUSSIAN CHURCH.
Crimean war. Indeed, at times no other coin of about the same value was in ordinary circulation in the bazaars. From 1848 onwards -much of this gold passed through the hands of the Archimandrite Nikephoros, whom the peasantry on this account called * Aboo Dhahab ' — ' The Father of Gold.'
The Greeks were in reality not wiUing to come abso- lutely under the yoke and dominion of Kussia, while on the other hand some portion, at least, of the Eussian people regarded this invasion of Turkey as entering into the * old Byzantine ' ' new Eoman ' Empire, and the Czar as its lineal and natural sovereign, even irrespective of his being the head of the Church. They also regarded the Franks as schismatics.
It does not belong to this subject of the world's de- bate of 1853-6 to make reference hereto the other oriental Christian churches, beyond mentioning that the wealthy and powerful Armenian Convent, with its resident Patriarch, having its Supreme Pontiff, the Cathoghigos, at XJtch-Miazin, within the limits of modern Eussia, may be not unfairly judged to entertain some favourable inclina- tion towards the Czar's interests; they, however, in Jerusalem professed extreme loyalty to the Turkish Sultan.
The established church of Eussia is a daughter of the Holy Orthodox Apostolical communion, that is to say, of the Greek Church here under consideration, by having received therefrom its early Christianity ; hence it is that the Emperor of all the Eussias, with his huge political might, pays particular respect to the Church at Jerusalem, and has long been in the habit of bestowing upon it pre-
SYRIANS. COPTS. ABYSSINIANS. THE lATTXS. 35 I
sents not only of money, but of church furnitiu-e and church pictures, besides employing to his utmost extent an active interference on its behalf with the Turkish government, to which by far the greatest portion of the Orthodox Church is subject in European and other pro- vinces, as well as in the Holy City, Jerusalem. We have seen a church picture with a Kussian inscription on its frame at the solitary town of Es-Salt, in the wilderness beyond Jordan.
There were other churches represented in the Holy Gty, who were not involved in the great controversy. Among these was the ancient Syrian Church, which claims to be the Primitive Gentile Church founded at Antioch by the Apostles, and considers the Greek Church much in the light of a usurper, which, after the accession to Empire of C/onstan tine, despoiled it of the very Sanctuaries now in dispute. There were also the African Churches, the Coptic and the Abyssinian, also very ancient, and these too had suffered hard usage in past times from both the great antagonists. They all now looked on, wondering whereunto these things would grow.
The Latin or Western Church.
The Western Church — now as heretofore the great antagonist of the Greek Church — ^had only been brought into contact with the Moslem rulers of the Land at the Crusades. On the great schism of Eastern and Western Christendom in the ninth century, the latter division, broadly speaking, was limited to Europe : it had Latin for its language instead of Greek, and the city of Old Eome for its metropolis.
I) 2
3G THE LATIN CHURCH IN PALESTINE. FRANCISCANS.
Among the confused historical notices that we have of times in early succession to the Mohammedan conquest of Jerusalem, it appears that, during the seventh and eighth centuries^ the native Church of Palestine became so disordered in discipline (I omit considerations of doc- trine) that the Pope of Kome was frequently appealed to for nomination of their Patriarchs, and accordingly several were installed upon a Eoman appointment. This was a perilous state of things, but afterwards the Church recovered her freedom of action, which she retained till the era of the Crusades. Diuing the continuance of the Latin kingdom (less than a century), her official frame- work * could only be preserved at a distance, as before stated.
Under the Latin kings and Crusaders the Franciscan friars, of the Order ' Minores observantes,' set up orato- ries for themselves in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, a.d. 1234, six years after the original foundation of the Franciscan brotherhood. They have ever since held part possession of those stations, watching at the Holy Manger and the Holy Sepulchre by supplies of a few brethren at a time coming from Europe, amidst persecution or sometimes martyrdom, alternated by occasional grants or favours conferred by the Moslem government at the inter- cession of the French ambassadors.
But such sufferings they only shared in common with the Greek monks.
In a retrospection through * the Dark Ages ' no in- dication is found of the Latins being at any time the ex- clusive custodians of the Christian Sanctuaries — only we have their own designation of themselves as the ' Terra
TERRA SANTA. LATIN PILGRIMS. 37
Santa.' The presumption would naturally lean the other way in &vour of the subjects of the local dominion, and this view would seem to be borne out by a passage that has been cited from the * Travels of Archbishop David of Ephesus,' A.D. 1470, in which, after details concerning sanctuaries and ceremonials in Bethlehem, he adds these words, * The heterodox likewise enter here and have divine service in the holy place itself ; ' ^ evidently meaning the Latins, as if their separate services were allowed as an indulgence. It was clearly his opinion that the Franks were only there upon sufferance.
During the after periods, every book of travels by Europeans gives us notice of the existence of the Terra- Santa friars ; as in fact their hospices were the only places where the writers could find lodging, and into their ears the unhappy inmates were accustomed to * pour the sad tale of all their cares,' describing the ill-usage received from both their Mohammedan tyrants in city and country, and from their rivals, the Oriental Christians. With re- spect to the former we have Niebuhr, in 1761, saying thus : — * The European monks, who are now the only pilgrims that visit the Holy Land, describe those Arabs (between Eamlah and Jerusalem) as devils incarnate, and complain dolefully of their cruelty to the poor Christians. Those lamentations, and the superstitious piety of good souls in Europe, procure large ^ms to the convent of Franciscans at Jerusalem. The exaggerated relations of the sufferings of the pilgrims, from those inhuman Bedouins, will therefore be continued as long as they can serve the purpose for which they were intended.'
^ Aia T^ Koi Tov$ rr€podo|ovf cV avr^ r^ dyi» roxr^ citrcpp^co-^ai Koi
38 FliANCISCAN CONVENTS AND CHURCHES.
And with regard to the latter, we find in the ' Prospetto generale dei Francescani, da 1768 sino 1856/ the piercing putcry that ' il santissimo sepolcro sta in com- mune con i Qreci ed Armeni scismatici. Ahi dolore ! — gli scismatici semper parati adprcedam'
In 1570 the Tm-kish rulers expelled the Franciscans from their house at Nebi Daood on Mount Zion, where the coenaculum (or apartment of the original Lord's Supper) formed part of their establishment ; there they had been since 1365, and they removed to the spacious building which they now hold close against the city wall, inside on the north-west ; they always, however, repre- sent this removal as a case of persecution, for the coena- culum is regarded by them as the oldest possible house of distinctive Christian worship in the world, the site where Mass was first celebrated, and that by our Lord himself. They have, however, purchased a privilege of holding occasional services in that chamber, and of per- mission to conduct pilgrims thither.
At Eamlah, a Spanish convent of the same Order was annexed to the hospice at the beginning of the eighteenth century.
During the French revolution, the friars were made to suffer on account of their prior dependance for outside protection upon the French nation, at that time in a state of hostility to the Ottoman Porte ; most of their hospices and some churches were demohshed, such as those of the Flagellation in Jerusalem, St. Peter at Tiberias, and the hospice in St. Jean d'Acre. The community was of course subjected, as they had been long before, to avanias^ which are forced contributions of money, levied at random times,
FRIARS IN FORMER DAYS. 39
and often without any other reason assigned than sic volo^ sicjubeo.
After that period, as travelling eastwards became less rare, and reading more common, complaints are found in books of travels, of the ignorance, bigotry, and self-indul- gence of these same friars. Thus Lamartine, about 1830 (vol. ii., p. 59), describes them as the lowest peasants of Spain or Italy, some as runaway conscripts, or political refugees, wasting away life in indolence, having no other employment than keeping up the routine of chapel ser- vices, walking on the terraces or roofs, or framing cabals, Spaniards against Italians, or the converse ; entirely ignorant of geography, of Scripture history, or the writings of the Fathers— devoured by ennui, and sighing for a return to Europe, with, however, the honoiu-able exception of a few who troubled themselves with learn- ing Arabic and serving as parish curates. A vessel arrived every two or three years for effecting removals or changes among them. ' Their bams and cellars are well stocked, their edifices are well kept up, and they lead a lifeof comparative wealth.' . . .* I heard of no scandals of life .... they are simply and sincerely credulous (in the matters of their silly traditions).' 'At Nazareth,' this author found * not one able to maintain a rational conversation even on subjects peculiarly their own ; ' but some in that convent were leading 'a holy life of ardent faith and active charity, humble, mild, patient, and willing servants to the brethren and to strangers.' Such were the impressions recorded by Lamartine.
The alms supplied from Europe for the general sup- port of Terra-Santa institutions then amounted to be-
40 CASA NUOVA. CONVENT AUTHORITIES.
tween three and four hundred thousand francs (12,000Z. to 15,000/.) annually, which were employed according to circumstances by the Father Superior.
In still later times, it is to be hoped that the character of that fraternity in Palestine is somewhat improved. In my time I never heard of disorderly life among them ; only the Consuls and others used to complain of their stupidity of ideas and obstinacy. In Jerusalem they conducted day-schools for children, and a printing-press ; they also kept up, for form's sake, that rule of their Order which enjoins a subsistence on mendicancy, one of their number going round occasionally to a few houses with a bag, asking for contributions of food, of which, as may be believed, they are far from being themselves in need, thanks to the funds supplied from Europe ; but the rule of St. Francis does not preclude them from distributing to the poor at their gates what they have collected in the bags.
The authorities always aim at maintaining one English subject among their number in Jerusalem, and this is useftil for intercourse with our travellers arriving at their hospice called the Casa Nuova: the one left there in 1863 was an Irishman, who by no means con- fined himself to that simple office : he was always ready as a guide to the Sanctuaries, and inveighing with characteristic fervour in the cause to which he was attached.
The government of Terra Santa lies in—
1 . The Vicar-father^ who in former times was always a Frenchman, when French monks existed there.
SPANISH CONVENTS. CARMELITES ON MT. CARMEL. 41
2. The Fiscal-procurator^ who is always a Spaniard,
3. The Gustos or chief, styled ' Keverendissiino,' who in fact is always an Italian, although no others than French are excluded from that office.
The accounts are audited every month. The treasury, which is an iron chest, has three keys, one kept by the Gustos, one by the Procurator, and the other by a secretarv.
The convents of St. John's ('Ain Carem), a few miles distant from Jerusalem, and that of Cyprus, are exclu- sively Spanish, that of Eamlah mostly so.
The monastery of the Carmehtes, on Mount Carmel, is independent of these Franciscans of Terra Santa, and has its own special history as well as affairs, of which much might be said if necessary here.
In the course of a conversation once held with the Latin Patriarch, His Grace lamented the paucity of sub- jects imder his jurisdiction ; for he stated that among all classes of them, and throughout the Holy Land (a term which in their reckoning includes Northern Syria, Egypt, and Cyprus) he could scarcely estimate their census at half a million.
In the general report of Franciscans in the Holy Land, delivered in 1856 by the ex-Custos, Bernardo di Monte- franco, to the chapter-general in Kome, the details are as follows among other items, and omitting those of Egypt and Northern Syria.
The parishes constituted in Palestine are seven-^
Jerusalem I Jaffa Kamlah | . Acre
Bethelehem Nazareth.
St. John's
42
STATISTICS. CONVENT HOSPITALITIES.
Classification and Number of the Fraternity.
|
Ex-provincials . |
. 2 |
Disengaged |
. 3 |
|
Apostolical missionaries . |
. 45 |
Cleric |
. 1 |
|
Penitentiaries . . . , |
10 |
Professed laymen |
. 92 |
|
Preachers, not missionaries |
6 |
Clerical novice |
. 1 |
|
Teachers of boys' schools , |
16 |
Tertiary . , * . |
. 1 |
|
Visiting priests . . . . |
40 |
(But it is to be noted that in this table some individuals are probably included in more than one of the classes. The lay-friars are still in the majority.)
At each convent alms are distributed to poor natives, of food, clothing, and, in some instances, of medicine. The hospices entertain pilgrims or travellers gratuitously.
(Thus far the Franciscan Eeport.)
At these last-named establishments, by order of the College of the Propaganda in Eome, with consent of the Venerable Council (Discretorium) of Terra Santa in Jerusalem, pilgrims are lodged and fed in Jerusalem for a whole month gratuitously, and in all others about the country, for three days. European travellers, however, usually bestow donations on their departure, equal to the amount of a good hotel-bill, and some very much more.
As for medicines, the friars who attend to that department are for the most part extremely ignorant of their science, but from practice it cannot be but that they acquire some knowledge of the simple diseases of the country, and of remedies to be applied. In Jerusalem there is a regular hospital and dispensary, independent of the convent, to which the French Government largely contributes.^
^ We are only speaking of medical relief with which the Terra Santa has any relation. Several other communities now have hospitals of their own in Jerusalem, Jafia^ and Nazareth (1872).
LATIN LOCAL FESTIVALS. PILGRIM CERTIFICATE. 43
0
Besides the great festivals of the Church, there are local celebrations in Palestine of conventual appointment, viz. : at Tiberias for St. Peter's day (June 30). The monks leave Nazareth and hold a convivial feast at Cana ; also one on the traditional Mount of Beatitudes, and at the supposed site of miraculously feeding the five thou- sand upon the way to Tiberias ; then, on the return, upon the summit of Tabor, and at the fabulous Mount of Precipitation. The excursion lasts four days.
At Bethany, the raising of Lazarus is commemorated on July 22, besides a service held at the reputed house, or rather some of the old foundations believed to belong to the house of Simon the leper, on the Friday after the first Sunday in Lent.
On Mount Carmel, and the Mar EHas, which is half- way between Jerusalem and Bethlehem, the festival of St. Elijah (Elias) is held in July, and maintained for several days with much animation by the Christian population arriving even from long distances.
Previous to 1848 the ' Eeverendissimo of Terra Santa ' was the highest authority of Latin interest in the country. He performed not. only the functions of a Bishop, but was Deputy Grand-Master of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre. In his name the certificates were issued to pilgrims of their having performed their vows.^
» THE PILGRIM CERTIFICATE.
[Translation.] In the name of God. Amen.
To all and singular who may see, read, or hear thia letter read. We^ Custos of the Terra Santa, do certify and notify, that ■ arrived
safely on the day and on the following days visited the principal
Sanctuaries in which the Saviour of the world mercifully delivered His chosen people, together with the lost generations of the human race, from the slavery
44 REVIVAL OF LATIN PATRIARCHATE.
The Reverendissimo of Terra Santa also granted licences to trading ships in the Levant for ciirrying the Jerusalem flag of five crosses gules^ in virtue of which they enjoyed certain exemptions on the part of local governors, based on the theory that they were bringing provisions from Europe for support of the convents — ^a duty in our days utterly unrequired.^
Revival of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem.
In 1848, however, a novel sense of elasticity was imported into Roman Catholic affairs iii Palestine and Syria by the revival of the office of Patriarch of Jerusa- salem, which had lain in abeyance since the epoch of the Crusades. The use of the words ' elasticity ' and * novel' impUes the previous existence of a contrary, a proportionately * dead weight,' and such indeed was the case. It could not be otherwise in a time of non-persecu- tion, while the spiritual, and very much of the temporal, rule over the natives adhering to this creed lay in the
of Hell : namely Oalyary where being nailed to the cross, l^y OYeicoming death He opened to us the gates of Heaven — Also the most holy sepulchre wherein His most sacred body reposed for three days before His most glorious reeurrection^-Al^ all the holy places of Palestine, sanctified by the footsteps of the Lord, and of most Blessed Mary, His mother : and such others as are accustomed to be visited by our devotees and pilgrims.
In faith whereof, we h^ve commanded this document, funiis)ie4 with our seal, to be delivered by our Secretary.
Given at the Holy Oity of Jerusalem in the Venerable Convent of St. Salvatore.
day month, &c. By command of the Very Reverend Father in Ohrist,
(Signed)
^ For an amusing account of the fate of such a cargo when t^vken by pirates, see Memoirs of Lady Hester Stanhope/ vol. i., pp. 32, 34, 30. This occuiTed in 1837,
MONSIGNOPtE JOSEPH VALERGA. 45
hands of heavy and ignorant friars. Even their own monastic affairs were mismanaged ; they made no efforts to keep up with the progress of events, small as that was, around them : for since the restoration of the Ottoman Government in 1840, inteUigent travellers to the Holy Land became multiplied — the Greek clergy and laity were, in some perceptible degree, awaking from a long lethargy ; so were the Armenians, and Protestants had already received their second bishop. A restoration of the Patriarchate was therefore resolved on in Eome, to wield authority over all persons of its communion in Syria and Cyprus, thereby withdrawing episcopal func- tions from the monastic guardian of the holy places.
The ecclesiastic selected for the office was one of some previous note, a Genoese named Joseph Valerga, who had in early life served as secretary to a Papal dele- gate in Syria, then as missionary in Baghdad, Mosul, and Persia, in which latter capacity he had evinced a fervour of temperament equalling that of the friars in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, for on one occasion, by pushing forward ultra claims in some professional business, he got into a street riot, and to this day carries a bullet lodged in his neck, then received.^
He was at the time of his promotion to Jerusalem in full vigour of life^ about forty years of age, and enjoy- ing a reputation of being learned in several Oriental lan- guages. He studied sufficient dignity of deportment, and his people addressed him by the title of * Your Grace.'
The advent had been prepared among us by a mission from M. Guizot, of Eugene Bor^, formerly the French
* The Patriarch Valerga is now dead.— Ed.
46 STATE ENTRY OF THE PATRIARCH.
Consul in Damascus, and sanguinary persecutor of the Jews upon the false accusation implied in the asserted death of Father Thomas (a.d. 1840). At this time M. Bore was a member of the Jesuit Society, and regarded as one in the very odour of sanctity. Within the Terra Santa convent he abode in seclusion for a time.^
The actual arrival of the Patriarch was an event of no common interest to the Eoman Catholic body — exul- tation to some, but disappointment and dislike to the conventual party.
In order to make the entrance to the holy city deli- berate and formal, his Grace did not come direct from Jaffa and Eamlah, but passed the night at the convent of St. John's, or 'Ain Carem, so as to have only two hours for the morning ride. He was accompanied by a numerous train from Jaffa, including several Vice-Consuls from that place, with their officials.
In the morning, besides the French and Sardinian Consuls (then the only Eoman Catholic Consuls in the country) in full uniform, with their appropriate trains ; a deputation from the .Turkish authority, consisting of the Pashk's dragoman, the city treasurer, and the chief of the police, each with his staff of subordinates ; and all towns- men of the Eomish creed, in gala costume, on horseback ; together with armed peasants, Latins from the Christian villages, advanced to 'Ain Carem for the escort of the Patriarch. The wild hills and the quiet valleys, over which they passed in the approach to Jerusalem, re-
* He was afterwards sent to Ohina, and on his way out, when visiting the Pope, His Holiness bestowed on him a special benediction with thanks for his zeal in defence of the Faith^ as shown in Damascus.
PROCESSION IN THE STREET. 47
sounded with shouts and screams of joy, and a running accompaniment of musket shots (the pieces on festive occasions are usually loaded with ball, in order to increase the loudness of the report), which were all redoubled on coming within view of the Holy City. It is superfluous to mention that these demonstrations were not assisted by the Christians of any other communion.
It was a cold but bright wintry day of February, and the city was all astir at the novelty of the proceedings. The house prepared as the patriarchal residence was not far within the Jaffa Gate, but the Patriarch did not go there first. Passing on towards the Latin convent, the Patriarch was met opposite the Convent Hospice by the monks amid a clerical procession in sacerdotal vest- ments, bearing a canopy (baldacchlno), and fiiars carry- ing huge hghted tapers. The Patriarch assumed his robes and jewelled mitre in the open air, and passing by his door they all proceeded, chanting the ' Te Deum laudamus,' through the street to the convent church of St. Salvatore (St. Saviour's), where a long service of in- stallation was performed.
The French Consul takes precedence on all occasions in which Latin interests are concerned, being the Consul for the nation whose title is * Protector of Christianity in the East.' The Sardinian Consul, however (while yielding place to his French colleague), also appeared in state on this occasion — not merely as the Consul to whose nation the Patriarch, Monsignore Valerga (a Piedmontese), belonged personally by birth. He did not Wear his usual consular uniform of dark blue and gold, but was seen for the first time in a new uniform of brilliant
48 FIRST PUBLIC LATIN CEREMONY SINCE CRUSADES.
scarlet. We were informed that on this important occa- sion he regarded himself, not so much as Consul, but as taking part in the ceremonies in tlie capacity of Envoy of the King of Jerusalem — one of the titles claimed by the King of Sardinia. How strange this sounded within the walls of the Holy City, amid all the stir and excitement consequent on the revival of the Latin Patriarchate and the first public ceremonial of the great church of the West since the fall of the Crusading Kingdom ! On this day the streets had once more re-echoed the chant of white-robed choristers with priests and friars, bearing aloft the sacred emblems in . public procession, amid long disused pomp, with glitter of gold and jewels, and, strangest of all, ushered through the narrow streets by Turkish officials and by the Moslem KawwAses, not only those attached to the Roman Catholic Consulates, but by the Kaww&ses which Tiu-kish liberality of nde allows each head of a religious community, in recognition of his rank in the state. The Oriental Patriarchs had their Kaww&ses, the Chief Rabbi had his, so had the English Bishop, then, of course, the Latin Patriarch was entitled to have his also.
The English Consulate had, of course, no direct official relations with this Patriarchate any more than with those of the Greeks and Armenians, but formal visits were annually paid to such dignitaries, and received in return at the new year and Easter periods, also on our Queen's birthday.
When the Pope's anniversary festival was notified by the Patriarch in 1849, it so happened that the Pope was then in exile from his own dominions, so that he couH
THE LEARNING AND TALENTS OF THE PATRMRCH. 49
scarcely be regarded as a temporal sovereign, and there- fore no visit was paid to the Patriarch, as his representa- tive, by the Protestant Consuls, and the future recurrence of it was never announced to them.
I always continued on friendly personal terms with Monsignore Valerga, for we could converse on topics of European politics or of Oriental learning. At one time I lent him the two great volumes of the Bible as recently translated into vernacular Chaldsean by the Armenian missionaries of Oroomiah, and at another opportunity offered assistance in procuring publication, by means of our learned societies at home, of any particular manu- scripts that he might desire. This was after he had shown me several Syriac manuscripts of great rarity and beauty collected by himself in Mesopotamia.
The Patriarch possessed considerable talents for business and local diplomacy, for which there was, or for which he had created, material within the range of his jurisdiction* The distinctive character of Komanism as to ecclesiastical aggression and superiority of tone in conduct lost nothing by the appointment of Monsignore Valerga, notwithstanding his affable demeanour in social conversation. And in the same saloon for general recep- tion there stood conspicuous a velvet-covered throne, raised upon steps, surmounted by the Papal insignia ; this was used by him upon ceremonial occasions of receiving deputations — and the refreshments tendered were at all times, as a rule, handed to him by the attendants before being presented to the visitors, as would be done in Italy * with Church dignitaries.
VOL. I. E
50 HIS POSITION TOWARDS OTHER CHURCHES.
From the assumption that the Eoman is the only true rhurch anywhere, it logically follows that this was the only true Patriarch in Jerusalem, notwithstanding the unbroken succession of the Patriarchal oflBice in the Greek Orthodox Church at Jerusalem from ante-Nicene times ; and both he and his party felt entirely free in conscience as to any charge of schismatic intrusion within the domain of the Orientals.
The Greeks and the Armenians were angered at this Latin institution raising its head once more among them, which could not fail to bring to remembrance the election of a Latin Patriarch by the crusading army on its march, before even coming in sight of Jerusalem. The Latins had now, however, no military force for estabUshing their creation, and all that could be done was the safe, the neutral proceeding of leaving Monsignore Valeiga to his own devices, while the others pursued each his own line of duty. * Que le Pape cr^e des patriarches de Jerusalem nous nous en inqui^tons fort pen. Notre gouvemement (le turc) s'est-il jamais alarm^ des titres de "Koi de Jerusalem ? " ' Such was the language of a Smyrna pam- phlet on the Greek side upon a later opportunity — so the Eastern churches kept on their monotonous course, leaving their European rival to confer whatever titles she might please upon her own agents.
The Anglican Bishop and the Latin Patriarch made no advances towards each other ; but they met sometimes at public celebrations in the British Consulate, and joined in conversation when this was commenced by other persons. "
The party which felt most practical annoyance from
HIS POSITION TOWARDS THE TERKA SANTA CONVENTS. 51
this new institution was that of the Franciscan convents ; for the influence of the great name of ' Terra Santa ' subsided at once, and for many years afterwards sharp hostilities continued between the two Powers, chiefly upon financial matters, in which the Patriarchate made huge demands of money, and consequently gained knowledge of the state of the treasury. The supreme government in Eome made fruitless eflbrts to end these conflicts by sending repeated commissions of enquiry; but even when some amount of reconciliation was effected, the smart of past wounds would yet remain.
Henceforward the patents and licences (except those of pilgrims visiting the Sanctuaries) were issued in the name of the Patriarch instead of the President of Terra Santa,^ and episcopal functions were transferred to the Patriarchate.
But all this was about regimen within limited circles. The Patriarch was not the ^Protector' of the Latin Christians—they, including himself and his office, were under a far more powerful Protectorate, as we shall soon
Thus much concerning the Ecclesiastical parties in litigation on behalf of the Sanctuaries in Jerusalem and Bethlehem prior to 1858, in so far as those parties were represented in the Holy City itself. But each of those parties — ^the Eastern Church and the Western Church — was backed by a political supporter. The Emperor of Eussia was the champion of the Eastern Church ; the
^ For copy of the Licence to a Priest, and of the Ships' Patent for Terra Santa, see at the end of this chapter.
£ 2
[
52 LICENCE TO A PRIEST.
Emperor of the French was leader of the forces mar- shalled in defence of the Western Church.
Of these champions we will speak in our next chapter.
Licence to a Priest for Abaohvtion at ConfeasioTie,
(Translation.)
Joseph Valeroa^
By Divine compassion and by Grace of the Apostolical See, Patriarch of Jerusalem, Grand Master of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, &c., &c.
To our beloved in Christ
Whereas we have suflScient testimony to thy learning, knowledge, prudence, moderation, and probity of morals, for receiving sacramental confession, both of regulars and seculars of either sex within this oiu: patriarchal diocese of Jerusalem, as well as in the whole island of Cyprus, committed to our pastoral care — By virtue of these presents we do institute and deliver to thee the facidty of absolving from all and any sins, except only in those cases which are reserved out of Italy to the Supreme Pontiff, and those to which excommunciation is annexed by the Supreme Pontiff : also those which by common law are reserved to ourselves, together with those which in the Lord we have decreed to be reserved. Moreover, in case of urgent necessity, or imminent peril of deaths it will be per- mitted to thee to receive, by an interpreter, the confessions of persons in any language whatsoever. But if an interpreter cannot be had, or if the penitents may not consent to make use of one ; yet if the tokens of penitence be evident, we desire thee to impart to them absolution. Only beware lest by absolving the unworthy, thou shouldst suffer to fall into the snares of the devil, those whom in this Holy Land our Divine Saviour has redeemed with his precious blood.
To be valid from now till
Given at Jerusalem, in the Patriarchal Palace, this day
of — , in the year <-.
SHIP'S PATENT FOR TERRA SANTA. 53
Ship^a PaterU for Terra Santa. (Translation.)
Joseph Yalerga,
By Divine compassion and Grace of the Apostolical See, Patriarch of Jerusalem, Grand Master of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, &c., &c.
To our beloved in Christ
Master of the Ship named
Salutation in the Lord.
So great has ever been the desire of the Apostolical See and of the Catholic Church for the defence and preservation of these most holy places of the redemption of mankind, that she has always deigned to reward munificently with divers kinds of spiritual graces, and also with manifold favours of temporal benefit, those who may show themselves in any way meritorious towards this Church of Jerusalem and its venerable monu- ments.
Among such evidences of the Apostolical solicitude she has permitted to be given to Masters of Ships who may endeavour, whether by piety chiefly, or by their largesses, to promote the increase of Catholic devotion in this Holy Land, the use of that illustrious and singular token, the Jerusalem flag, which she desires to have maintained as a custom all over the world, in order to provide for the necessities of the Holy places, and particularly of the Sepulchre of our Lord Jesus Christ.
The exercise of which faculty was formerly committed to the Religious Superiors for the time being of Terra Santa, as carrying on the Vicariate of the Church of Jerusalem ; but is now by the Providence of His Holiness, our lord Pius IX., Father of his country, decreed to be transferred to this His Patriarchal diocese : its pastor being restored.
We therefore whom the favour of Divine Grace has raised to that Patriarchal oflSce, having knowledge from manifold testimony of thy Catholic faith, thy probity of morals and thy devotion towards these most holy monuments of our salvation^
54 SHIPS PATENT.
as well as of the bounty of thy benefits bestowed, do benig- nantly consent to thy request, and by the tenor of these presents, and with sacred authority do grant that upon thy
ship named , thou mayest raise the illustrious flag of
Terra Santa, with its five red crosses upon a white field (the royal ensign of this Holy Land, bedewed with the most pre- cious blond of Jesus Christ), and under the same freely to sail and to prosper.
On condition that so long as thou mayest journey under this flag, thou shalt convey all Minorite monks of the observ- ance of St. Francis, or others ministering in the Church . of Jerusalem who may be furnished with our testimonials for travelling gratis^ and without payment, in respect of thy obe- dience and piety for these Holy places.
And we beseech all and singular persons of every grade and condition, whether endued with Imperial or Royal Majesty, or conspicuous in any other eminence of dignity, in the name of their devotion and for the increase of their power, that these letters may everywhere obtain similar effect.
We do also exhort earnestly all commanders of naval fleets and fortifications, as well as governors of ports and cities, to sufifer no injury to befall thee, thy property or thy companions ; but that they may deign to respect and defend thee, adorned as thou art with the life-giving ensign.
For the more secure obtaining of this, we have had delivered to thee these letters, signed with our hand and guarded by our great Seal.
Given in Jerusalem, at the Patriarchal Palace, this day
of — — , in the year .
55
CHAPTEE III.
SECULAR EEPRESENTATIVES OP LATIN AND GREEK CHRISTL\NITY IN JERUSALEM.
Thfe French ' Protectors of Ohiistianity in the East '—Treaty of King Francis I. — Roman Catholic Christianity protected — Terra Santa Convents — ^Their Archives — French Consul in State at the Sanctuaries of Jerusalem and Bethlehem — Invasion of Syria by Napoleon Buonaparte — His aaoption of Moslem formula — Sir Sidney Smith in 1801 Protector of Christians — Portion of his Flagstaff on roof of Latin Convent in Jerusalem — Richard Coeur de Lion at Acre — Prince Edward of England at Nazareth — Archbishop of Canterbury and Bishop of Salisbury at the taking of Acre in 1191 — French tricolor flag over Carmel Convent — Turks regard the French as the leading Roman Catholic Power — Treaties — Guizotn- Latin Patriarch — Curious Firmins in the Latin Convent — Franks, &c. — French — ^Feelings of the Monks — ^French visitors and pilgrims — Preparar- tions for receiving the Pope — Greek Catholic Patriarch — Sir John Chardin on French negotiations in Constantinople — French Consul M. P. E. Botta, of Nineveh celebrity — Russian Protectorate of Eastern (Greek and Armenian) Christians — ^M. Basili, Russian Consul-General — Russian travellers — ^Russian Sailors in English Church — Promise by Turkey that Russia should have a Church and Hospice at Jerusalem — Archimandrite Porphyrios— Russian contributions to Greek Convent — Purchase of Lands by Greek Convent.
We now arrive at the subject of French protection of Christianity in the East.
King Francis I. in the sixteenth century incurred a good deal of temporary odium throughout the realms of Christendom for having made a treaty with the infidel Turks ; that, too, at a time when these were a real source of danger on our frontiers. He was the first to do such a thing, and the fact was the more surprising as the
I ''m * ■
56 THE FRENCH PROTECTORS OF CHRISTL^NITY.
French had always given themselves out as the peculiarly crusading nation — the first to begin, and the last to leave off those enterprises. King Francis might be the eldest son of the Chiu-ch ; but in the opinion of his adversaries, only very indifferent to religion, either personal or na- tional; and his alternate indulgences, few though they were, or persecutions of the Protestants, were supposed to be crowned by this treaty with Sultan Sulim&n.
It was, however, at first but a mere convention of com- merce that he entered into ; yet it was followed up by poHtical engagements, and the fellow-kings of Europe very soon imitated his example, acting prudently for their own benefit. The Turks, indeed, were not the infidel people against whom the old crusaders had been launched ; they were but successors in holding the terri- tory, no matter how acquired, therefore not bearing the same animus for or against Christendom as the Saracens before them. Masters, however, of regions of unbounded commercial resources, a trading intercourse with them was well worth having.
But this treaty laid a foundation also for long future events. Among the pompous titles of honour in which Orientals are accustomed to indulge, they designated the French monarch as the ' Protector of Christianity,' with perhaps no more sincerity of meaning than when now-a- days a Pashk addresses any individual Consul in the super- scription of a letter as the * glory of the sect of Christ, and pillar of the community of Jesus.' This appears to be the case from the circumstance of their having some- times applied the same title to the Austrians in their treaties. The French being the first Power to treat
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHRISTIANITY PROTECTED. 57
with the Porte, the latter gave this flattering title at random ; besides, it was a personal epithet, not a national one. The French poUtidans, however, perceived the advantage possible to be worked out from sustaining such a designation, and have insisted upon its being inserted in all treaties made with the Porte since that commence- ment. The Austrians failed to secure the same or similar advantages ; indeed, it is likely that their frequent vicis- situdes of hostility with France on the one hand, or with Turkey on the other, hardly admitted a policy which should add to the seeds of strife an uncertain controversy about religious claims.
The form of Christianity which came beneath the aegis of France was, of course, the Eoman Cathohc : and the mode of affording protection to it has been chiefly that of defending the persons and properties of the monasteries in the Levant, through the ministry of the Embassy at Constantinople ; later institutions of a reli- gious character, such as sisterhoods of charity, hospitals and schools, enjoy also that ready protection, and the coasting vessels chartered under the Terra Santa flag are superintended by the French Consulates.
The convent archives throughout Turkey are rich in Firm&ns and other documents obtained on their behalf by French intervention at the Porte.
In modern times the special services at the Sanctuaries of Jenisalem and Bethlehem are attended by the French Consul in full uniform, with a large train of officials, who has a gilded chair of state appropriated to him, a precedence to which no other Consul is entitled ; and for the midnight mnss of Christmas at Bethlehem that Consul
58 FRENCH CONSUL. SIR SIDNEY S>nTH.
is furnished by the Pashk with a considerable force of regular infantry in the Church, the expense for which, as well as for other demonstrations, which tell so much upon Orientals, is liberally afforded by the central govern- ment in Paris, regardless of the jealous heartburnings of the other Eoman Catholic Consuls. Such was still the state of things when the writer left Jerusalem in 1863.
Such activity and display is the more remarkable in contrast to a different position of France in Palestine, which is even yet within the memory of man, when Buonaparte was master of Egypt and invader of Syria. At that time England was the true Protectress of Chris- tianity there, while French proclamations and official letters were headed with the formula, ' There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is the Apostle of God,' and a letter to Sultan Selim in referring to past periods stated that such and such events had occurred ' while the French nation had been of the religion of Christ.'
It was in 1801, after the French had been expelled from Egypt and Syria, that Commodore Sir Sidney Smith marched his marines from the coast into Jerusalem and Bethlehem, with drums beating and colours flying, to post that flag, which he did, over the Latin convents of those. towns ; and a remnant of that flagstaff against the wall of the Terra Santa convent in Jerusalem was lately visible, perhaps still is so. This movement was a neces- sary one for ensuring safety to the Latin Christians, who, being before regarded as French protigis^ might have fallen victims to popular resentment. Who was Protector of Christianity then at the Holy Places ?
Moreover, to shift the scene, the native Christians in
RICHARD C(EUR-DE-LION. PRINCE EDWARD. 59
the north preserve a tradition of the low hill, half a mile distant from the walls of Acre, by calling it Cceur-de- Lioriy in memory of him who performed more personal service, and remained longer as the paynim*s adversary, than did the French King Philip Augustus.
And, again, in the Latin convent at Nazareth the friars profess to show the very apartment occupied by Prince Edward of England, after his consort, Eleanor of Castille, had sucked the poison from the wound inflicted by the assassin,^ she who, on leaving England for the expedition, had publicly said, ' There is as near a way to heaven from Sjria as from England or Spain ' (Wykes, p. 88).
What says our Shakspeare of our countrymen, but that they were
Renowned for their deeds as far from home, For Ohristiaii service and true chivalry, As is the Sepulchre in stubborn Jewry Of the world's ransom, blessed Mary*s son.
Bichard II,, Act ii. Sc. 1.
The valour and the sacrifices of England in the Holy Land, according to the estimation set upon the crusading cause at that era — ^not only as seen in the leadership of our kings with their feudal nobles, but the sanction of
^ A.D. 1271. ^ Onely Prince Edward having passed that winter in Sicilie with the first part of the next Spring set forward again on his voyage, and in fifteene dayes ckfter arrived with his fleet at Ptolemais, when, after he had by the space of a moneth rested himselfe and his souldiers after their long travell, and fully inquired of the state of the country, hee with six or seven thousand souldiers marching from Ptolemais, about twentie miles into the lande, took Nazareth, and put to the sword all them he found therein, and »o againe returned. After whome the enemies following in hope to have taken him at some aduantage, he understanding thereof turned back upon them, and killing a greate number of them, put the rest to flight.' * The generall Historic of the Turkes/ &c., by Richard EnoUes. London : 1608.
60 ENGLISH PRELATES AT ACRE. TRICOLOR AT CARMEL.
OUT prelates (for at the taking of Acre, in 1191, there were present the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of Salisbury) ought not to be forgotten by either the French or the English nations.
Times are now changed — the French tricolor flaunts broadly over the Carmel Convent ; the Terra Santa flag has its licences countersigned and pays its fees into the French Consulates of Jafia, Bayroot and Cyprus ; while in church ceremonials at the moe)t holy places, as before mentioned, the other Koman Catholic Consuls are obliged to endure pubhcly the marks of inferiority, because their governments permit it. Even the Spaniard must be silent, though representing the * Most CathoHc ' of king- doms. Also the Austrian, although his sovereign claims by descent, as fix)m one of the rival competitors, the kingship of Jerusalem. And so long as the Sardinian Consulate existed there — ^for it terminated in 1849 — ^that Consul urged the same pretension with a still clearer title of descent from the crusading kings, not in words only, but on some state occasions he wore, besides his regular natipnal uniibrm, a separate one as representa- tive of the King of Jerusalem.
The Turks undoubtedly recognise the French as the leading Eoman Catholic power — at least they are not in a condition to deny the kind of hegemony which the re- maining kingdoms of Europe do not for themselves dispute.
Chateaubriand points out a series of treaties and fir- ra&ns upon which France groimds her Protectorate, and expresses his joy on finding recorded in the archives of Terra Santa the numerous evidences of French action on behalf of convents in the Holy Land.
TREATIES WITH FRANCE. GUIZOT. FRANKS. 61
Guizot, himself a Protestant, while ia the Foreign Office, urged the style and offices of the Protectorate upon the Porte in the fullest form. And among minor in- stances of patriotic sensitiveness on that head, it may be cited that on the first erection of the Anglican bishopric in Jerusalem, the ' Semeur,' a thoroughly Protestant journal, gave vent to its share in the national indignation by proclaiming the unique prerogative of Prance to be Protectress of Christianity in the East.^
During the tedious negotiations intendisd to ward oflF the Russian War of 1853, this claim was never discussed at Constantinople by the side of that of the Eussians— the Turks pronounced that the cases were not parallel. The result, however, of that war has produced, in refer- ence to both these rivalries, whether alike or unlike, a sharper definition than before of the inalienable rights of the Sultan over his own subjects, whatever may be their religious creed.
In a conversation in the year 1849 between the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem and the writer of these observa- tions, the former was descanting on the number and .variety of Hatti-Shereefs, Firm&ns, &c., in curious dialects and formalities, ranging over many centuries, which are preserved in the Terra Santa convent (one of them, he said, given by a Soldan of the Saracens), and he stated that in some of these, anterior to the Crusades, the Europeans generally are denominated ' Franks ' — a fact, if there be no mistake in the matter, which the modern French regard with excessive satisfaction, as a naming of
* See note at the end of this chapter.
62 FEELINGS OF THE LATIN MONKS.
all Christendom after them, and thus implying that the Christian reUgion is emphatically the French religion.
In the course of this work we shall find several instances of this subject rising to the surface of current events, happily not involving any anxiety on behalf of Protestantism, which stands on its own ground ; but to whatever extent Eoman Catholic Christianity in general may be indebted to the French for protection in Turkey, even the convents feel that protection to be an uncomfort- able yoke. I remember a Franciscan fi^ar, an Italian, expreLng himself indignantly on that subject, for he said — * We were never dependant upon France for pro- tection between our original settlement here in 1226 and the French treaty of Francis L We never asked the French to protect us. We had, indeed, a king for our patron in the fourteenth century, but he was an Italian, Kobert of Sicily, who, with his consort, purchased the land for us on which we built — ^not to mention the previous Latin kings of Jerusalem, and others of Europe, who have been our friends and guardians. And as for Consulates here, why the French were only followers of the English in Jerusalem.'
During the existence of the Sardinian Consulate, the monks were naturally to be found frequenting that house,
constituting, in fact, the majority of Signor 's society,
for the enjoyment of national community in sentiment and taste, greatly in preference to the French Consulate. Afterwards, on the establishment of Austrian and Spanish Consulates, the monks clustered round these rather than the French. But still it is hardly reasonable or grateful for the convents to forget the long-continued favours
FRENCH VISITORS AND PILGRIMS. 63
bestowed on them by the French. Throughout all the extent that is designated as Holy Land, they have been under the greatest obligations to that power. There can be no doubt that there would be more reciprocity of friendship between them if more certain reliance cx)uld be placed on the Christian character of the French nation.
The personages of importance on the Latin side who had visited Jerusalem, during the years immediately pre- ceding the Crimean War, had been but few. Of course, there were always a good many Latin pilgrims at Easter, and the Latin Church was strongly represented by the convents, by the Latin Patriarchate, and by the Latin Consulates.
• There had been one French expedition, that of M. de Saulcy and his friends; and two or three French ships of war sent up their officers, but not the crews, to visit Jerusalem. A few Italians had visited Jerusalem, and the Austrian Consul was active in promoting the interests of Austrian Koman Cathohcs, which were not always identical with those of the French Eoman Catho- lics. He had for some time past been looking out for a house capable of being improved for accommodation of the Cardinal Archbishop of Vienna.
Eumours had been cii*culated of the possibility of the Pope visiting the Holy Sepulchre. During his involuntary exile from Eome in 1848, the idea had been put forth that eTerusalem might be desirable as the seat of Papal dominion, and this idea still seemed present to the minds of some of those who desired to restore the prestige of the Western Church.
Whatever might be the plans and wishes cherished on
64 REMOVAL OF POPEDOM TO JERUSALEM.
this subject, no active steps were taken for the transfer- ence of the Popedom, or for the immediate revival of the Latin kingdom.
The nations were not at one among themselves, and the defence of the Sanctuaries against all encroachment on the part of the Eastern Church and Bussia was the one point now especially watched by Frank defenders of the Faith.
The Greek Catholic Patriarch from Damascus had spent some time in Jenisalem, where there is a settlement of his people. These, of course, sided in most points with the Latin party.
It may be interesting to peruse the following extract from Sir John Chardin's Travels * into Persia and y* East Indies, through the Black Sea and the country of Colchis.' Being in Constantinople during the action of some busy negotiations of the French there in 1670, he says, —
^The Ambassador's demands were comprehended under thirty Articles, of which these were the chief.
* First — That the Orand Signior should not entertain within his Dominions any European Nations except what were already settl'd there, but under the French Banners : and that particularly the ItalianSj except the Venetians and Oenoesesj that should come into Turkey^ should be obliged to put them- selves imder the Banner of France and the Protection of that King's Ambassador.
(This Privilege was granted by the Turks to the French in the Capitulations made in the reign of Francis the First, and the French enjoy'd 'em till the Beginning of this Age : at what Time by reason of certain Pyrates that cruis'd upon the Coast of Egypt imder French Colours, the Port struck out that article in a new Agreement then concluded.
Afterwards the Article was restored and the same Privilege granted a second Time in these Words : —
SIR JOHN CHARDIN'S HISTORY. 65
^All nations of Europe that do not maintain Publick Agents at the Port, n^or are m Alliance and Confederacy with the Ora/nd Signior, which shall come into the Levant under French Colours, shaU be there received and entertained and enjoy the same Advantages as the French do^
But the Turks refuse to acknowledge these latter Capitula- tions, and therefore making use of the former they alledge more- over that the Words [shall come] are not exclusive ; and, therefore, though the Port be obliged to receive all Strangers that shall come under French Colours, yet they do not debar the Grand Signior to entertain Strangers, if it be his Pleasure, that come under other Colours.)
* Secondly — That the French shall not pay above Three in the Hundred Customs, which is no more than the English, Hollanders, and Genoeses do.
' Thirdly — That the Orand Signior shall grant Free Liberty to the French to traffick to the Indies through his Dominions and Territories : more especially through the Channel of the Red Sea, without paying any other Duties than those of Entraye.
' Fourthly — That the Orand Signior shall restore to the Religious Orders of the Roman Catholicks the Holy Land, and the Holy Places from whence they were expell'd by the Grreeks, in the year 1638.
* Fifthly — That the King of France shall be acknowledg'd at the Port the Sole Protector of the Christians.
' Sixthly — That all the Roman Catholic Christians that live within the Dominions of the Ottoman Empire, shall be look'd upon and consider'd as under the Protection of His Majesty,
* Seventhly — That the French Capuchins that live at Con* stantinople, may have Liberty to rebuild their Church at Ga- lata which was burnt down about Fifteen years ago.
« Eighthly — That all the Churches of the Roman Christians within the Ottoman Empire, may for the future be repair'd or rebuilt as often as need shall require, without being put to the trouble of asking Leave.
'Ninthly — That all the French Slaves shall be set at Liberty.
VOL. l. P
66 FRENCH NEGOTIATIONS AT CONSTANTINOPLE.
^ The other Proposals were of less Importance in particular, only their Number made them considerable — ^but the Port look'd upon these Demands to be so extravagant, nay, so ridi- culous, that the Prime Ministers believ'd, or else pretended to believe, that the King sought only an Occasion to break with his Highness.'
Then follows the history of negotiations between the Franciscan monks and the French Government, which led to the insertion of the above Article 4 — the vehement reclamations of the monks — ^the bribery ten- dered— the requests of Venice, Spain, and Eome that the French king should of his * pious zeal' carry out this measure ; until at length the king instructed his Ambas- sador at Constantinople to insert that among the condi- tions of the new treaty, and the Ambassador assured the monks that he had instructions not to treat at all with the Turks without that Article of stipulation.
After long delay, the Ambassador, finding that the Grand Signior and the Vizier were ready to depart for Poland, and no treaty was concluded, went to the Eeis Katib (Chancellor), and in three conferences concocted the treaty.
Articles 2, 3, and 7 were agreed to, only that to the latter was added, ' together with the Jesuits in the same place, and all other Appurtenances belonging to the French within the Ottoman Empire, should be under the Protection of the King.'
Also, Article 9, with the proviso that * they were not taken in any Fleets or Armies, or before any places in Hostility with the Port.'
The matter of the French protection of Christianity
THE DISCOMFITURE OF THE FRENCH AMBASSADOR. 67
was reduced to this, — ' That the Ambassador should be acknowledged Protector of the Hospital of the European Christians in Galata, and that they should have Liberty to say Mass in the said Hospital/
The important article concerning foreign nations was altogether passed by — ^it was to remain as before in the former treaty.
On his return home the Ambassador repented, and sent his Dragoman to say that, unless the stipulation about foreign nations was made as he had asked, he would break off altogether; after which he went himself and pressed it. The Eeis Katib referred it to the Vizier, and the latter sent back an absolute refusal in these words — .* Seeing you have not kept your word with him, he recalls his own, and will grant you nothing at all/
* Thi8 answer,' continues Sir John, * was like a Thunderclap. — M. de Nointel and those that were with him stood like men in a Trance. They begg'd to resume and ratifie the Treaty : but it was quite impossible, though they proffer'd upon the Place to quit and renounce the Article contested. To which the Chancellor answer'd, that he had no other Orders from the Vizier then to deliver his Message, and that he had no Power to treat any further.
* The Ambassador reply'd, that he had a letter from the Pri/me Minister of France, which he desir'd only to deliver into his Hands, and so to take his Leave. The Chancellor made Answer that for his Audience it might be easily obtainM, but as for the Letter from the Prime Minister of France, the Orand Vizier car'd not a straw to look upon it.
' Monsieur de Nointel, returning to his Lodging with that Vexation and Perplexity of Mind which may be conceiv'd with- out any great DiflSculty, propounded to his Council, which were the Abbot his brother, the Director of the Levant Company^ and his Two chief Interpreters, that since the EQiglish and
f2
68 THE TURKS REGARD LATIN MONKS AS FOREIGNERa
Hollanders had lately given Ten Thousand Pounds Sterling a-piece for renewing their last Capitulations, it would be con- venient for the French to give the same money for the renewing of Theirs. Upon which the two Interpreters had Orders to propose the Sum to the Chief Ministers : but it nothing avaiUd, for there are some Favours obtain'd at the Port by the Force of Money ; others which no Money will procure. And such for Example was the Business soUicited by the Two Commissaries of the Holy Land, who offer'd a Hundred Thousand Crowns to the Grrand Vizier to put 'em in Possession of the Sacred Places, and to expend as much in Presents to the Orand Signior and Ministers of the Port. But their Money was Dross, the Divan not being to be bribed in that Case.
* In a few days more the Vizier was leaving for Poland. M. de Nointel went early in the morning to the Camp, but the Vizier was gone to convey the Sultan's Mother to her first lodg- ing. The Ambassador waited seven hours with the Chancellor. The Vizier came, but would not see him ; he only promised to talk with the Interpreter.
' And this was the success of M. de Nointel's second Jour- ney to the Port, upon which both Parties made different Re- flexions. For the Turks with great As»iir(jmce lay the Blame of this Rupture upon the French.'' '
In the above narrative it is not possible to separate the matter of French protection in Turkey fix)m that of the monks at the Holy places in Jerusalem and Bethle- hem ; neither is it possible to do so at the present period, seeing that without the convents and the meagre number of native Eoman Catholics, kept together by means of their propagandism, the French would have but few or no Christians to protect. But it is noteworthy how high a tone the Turks at that time were able to maintain on that subject. According to this writer, they looked upon all the Latin monks as mere foreigners, while the Oriental
FRANCIS L THE PROTECTOR OF CHRISTIANS. 69
Christians {i.e. Greeks, Armenians, &c.) were properly regarded as the Grand Signior's subjects, who were paying him * a yearly tribute of 800,000 crowns,' and therefore had the first claim upon his concessions.
The Eussians were out of consideration at that era.
It is not necessary to trace down the stream of history through all the stages which French protection has passed since the reign of Louis XTV". — it must have been very monotonous — but it does seem amusing to catch a glimpse of the method and aims of French diplomacy at Constantinople nearly two hundred years ago, as showing how, imder much disadvantage, they were vigi- lant, as, indeed, they still are, to uphold the ascendancy accorded to them under Francis I., merely because that king was the only one making a Commercial Treaty with the Ottomans at a certain moment of time. It is a fact that at that date the French king stepped forward as the Primus of the Christian name in Europe for taking notice of Latin Christianity in the Ottoman dominions. We may, therefore, regard him as something more than a protector. He was the protector among the Turks for the time.
For the extravagant claims of French protection over the Maronites, see Documents of Louis XIV. and XV. quoted in ' Churchill's Lebanon,' vol. iii., p. 94, under dates of 1649 and 1737.
NOTE.
Chronological Summary of the various Hatti Shereefs (Im- perial Decrees) granted by the Sultan in favour of the Greeks, from the year 15 of the Hegira (636 of the Christian era) up to the present time, concerning the right of possession and
70 SUMMARY OF HATTI SHEREEFS,
other privileges granted to the Greeks regarding the Holy Places at Jerusalem.
1. Heoiba 16. A.D. 636* — Hazret Omar Hatap (' Omar el Khattab), the conqueror of Jerusalem under the Patriarchate of Sophronius, issued an Artnam^, by virtue of which the Holy Sepulchre and its dependencies were placed under the control of the Greek Patriarch, and the other rit^s and religions made subject to him in this respeet, so that complete immunity was accorded to the Convent of the Holy Sepulchre.
2. Hegira 862. a.d. 1458. — The Sultan Mehemet, after the conquest of Constantinople, under the Patriarchate of Athana- sius, when that Patriarch came to do homage to the Sultan, issued a Hatti Shereef which confirmed the Greeks in all their rights of possession and immunities in regard to the Holy Places previously granted.
3. Hegira 933. a.d. 1527. — The Sultan Suleiman, the Ca- nimi, under the Patriarchate of Germain, also issued a con- firmatory Hatti Shereef.
4. Sefer 1044. A.D. 1634. Djem-Evel 1047. a.d. 1637. — The Sultan Murat IV., under the Patriarchate of Theophane^ issued two Hatti Shereefs, one against the Armenians, and the other against the Papists, when the latter endeavoured to expel the Greeks from certain holy places of which they formerly had possession, and after this act of aggression had been adjudicated on at Constantinople.
5. Sefer 1054. a.d. 1644. — ^The Sultan Ibrahim renewed the Hatti Shereef of his predecessor against the Papists, and annulled all the reformatory acts previously issued in their favour.
6. Ebbia m EvEL 1067. a.d. 1658. Muharrum 1068. a.d. 1659. — The Sultan Mehemet IV., in consequence of a formal judgment which took place at Constantinople, issued two Hatti Shereefs, by which all the absurd pretensions of the Armenians were put aside, and their encroachments strictly prohibited.
7. Rbjib 1086. A.D. 1677. Zil Hadji 1088. a.d. 1679. — This same Sultan, under the Patriarch Dossith^e, in consequence of anew judgment which was given between the Greeks and
SUMMARY OF HATTI SHEREEFS. « 71
the Papists, issued two other Hatti Shereefs, by which the rights of the former having been fully recognised, all the pre- ceding ordinances issued against the papists were confirmed anew.
8. DjEMiw UL Akhir 1099. a.d. 1687. — The Sultan Su- leiman II., in consequence of a fresh dispute which had arisen and had been decided under the Patriarchate of Meletus, re- newed the same Hatti Shereefs above mentioned.
9. ZiLclny 1171. (?)— The Sultan Mustafe renewed the Hatti Shereefs of his predecessor,
10. The Sultan Selim, under the Patriarchate of Anthimos, issued two Hatti Shereefs against the pretensions of the Ar- menians.
11. The Sultan Mahhmood on his accession issued two Hatti Shereefs, one concerning the Papists, and the other the Armenians, by which he confirmed all the Hatti Shereefs pre- viously granted by his predecessors in favour of the Greeks.
12. When the Holy Sepulchre was burnt down, in 1808, by a special Hatti Shereef the rebuilding of the edifice was by right (as of right) accorded to the Greeks.
13. Still later the Armenians having advanced pretensions, a Hatti Shereef ordered an inquiry to be made into them.
14. Under the Patriarchate of Polycarpe, when the Papists expelled the Greeks by force from the Holy Sepulchre, in order to prevent their celebrating divine service there, and were guilty of more than one aggression against them— the Sultan Mahhmood granted three Hatti Shereefs one after the other in favour of the Greeks, concerning the free exercise of their Liturgy under the dome itself of the Holy Sepulchre.
15. Lastly, when the Armenians, by means of wiles and in- trigues, succeeded in obtaining authority to proceed to repair the Church of the Resurrection (Holy Sepulchre), of the Holy Beth- lehem and of the Mount of Olives, a Hatti Shereef annulled the authorisation above mentioned, and accorded to the Greeks exclusively the right of making general repairs.
16. His Imperial Majesty, Abdul Majeed, issued four Hatti Shereefs to renew the four Hatti Shereefs undermentioned ; viz.,
?2 SANCTUARIES POSSESSED BY THE LATINS.
1. The Hatti Shereef (No. 11) concerning the Papists.
2. (No. 13) concerning the Armenians.
3. (No. 14) concerning the Liturgy of the Greeks.
4. (No. 15) concerning the repairs.
Condition of the Sanctuaries poaaessed exclusively
by the Latins vn 1740.
At Jerusalem.
1. The Holy Sepulchre, that is to say the grand cupola, called the leaden cupola, and the small cupola situated under the larger one, and covering the tomb itself. The entire court which surrounds the tomb and the circular space between the pillars of the dome and the wall, now occupied by the Greeks after the fire (of 1808).
2. The grand arch which separates the Greek Church from the dome, and which serves for the choir for the Latins when they perform their ceremonies before the tomb.
3. The stone of imction and the court which surrounds it, as far as the door of the church and the chamber now occupied by the Greeks.
4. The southern half of Calvary, that on which our Saviour was crucified ; the four interior arches which compose Adam's chapel, in front of which are the tombs of Godfrey of Bouillon and of Baudouin, destroyed in 1811 ; as well as five other royal tombs situated at the foot of the wall of the Greek choir ; the chamber at the side of Adam's chapel.
5. The grotto of the invention of the Holy Cross and of the staircase leading to it.
6. The entire court and the altar of the Church of the Magdalene, the seven contiguous arches called the arches of the Virgin — below as well as above — ^and the chapel called the prison chapel.
7. The small church situated at the side of that of the Magdalene ; the convent of the Latin monks, with half of the gallery of the great cupola; the adjoining chambers, the cistern, the gallery above the seven arches of the Virgin and a covered passage leading to the cupola.
LATIN SANCTUARIES OUTSIDE JERUSALEM. 73
S. The Chapel called the Holy Virgin's, outside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, to the south of Calvary, and the entire space before the door of the Church,
9. The convent of the Holy Saviour (San Salvadore) with the places appertaining to it — ^the church, gardens, &c.
Outside Jerusalem.
10. The cemetery of Mount Sion.
11. The tomb of the Holy Virgin with the altars of St. Joseph, St. Joachim, St. Anne. The keys of the church were in the hands of the Latins, who had the exclusive custody of them. Other nations (sects or churches), nevertheless, had each an altar in the church, but they could not perform service at them without the permission of the Latins, and the tomb of the Holy Virgin itself was exclusively reserved for the latter.
12. The grotto of Crethsemane with the olive trees and the adjoining grounds.
13. The grand church of Bethlehem altogether, excepting the Baptistery ; the grotto of the Manger and the two stair- cases which lead to it. The Latin monks alone possessed the three keys, one of the door of the church, and the other two for each of the side doors of the grotto. Masters of the church, they could freely enter and there perform all the ceremonies of their religion at the high altar of the church, as well as at the two altars situated in the grotto — that of the Nativity, and that of the manger. A silver star bearing a Latin inscription was fastened on the Marble, on the spot where our Saviour was bom. A piece of tapestry bearing the arms of the Holy Land, and belonging to the Latins, covered the walls of the grotto. The Latin monks possessed besides at Bethlehem the square before the church, the entire cemetery and the buildings known as those of the old mill.
14. The convent situated by the side of the grand church of Bethlehem, with the small church of St. Catherine, and all the grounds which extend as far as the Grotto of the Nativity, and in which are the Sanctuaries of St. Joseph, the Holy Lmocents, of St. Eusebius, of Saints Paula and Eustachia, of
74 SANCTUARIES IN COMMON.
St. Jerome, of the adjoining garden, and of another garden situ- ated near the grotto, called the Grotto of Milk.
15. The Grrotto of the Shepherds, and the grounds which surround it.
16. .The Church of St. John the Baptist in the village of Ainkarem, with the convent and the garden.
17. The spot where the Holy Virgin visited St. Elizabeth, near the village of St. John (Ainkarem), and the Grotto of St. John in the desert.
8anctuaris8 possessed by ihe Latins in corn/rrum with other nations in 1740.
1. The half of Calvary which properly belongs to the Greeks, that on which the cross was placed. The Latins possessed, and still possess, the right of having a ceremony there on Holy Thursday.
2. The Church of the Tomb of the Virgin, on this under- standing that the other nations (Churches) should each have an altar there, and perform their ceremonies there with the permission and xmder the surveillance of the Latin monks.
8a/nctuaries and Possessions from which the Lati/ns are
now altogether excluded.
At Jerusalem.
1. The seven arches of the Virgin and the chapel of the prison.
2. The two interior arches of Calvary, the chapel in front and the chamber which is by the side. The tombs of Godfrey of Bouillon and of Baudouin have been destroyed.
3. A portion of the court surrounding the stone of unction, that part where the other tombs were which ' have been de- stroyed, the Greeks having pushed forward the wall in order to enlarge their church. The chamber on the right has like- wise been taken possession of by the Greeks.
4. The space situated between the pillars of the cupola
SANCTUARIES NO LONGER EXCLUSIVELY LATIN. 75
and between the pillars of the waU which the Greeks have filled up by building chambers there. They have likewise usurped about four ' pics ' (ells) of space under the great arch by pushing forward, in order to enlarge their church, the wall which separated it from the cupola {^Rotuvda).
Outside Jervsaiem.
5. The entire church which encloses the tomb of the Holy Virgin and the garden by the side of it. The Latins can no longer perform their ceremonies there — ^nor even enter without permission of the Greeks, who have the keys.
6. The grand Church of Bethlehem altogether — the two staircases which lead to the grotto — the altar of the Nativity in that grotto. The silver star has been carried off. There no longer remains anything but a few tatters of the tapestry belonging to the Latin monks. The three keys are at the present time in the hands of the Greeks.
7. The half of the two gardens of the convent at Bethle- hem.
8. The place and the stone known as that of the Old Mill.
9. The Grotto of the Shepherds and the surrounding groimds.
Sanctuaries heUyagvag^ in 1740, eocclusively to the Laivns in the enjoyment of which other nations (Churches) n,ow participate.
1. The Holy Sepulchre and the court which surrounds it under the grand cupola.
2. The stone of Unction. V
3. The Grotto of the Manger at Bethlehem. The Greeks and the Armenians perform their ceremonies there at the altar of the Nativity, and the Latins at the altar of the Manger.*
' The ahove statement was evidently drawn up on the Latin side^ before the restoration of the silver star^ and before the settlement of the question of the Holy Places.— Ed.
76 FRENCH CONSUL. MONS. P. E. BOTTA.
Secular Representatives of the Latin and Greek interests
in Jerusalem.
Ten years before the Crimean War broke out — in 1843 — ^the French had established a consulate in Jerusalem, and their Consul became the visible representative and em- bodiment of the French Protectorate of Christianity.
An attempt was made to hoist the French flag over the consulate ; but this aroused the jealousy and fanaticism of the Moslem inhabitants, who rose and tore down the flag, trailing it m the streets.
This affair led to the removal of the Consul then in office (the first of his nation appointed to Jerusalem), who was succeeded by M. Helouis-Jorelle. The affair of the silver star had shown the French Government the necessity for having an active man, thoroughly able to carry out their policy in so important a post.
The third French Consul was M. Botta.
Paul Emile Botta, an old friend of the Patriarch, arrived in Jerusalem soon after him, as Consul of France. He was the son of Carlo Botta, the Italian historian, who had been considered a personal friend of Napoleon I. The Consul had been in early life employed by the French Government in botanical researches in both the Americas, in Arabia, and other countries ; he had also served as surgeon in an English merchant-ship on a voy- age to India ; he then became Vice-consul at Mosul, at the same time with the residence there of the missionary, now Patriarch, Valerga ; and there he acquired just cele- brity by his Nineveh explorations at Khorsabad, shortly before the excavations of Layard were commenced at
RUSSIAN CONSUL-GENERAL MONS. BASILI. 77
Kuynujik. He was a man of literary tastes and amiable disposition, having a good acquaintance with the Eng- lish language and literature ; and most pleasant reminis- cences still remain to me of seeing him busy over his proof sheets of the great work on his Assyrian discoveries ; or of walking with him in his garden among the choice flowers obtained from Europe and elsewhere.
In religious concerns he advocated the Ultramontane principles and a strenuous defence of the Jesuit Society — in direct antithesis, therefore, to the habits of his father.
With this earnest temperament, Botta appeared sud- denly on the scene of the Convent disputes about the Sanctuaries, and into those heats he threw himself with a glow of his own, acting, no doubt, in accordance with the desire of the new Government in Paris, for in the ques- tion of the Holy Places, the Patriarch, Botta and his Foreign Office were all of one mind, and maintained constant communication beyond the range of common consular topics.
M. Botta's rival in courage and political talent upon the orthodox side, and a proficient in all the qualities which Western nations are accustomed to attribute to the Czar's official agents, was M. Basili, the Eussian Consul- General, stationed at Beyroot (who has since been Eus- sian Minister in Greece), who only occasionally visited Jerusalem, but by means of his correspondents within the Greek convent there, was able to work efiectively at a distance.
These two were equally pitted against each other for the antagonism peculiar to Palestine. The Eussians also laid claim to a Protectorate over the Eastern Christians
78 RUSSIAN TRAVELLERS. CHANCELLOR MOURAVTEFF,
which, they maintained, had been in some sort recognised and admitted by the Ottoman Government.
The Eussian Minister at the Porte mentioned to Sir Stratford Canning that they intended to appeal to the Treaty of Kainardji in 1774, for authorisation of the Eussian Protection over the Orthodox Christians in the Turkish Empire.
I am not aware that he demanded the same on be- half of the Armenians, who are numerous in the eastern provinces — but, in fact, in deahng with Pashks far remote, Eussia does exercise a sort of Protectorate over the Armenians, in virtue of the head of their Church being now a Eussian subject at TJtchmiazin.
If the French had their pohtical representative in the Consul of France, M. Botta ; the Eussians had theirs in M. Basili.
It was remarked that from the period of the Silver- star agitation in 1847, and forward, the number of Eus- sian visitors to Jerusalem had increased. This was only natiu'al, and their influx was not checked by an unfounded rumour, in 1849, that Eussia had declared war against Turkey, and that a combined French and English fleet was on its way to Constantinople.
Several of these Eussian visitors were interesting men, well known out of their own country. Among these was the Chancellor Mouraviefi*, a man of studious and devout tiu'n of mind, well versed in hterature and ecclesiastical history, including that of our own Church of England. He was personally acquainted with several of the English clergy, one of whom, the chaplain at Cronstadt, had made a translation of his History of the Eussian Church. He
RUSSIAN SAlLOfiS IN JERUSALEM. 70
stayed some months at Jerusalem making researches into ecclesiastical antiquities in the vicinity. The name of Mouravieff had not at that time acquired the notoriety which afterwards became associated with it elsewhere, in connection with another member of the family. No re- miniscences could be more agreeable than those which this gentleman left after him. The Prince A. de Ineven was also with us at the same time. He showed me in a Greek Smymiote newspaper the news that the ' Piraeus ' of Athens was blockaded by an English squadron, and that the British Minister had been withdrawn from Athens.
We had a succession of Eussian visitors of distinction — ^princes, admirals, military officers, diplomatists, cham- berlains of the Emperor, whom we had the pleasure of welcoming at the British CJonsulate, as well as personages of many other nationalities. But the foreign visitors of eminence during this period were mostly Eussians— who would naturally report to the State Departments of their own country what might be useful of the varied information which they so easily acquired by reason of their free access to all classes of society wherever they went.
During the three years preceding the outbreak of the Crimean War, we had also some half-dozen visits of crews from Eussian ships of war arriving at Jafia. They generally came up to Jerusalem in bodies of thirty or forty at a time, for while the ships lay at anchor the crews were sent up in successive detachments. These men are trained to military as well as naval service. They marched in a uniform of white, with black polished belts,
80 RUSSIAN SAILORS AT THE ENGLISH CHURCH.
and carrying side-arms ; they entered the City in parade order, having dressed up the file upon the Meiddn (Pub- Kc Place), before their reaching the gate.
An unexpected incident occurred with regard to some of these men. It is well known that real Kussians are no amateurs of a seafaring life; consequently a large proportion of their marine consists of natives firom the northern shores of the Baltic. A corps of these seamen being Finlanders and Lutheran Protestants, more or less conversant with the German language, applied at our Protestant church for the privilege of receiving the Holy Communion in Jerusalem. This was gladly conceded, and the men knelt in their uniforms at the rails of the Communion Table, in Christ Church, with the most serious devotion. Each one at his departure was presented with a German or a Eussian New Testament from the Bible repository near the church. I am not sure that Finnish was to be had at that time, for such an event had not been expected.
One thing must not be forgotten, which is that before the final rupture with Turkey in 1853, Eussia had ob- tained from Eeshid Pasha a promise that permission should be given to build at Jerusalem a Eussian church and hospital and hospice for monks of that nation. The fulfilment of that promise was claimed after the peace in 1856. How the Eussians have availed themselves of it let any traveller testify who has visited the Holy City, and has seen the Eussian possessions on the space for- merly occupied by the Maidan, or pubUc promenade, where the Turkish troops assembled in 1858 before de- parting to the war, as described in the opening chapter, p. 3.
THE RUSSIAN ARCHIMANDRITE PORPHYRIOS. 81
Hitherto the Eussians had appointed no Consul for Jerusalem, and the Eussian Consul-General at Beyroot looked after the civil and political interests of the Eus- sians, having a Jewish Eabbi under his orders in Jeru- salem, and a Eussian vice-consul in Jaffa. But in March 1853, when the Eiu-opean consuls went to offer con- gratulations to their Austrian colleague on the Emperor's preservation from assassination, they met there the Eussian Archimandrite Porphyrios, a gentleman of very polished and affable manners, composed in speech, pre- cise in dress. The cross suspended on his breast by a large gold chain contained twelve of the largest rubies I had ever seen. This dignitary had come to superintend the religious affairs of his nation, and to look after the pilgrims, and a house was put into order for his residence. The first ecclesiastic despatched for this purpose to Jeru- salem came from Eussia about 1848, to the intense disgust of the Greek local ecclesiastics, the patriarch, the metro- politan, and his fellow-bishops. Previously tlie Eussian Empire had been accustomed to forward a yearly subsidy of fimds to the Holy City, partly as a contribution to the honour of the Sanctuaries, and partly for maintenance of the national pilgrims. At one time this* amounted to 8,000/* annually. Among other resources for making up this fund, the army and navy were assessed in one day's pay of each year. In return for this the ecclesiastics of Jerusalem allowed access to the sacred localities and divine offices, with residence in a small convent out of the many they (the Greeks) possessed within the walls.
At length the Imperial Government conceived that a time was come for themselves to manage Eussian affairs, VOL. L a
82 BARON OLSOFIEFF READS TO THE PILGRIMa
especially in the money matters, besides providing in- struction for their poor people in their native language. The Greek or Arabic used in the Church services at Jerusalem were unintelligible to the Russians, and yielded but poor satisfaction to those who had shown their devo- tion by a pilgrimage of above a thousand miles. I knew an instance of a Eussian nobleman (Baron Olsofieff) feel- ing so deeply grieved at that state of things, and at seeing the crowds of his fellow-countrymen attending services of which they could understand not a word, that he went to the Protestant English Bible store and bought a Rus- sian New Testament. The use he made of it was to collect around him every morning, during the several weeks of his sojourn, the ignorant yet devoutly inclined pilgrims, and read to them portions of the sacred volume for their instruction — a step which the clergy and monks of the local orthodox establishment regarded with as- tonishment.
The Greek authorities were extremely angry ajfc th^ Russian inspection of accounts alluded to above, which they considered a reflection cast upon their probity, and tending to lower the prestige of their absolute supremacy in the eyes of the natives. The Russians, however, at- tended but little to such scruples, and proceeded vigo- rously to their task.
The Greek Convent authorities, however, had set themselves to supply any deficiency of income that might arise to them by purchasing land in or near Jerusalem, and cultivating the ground for profit wherever that was likely to be advantageous. This they were able to do, because some of the members of the convents were natives
PURCHASE OF LANDS BY GREEK CONVENT. 83
of islands in the Archipelago, and therefore Turkish sub- jects, able legally to buy and hold landed property. Monks of the Greek Church may hold property during life, but at death their convent is the heir to whatever they may have possessed.^
^ The Greek monk most active in the planting and cultivating of land acquired near Jerusalem, was one named Nikephory — ^who had within the last five years planted many thousand mulberry trees — besides vines and olives. Of late he had been fencing in these plantations, and had built miles of the dry-stone walls used here instead of hedges or other fence. The burly figure and jovial face of Nikephory were familiar to all the residents in Jerusalem. It was pleasant to see him out in the open air directing the peasantry who worked under him, and to reflect that the result of this expenditure of money and labour must be of the greatest benefit to the city and to the inhabitants.
G 2
84
CHAPTER IV.
OTHER EUROPEAN CONSULATES IN JERUSALEM.
British Oonsulate, the first founded in 1838 — ^France and Russia founded theirs in ] 843 — Austrian in 1840 — Sardinian Consulate — Spanish in 1854 — Protection of Anglican Bishopric hy English and Prussian Consuls — M. Pizzamano Austrian Consul — Dr. Schultz, first Prussian Consul — Suc- ceeded by Dr. G. Bosen — Prussian Congregation and Institutions — Com- mercial and Political Consulates — Legal functions of Consuls — ^Various people protected by the several Consulates — ^The 'Capitulations' — Rank and precedence of Consuls — ^Vice-Consuls and Cancelli^res — Interpreters ^ dragomans^ — Their position — Eaww&ses or Janissaries — Editoi^s Note — Mr. Finn, the British Consul — The yarious peoples within the territory over which the Consulate extended — People protected — Amount of business transacted — Consulate House.
Of these Consulates in 1853 there were four in Jeru- salem. The earliest established was the British, during the Egyptian regime in 1838. Mr. W. Young was the first British consul. France and Prussia came in 1843, and the latest was the Austrian, which commenced in 1849. One had previously existed, founded in 1843, the Sardinian, but it was superseded in the same year as the Austrian was established. A Spanish Consulate was foimded in 1854.
The two Protestant Consulates, those of England and Prussia, had no share in the altercations about the Holy Places and the Silver Star, and aimed at no kind of pro- tection over Christian subjects of the Sultan, even though they should adopt the deiromination of Protestants. Our relations with the local government were restricted to
EUROPEAN CONSULATES. ENGLISH BISHOPRIC. 85
protection of the persons and property of fellow-country- men. The Pnissian Consulate had at that time but few- subjects and but small aflfairs to superintend ; while the English had its own subjects of both residents and tra- vellers, besides Maltese, Indians, Canadians, and other British colonists, with the lonians ps a ' protected ' people, also a number of protected Jews, together with the con- siderable property of a church, a hospital, various schools, and a cemetery to be watched over.
The English and Prussian Consulates had moreover the joint task of upholding the Protestant (Anglican) bishopric in relation to the Turkish Government, although the person and family of the bishop, being naturalised English subjects, claimed as such the offices of the British Consulate. The bishopric was purely English, according to the terms of the original foundation, but the King of Prussia had the alternate nomination, subject to the veto of the Archbishop of Canterbury.
The European Consuls at Jerusalem were all men of good standing, and natives of the coimtries which they severally represented.
The French Consul has been already described. By this time the Sardinian Considate had been given up. The Austrian Consul was M. Pizzamano, a Venetian, formerly an officer in the ' Guarda nobile ; ' a practised man of the world, of easy manners in society, and good- tempered. He sang well, having a charming voice. M. Pizzamano was confident that no nation could match the Austrians in diplomacy, a science in which they had long been unrivalled.
In political ideas it was natural that the two German
86 PRUSSIAN SYMPATHIES.
Consuls should have much in common^ and that in an opposite direction from the views of France and England. But it was always clearly understood that Prussia sympa- thised less than Austria with Turkey in the Russian diffi- culty.^
* EiDglake has well stated the position of Austria in respect to this war, ' The power most exposed to harm from Russian encroachments upon European Turkey was Austria ; for it was plain that, if tier great neighbour of the North were to extend his empire in the direction of Moldavia, Wal- lachia, and Servia, and so come windward round her south-eastern frontier,
she would be brought into grievous danger
. . . . Thus upon Austria, before all other powers there, attached the care of guarding against encroachments on the European provinces of the Sultan, and the cogency of this duty towards herself, towards Germany and towards Europe herself, Austria has always acknowledged/ (' Invasion of the Crimea,' vol. i.)
He has also clearly defined the influences which swayed the action of Prussia : —
' Over the councils of Prussia, at this time, the Court of St Petersbuig had a dangerous ascendancy, but by his actual station as a leading member of the Confederation, and by his hopes of attaining to a still higher authority in Germany, the King was forced into accord with Austria upon all questions which touched the freedom of the Lower Danube, and it was certain that he would do aU that he safely could to discourage schemes for the disturbance of the Ottoman Empire. Still he lived in awe of the Emperor Nicholas, and it was hard to say beforehand what course he would take if he should be called upon to choose between defection and war.'
The war of 1854 was .undertaken by France and England with the immediate object of forcing Kussia to abandon the Danubian Principalities ; but the impulse which they obeyed was generated by a conviction which had long possessed Western Europe, that the aggressive policy, the arrogant demeanour and the perpetual intrigues of the Czar Nicholas were an insult and danger to the whole European community.
To this general consent of European opinion there was a remarkable ex- ception. Though the German people, particularly in the south, were against Russia, whose cold and heavy hand they felt upon them — the Prussian Court, vrith its military and official aristocracy, were understood to have no friendly feeling for the allies. They denied the justice of the war, echoing the Russian assertion that the Western Powers were supporting Mohammed- anism against Christianity ; they did not conceal their pleasure at the trials of our armies, they predicted their defeat, and were thoroughly disappointed at the issue of the war. Several causes united to produce this state of feel- ing. One was the close relations between the reigning families of St, Peters-
PRUSSIAN CONSULS. 87
The Prussian Consul in Jerusalem who at this time (1853) had just succeeded my friend Dr. Gustav E. Schultz, was Dr. G. Kosen, a native of lippe-Detmold, near Hanover, who had been Oriental interpreter to his Embassy in Constantinople, and enjoyed a considerable reputation for Oriental learning. It was said that he had reduced even the Circassian language to something of grammatical form.^ He was a student in the thorough- going German sense of the terin, of varied reading, and having an immense accumulation of knowledge on lan^ guages and literary subjects.
burg and Berlin. Another was the weak scrupulosity of the late King of Prussia, who would not bring himself to break e^en diplomatically with an old ally ; another was the general similarity between the Russian and the then existing Prussian systems of government and political doctrine, which gave the two states a strong fellow-feeling.
But we believe the strongest of all to have been the deep-rooted jealousy of France which has possessed the Prussians ever since the days of Jena, which has been nourished continually by the boasts and threats of the French on the subject of the Rhine frontier. (' Times/ November 14, 1870.)
' We were told by Count Bemstorff that Prussia was neutral in the Orimean war, benevolently inclined towards Russia.' (Buke of Cleveland's speech quoted ' Times,' November 23, 1870.)
^ The following extract from Mendelssohn's ' Lettres in^dites, traduites par Rolland,' refers to the brother of Br. G. Rosen. The fanuly of Mo- schellee was brought into close connection by the subsequent marriage of the Prussian Consul, G. Rosen, with Madlle. S. Moschelles.
Lettre LVIII., Londres, Avril 27, 1832.
Je dois rendre visite k une foule de gens que je n'ai pas encore vus, tandis qu'avec Klingemann, Rosen * et Moschelles nous nous sommes d^j^ remis sur Tancien pied, comme si nous ne nous ^tions pas quitt^s.
* Rosen (Fr^d^ric Auguste), c^l^bre orientaliste, n^ le 2 Septembre 1805, 4 Hanovre. 11 ^tudia le Sauscrit sous Bopp et en 1827 il publia ses Radices san9crit€B. II fut appel^ k Londres par les fondateiurs de la nouvelle Universiti de Londres pour y enseigner les langues orientales. (The Editor adds that he was appointed in 1853 to the Jerusalem Consulate, but he mis- takes him for hb brother, G. Rosen.)
88 COMMERCIAL AND POLITICAL CONSULATES,
There were at this time resident in Jerusalem twenty- one adult Germans, Protestants of various nations, who belonged to the Prussian congregation, and who were cared for by the Prussian Consul. A hospice for travellers had been founded, and also a hospital and school (for people of all creeds) under one of the Prussian dea- conesses of Kaiserswerth.
At the latter institution a pleasant festival was annu- ally held on the anniversary of the foundation, where all the friends of the deaconesses and the members of both the English and German congregations used to assemble for ' a happy meeting conducted with simplicity/
In establishing consulates all over the world, a line of distinction seems to have been piu*posely drawn by the European Powers to include or exclude national profession of Christianity on the part of those nations to whom the Consuls were senl . Hence it is that we have Consuls icitk judicial functions by means of capitulations in Moslem countries and in China ; while in Christian countries they have no such functions, all persons alike submitting to the laws of the land in which they happen to live. Thus in Turkey and in China, as in Morocco, the European nations have political as well as commercial Consulates. "Foreigners residing in these countries have, according to treaty, the right of being governed by their own laws — administered by their own officers ; they are not amenable to the laws of those lands unless when in collision with the natives of those lands.
The Consuls are, therefore, in those countries invested with powers to administer the laws of those nations which they severally represent. All Europeans are only
LEGAL FUNCTIONS OF (X)NSULS. 89
amenable to their own national codes, administered by their own Consuls ; and in a mixed jurisdiction case of European and Ottoman parties, the Consul, or his deputy for him, has the important right of witnessing the pro- ceedings, of cross-examining witnesses, of arresting the action even before decision, when dissatisfied with the mode of procedure, and finally of protesting against the sentence given, in order to appeal higher.
Thus a cause between two British subjects would be brought before the British Consul, and not before any Tiurkish authority, and it would be decided according to British law. But if a British subject had any claim against a Turkish subject, or the subject of any other nation, he would present it in the Turkish Court, or in the proper Consulate through his own Consul, who would protect his interests and claim for him the full benefit of the laws of Turkey, or whatever might be the country to which the defendant belonged. And if a British subject had committed any serious crime, as murder, which rendered him amenable to the law of Turkey, he could only be tried in the Turkish Court in presence of his own Consul, whose assent would be required before sentence cx)uld be carried out.
Political Consuls are not allowed to engage in trade. A Consul of this description is the official representative of his countrymen, and protector of aU their interests. He is, moreover, Judge of the Consular Court, in which all causes between British subjects are tried, and also all minor charges made against British subjects by one of any other nation. The rule in all mixed cases is that a cause shall be tried in the tribunal of the nation to which tibe defendant belongs, so as to give him the fiill benefit
90 EUROPEANS PROTECTED BY CONSULS.
of the laws of his own country ; while the prosecution is carried on with the help of the Consul of the plaintiff, whom the Consul is bound to advise and inform on all points necessary for his advantage. The discountenancing of litigation and promoting of friendly arbitration are also among the duties of a British Consul.
The Turkish Government permitted European resi- dents or travellers, when unrepresented by Consuls of their own nation, to place themselves for the time of residence under the protection of any European Consul they might choose, and who would accept the charge ; generally such affairs ran in grooves, modified by circum- stances ; thus the Austrian Consulate had for its appendix, by authority from home, the supervision of Belgian business, by reason of the family connection of those two crowns ; and the French in like manner acted for all the states of Italy at the request of the latter, besides having the general office of Protection of all the Chris- tianity that was Eoman ; while the Christianity of Eussia, Greece, and the Protestant countries simply declined to avail itself of the French protectorate under any regime^ Orleanist, Eepublican, or Imperial, and dealt with the Ottoman ruler each on its several behalf.
With respect to Germany, its people distributed them- selves mostly according to the belongings of the * Zollve- rein,' which, again, almost always coincided with the estab- lished religion of their States (Hanover being an exception); the Protestants registering themselves with the Prussians, and the Eoman Catholics with the Austrians. Danes, Swedes, Dutch, and some Tuscan Jews, as also Americans, usually had recourse to the British Consulate.
The territorial extent of the several Consular juris-
TIIE CAPITULATIONS. 91
dictions at Jerusalem was the same as that of the Pashahc — only the English one embraced the whole of Palestine, from Egypt to the Lebanon.
And whereas the original idea of the establishment of Consulates in Turkey was a development of Embassies, with a view to protection of mercantile interests, it was only by means of having dependant agencies at the ports that the oflBce of Consul could have been fairly recognised in Jerusalem. Once instituted, it became easy to engraft upon that office other duties, as was in fact done with advantage to the country represented and the country which allowed them.
The Consub act under authority of treaties made at simdry times in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, which, when collected together, are denominated 'the Capitulations.'
In our days the Turks are impatient of tolerating these Capitulations, which, they contend, were suited to earlier times, and a different range of action. Being now admitted to the comity of European nations, they expect to be placed on the same footing with these in every point. But we must not suffer ourselves to ignore the fact that the official morale of Turkish governors are not yet so far improved, upon those of former days, as to admit of removing British lives and property-interests from the aegis of their own national laws and responsible administration, and leaving them to the corruption of Mohammedan pashks and kadis.^
^ It does not appear necessary to discuss here the subject of abrogating the Turkish capitulations, on the ground of their being doruments which have outlived their time^ and being no longer suitable to the civilisaUon and
92 RANK OP CONSULS.
The rank of the Consuls had been defined to be equal with that of the Turkish Governor, or Pashk — so that disputes about the proper etiquette might be avoided — and British Consuls were not allowed to ride out to meet and receive a new Pasha on his arrival, lest their doing so should be construed into an admission of his being in any sense subordinate to the Pashk, or under his juris- diction. But when a new Pasha (or Consul) arrived, it was customary for the Consulates to send their Vice- Consuls, Cancellieres, dragomans, and kawwasses out of the dty to meet and welcome him — and form part of the procession which escorted him into the city. Due notice was therefore always given of the approach of the new officer. The Consul who had lived longest in the city was regarded as. senior by the rest, who gave him prece- dence as * Doyen ; ' the others followed according to their seniority. As to the precedence of British Consuls in regard to their own countrymen, that was settled by regulation : ' Consuls rank with, but after^ Captains, K.N"., or Colonels and Lieutenant-Colonels ; but before Com- manders, E.N., or Majors in the Army.* The regula-
commerce of our age. The corrupt practice of Turkish Courts and favour- itism of the authorities, on which from experience I feel strongly, are sufficient to demand still the continuance of some strong guarantees for pro- tection of Europeans.
This, however, I may assert, that the abuses and irregularities in Consular action, of which we read occasionally in newspaper correspondence and in reports of Parliamentary debates, were almost unknown to us in Jerusalem. It was an established rule never transgressed, that in mixed ca^es, whether of our subjects with Turkish subjects, or with European foreigners, the matters at issue were judged and sentenced in the Court of the Defendant — there was no confusion at aU about it. And as for unfair protection of Turkish subjects by the Consulates, I believe that existed to but a small extent, and more in the sea ports than with us. It was never known at all in the British service.
VICE-CONSULS. CANCELLIERES. 1)3
tions also provided that Consuls should be entitled to salutes from British men-of-war, to the number of seven guns, and Consuls-General to nine.
To most of the Consulates were attached gentlemen holding the rank of Cancelliere, or of Vice-Consul, and also interpreters (called dragomans). The former were generally natives of the country represented by the Consulate itself; the latter were almost of necessity Datives of Turkey, because English and other foreign gentlemen could not be found able to speak, read, and write the Oriental languages, Turkish and Arabic, neces- sary for the transaction of business. Perhaps it should rather be said that funds were not at disposal of the various Consuls to enable them to pay adequate salaries to gentlemen competent to perform the duties required of Consular dragomans. These duties were often very delicate, and it was essential to secure gentlemen in whom confidence could be placed. Sometimes natives educated partly in Europe were employed. The other European Consulates were enabled to seciure the attach- ment of their interpreters by a more hberal system of treatment than that adopted under the English systeuL
Dragomans who faithfully served the Consulate to which they were attached, were obliged to break with their own Government, and for this there was no reward attainable, even after many years of ill-paid service. There was neither pension nor status conferred, so that a dragoman, after having served during the best years of his life, and having incurred hostility m proportion to the fidelity and zeal of his service, was at last liable to be set adrift, to begin life over again and be exposed to ill-will
94 DRAGOMANS. KAWWASES.
which he need never have incurred, unless he had subordinated his own personal interests to those of the nation whose temporary employ^ he had been. As already said, other European nations managed these things better than we did.
Each Consulate had attached to it several men called Janissaries or Kaww&ses (Bow-men), i.e. entitled to carry arms. These were necessarily Moslems, because they were intended both as body-guard and recognised gens- d'armes and police. It was necessary that they should have the right of using arms, though in our time they were used for shpw rather than for use, and that they should be recognised as Moslems, who could, if necessary, be useful in dealing with Moslems who might be aggres- sive in attack. They might safely strike or lay hands on an uiu'uly Moslem, or arrest him if a thief, which a Christian could not have done without provoking a riot, if not worse.
These men were provided with silver-headed staves of office, which they carried when on official business, or when escorting the Consul himself in town or coimtry. They preceded the Consul. In the bazaars people usually rose up to salute a Consul as he passed by, and sentinels on duty presented arms. At sea, it was customaiy for steamers on nearing port to hoist the flag of the nation to which any Consul on board belonged. Sometimes two Kaww&ses were barely sufficient for the business of the consulate; at other times four, five, or more, were necessary.
One of my Kaww&ses had been a captain of the Camel Commissariat to Ibrahim Pashk's army* He was grave,
EDITOR'S NOTE. 95
silent, faithful as, steel, and brave beyond question, as on several occasions I had reason to know. Another was a townsman from the north of Syria, who had served in the Army of Egypt under Mohammed Ali against the Waha- bees, whom he held in abhorrence. He used to say that in battle a good Moslem ought to present his piece at the enemy — then shut his eyes and lire, and God sends the bullet where He wills. This is in warfare, where of course there is no personal enmity. Both of these men were Hajjis, having performed the Mecca pilgrimage. The latter was somewhat bigoted; but they both exe- cuted all the business which I entrusted to them, without making any difference to the disadvantage of Christians. Both these men were ready at all times and willing to mount and go anywhere — in any weather, sun or rain, -wind or snow, at a moment's notice ; and I rarely, if ever, had to complain of the least departure from the orders I had given them to carry out.
EDITOKS NOTE.
The author has described the various Consulates and the machinery by which they were carried on, I may be per- mitted to add a few words descriptive of himself.
Mr. Kinglake, in describing Lord Baglan, declares that the best way of enabling men to arrive at an estimate of a man's character is to give ' honest samples of what he said and what lie wrote, of his manner of commanding men and maintaining an alliance ' . . • to * show how he comported himself in times of heavy trial.' He argues that in this way * his true nature, with its strength and with its human failings, will be so far brought to light, that I may be dispensed from the need of striving to portray it ; and, contenting myself with speaking of some of the mere outward and visible signs which showed upon
96 THE BRITISH CONSUL MR. FINN.
the surface, may leave it to his countrymen to ascend, by the knowledge of what he did, to the knowledge of what he was.' (Kinglake's ' Invasion of the Crimea.')
In editing and compiling this ' History of the Holy Land during the Crimean War,' partly written by my husband and partly sketched out by him in copious notes ready to be put together, I have felt that there is contained in tlie history much which illustrates the life and character of my husband himself, during this important period of his eighteen years' career as Her Majesty^s Consul for Jerusalem and Palestine. There are still some living who remember the time within which the events occurred, and who were then in the Holy Iiand. They will be reminded, as they read these pages, of him who wrote them, of his frank truthfulness — his unfailing kindness to all who were in sorrow or distress — of the quiet courage* that shrank from no duty, however dangerous it might be, that dealt firmly with criminals of the most desperate character, obtaining their arrest and punishment without regard to anything they or their gang of evil*doers might attempt. They will recollect how he went fearlessly about by day or by night in the city or in the country — alone if necessary — ^how he acted promptly without bluster — never wavered or went back from his word ; and shrank from no fatigue if there was business to be done — how he rode from Nazareth t/O Jerusalem in two days — from Tiberias in a day and a half when his pre- sence was necessary — from Hebron to Jerusalem in a little more than two hours, when the depositions were to be taken of a poor Jew who was supposed to be dying — or to Graza in a day from Jerusalem for the comfort of the frightened Christians who were in dread of a Moslem rising — ready in all weathers, pouring rain, or snow^ or the heat of the Dead Sea plain at the end of August, if some British subject needed his help, or British interest needed to be strengthened !
' * That which more than all else in the world takes hold of the Oriental mind/ says Einglake, ' is strenf^th held in reserve.' To the Orientals at least, with whom he had to do, Mr. flnn's quiet manner conveyed the impression of ' strength held in reserve.' They and others used to say they could not bear the steadfast gaze of Ids eye.
UMITS AND POPULATION OF JERUSALEM CONSULATE. 97
There are still some left who will fill in the portrait of which this History cannot fail to suggest some outlines to those who knew the author as the patient, kind, and just British Consul, who, amid many discouragements and trials, strove to do his duty, and to carry out the policy of England as laid down by the instructions given him, and interpreted by the actions of his superiors. Colonel Rose (Lord Strathnaim) in the Lebanon, Sir Stratford Canning (Lord Stratford de Redcliffe) at Constantinople, and Lord Palmerston in London.
Within the British Consulate of Jerusalem and Palestine were three independent Pashalics — ^those of Jerusalem, Acre, and Saida (Sidon) ; the Pasha of