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EDITED IBY
RICH ao EY DEKKER, B.A.; F.G:S3.F.Z:S.,.. ETC:
¢
With PRERACES Big
‘ Paper ae LATER, M.A., «PHD., F.R.S., ETC.
SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON
¥
ILLUSTRATED WITH
.
Seventy-two Colowred Plates and Sixteen Hundred Engravings BY
W. KUHNERT, F. SPECHT, P. J. SMIT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES, J. WOLF, GAMBIER BOLTON, F.Z.8.; AND MANY OTHERS
VOL Ee
SECTION Sit.
LONDON FREDERICK WARNE & CO. AND NEW YORK 1894
[All Rights Reserved]
Ww ; ; : or
4 a 7 : = i i 7 » y MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, ‘EDINBURGH. 7 ny . : %
THE FREE-TAILED INSECTIVOROUS Bats
CON are ES
MAMMALS
CHAPTER XI.—Bats,—concluded.
Smooth-Nosed Free-Tailed Bats (Emballonuride)— Sheath-Tailed. Bats (Hmballonwra)—Pouch-Winged Bats (Saccopterys)—Tomb-Bats (Taphozous)—White_ Bats (Diclidurus)—Hare-Lipped Bats (Noctilio)—Long-Tailed Bat (Rhinopoma)—Mastitf-Bats (Molossus)—Naked Bat (Chiromeles)—Wrinkled-Lipped Bats (Nyctinomus)—New Zealand Bat (Mystacops)—Vampire Bats (Phyllostomatide)—Chin- Leafed Bats (Chilonycteris and Mormops)—Harmless Vampires (Vampirus)—Javelin Bats (Phyllostoma)—Long-Tongued Vampires (Glossophaga)—Short-Nosed Vampires (Artibeus)—Blood-Sucking Vampires (Desmodus and Diphylla)—Fossil Bats,
CHAPTER XII.—Tue InsEctivores,—Order Insectivora.
Characteristics of the Group—Cobegos, or Kaguans (Galeopithecide)—Philippine Cobego—
Tree-Shrews, or Tupaias (Tupaiide)—Pen-Tailed Tree-Shrew (Ptilocercus)—Fossil Tree- Shrews —Jumping Shrews (Macroscelidide) — Typical Forms (Macrosceles) — Rock Jumping Shrew—Long-Nosed Jumping Shrew (Rhynchocyon)—Its Habits—Hedgehogs and Gymunuras (Erinaceide)—Hedgehogs (Erinaceus)—African Species—Extinct Repre- sentatives—Gymuuras (Gymnura)—Extinct Forms—Shrews (Soricidw)—Typical Shrews (Sorex) —Common Shrew—Lesser Shrew—Alpine Shrew—North American Shrews— Short-Tailed, or Earless Shrews (Blarina)—Water-Shrew (Crossopus)—Musk-Shrews (Crocidura)—Burrowing Shrews (A nurosorex)—Swimming Shrews (Chimarrogale)—W eb- Footed Shrew (Nectogale) — Desmans and Moles (Talpide)— Desmans (Myogale)— Russian Desman—Pyrenean Desman—Mole-Shrews (Urotrichus)—Web-Footed Moles (Sealops)—Hairy-Tailed Moles (Scapanus)—Star-Nosed Mole (Condylura)—The True Moles (Talpa)—Extinct Species—Yellow-tailed Mole—The Tenrees (Centetide)—Struc- tural Features—Common Tenree (Centetes)—Streaked Tenree (Hemicentetes)—Hedgehog Tenrecs (Hriculus) — Long-Tailed Tenrecs (Microgale)— Rice-Tenrees (Oryzorictes) — Solenodons (Solenodontide)—Haytian Solenodon—Cuban Solenodon—The Potamogale (Potamogalide)—The Geogale—The Golden Moles (Chrysochloride),
CHAPTER XIII.—TuHeE Carnivores,—Order Carnivora.
THE Cat-TrIBE (Felide)—General Characteristics—Distinctive Features of the Cat Tribe—
The Lion—Present and Past Distribution—Varieties—Habits—Its Roar—Its Prey— Perils of Lion-Hunting—The Tiger—Habits and Haunts—Partiality for Water—Its Prey—Loss Inflicted on Cattle-Owners—Man-Eating Tigers—Their Victims— Modes of Destroying Tigers—The Leopard—Its Coloration and Characteristics—Black and White Leopards—Distribution—Mode of Life and Haunts-—-Partiality for Dogs—Leopard-
PAGE
289
vi CONTENTS
PAGE Hunting and Trapping—Snow-Leopard, or Ounce—Distribution and Habits—Jaguar
—Distinctive Features and Dimensions—Its Prey—Animosity to the Puma—Lassoing Jaguars—Puma—Its Colour and Size—Adaptability to Climates—Attacks on Horses— Gentleness to Man—Food and Habits—Fossil Pumas—Clouded Leopard—Marbled Cat —Golden Cat—Fishing Cat—Its Habits and Daring—Leopard-Cat—Serval—Rusty- Spotted Cat — Flat-Headed Cat — Ocelot —Its Remarkable Variability — Margay — Jaguarondi—Eyra—lIts Weasel-like Form—Colocollo—Cattfre, or Egyptian Cat—Its “Relation to Domestic Cats—Wild Cat—lIts Present Rarity in Britain—Fierceness of its Disposition—Pallas’s Cat—Indian Desert Cat—Domestic Cats—Different Views as to their Origin—Various Colours—Persian, or Angora Breed—Siamese Cat—Manx Cat —Mombas Cat—Pampas Cat—Jungle-Cat—Caracal—Lynx—Distribution and Races of Lynxes—Northern Lynx—Canada Lynx—Bay Lynx—Pardine Lynx—Hunting- Leopard (Cynelurus)— Name Chita not exclusively applicable to this Species—Capturing Black-Buck with Tamed Hunting-Leopards—Extinct Cats, : : : . 3849
CHAPTER XIV.—CarRnivorEs,—continued.
Civets, AARD-WoLF, AND Hynas.—The Civet Tribe (Viverride)—Fossa (Cryptoprocta)— True Civets (Viverra)—African Civet—Indian Civet—Burmese Civet—Javan Civet— Rasse—Genets (Genetta)—Linsangs (Linsang)—Palm-Civets (Paradoxurus)—Indian Palm-Civet—Malay Palm-Civets—Chinese Palm-Civet—Small-Toothed Palm-Civets (Arctogale) — Hemigales (Hemigale)— African Palm-Civet (Nandinia) — Binturong (Arctictis)—Cynogale (Cynogale)—Mungooses (Herpestes)—Egyptian Mungoose—Indian Mungoose, and its Encounters with Snakes—Introduction’ of Mungooses into Sugar Plantations—Crab-Eating Mungoose— Other Species—Four-Toed Mungooses (Cynictis)— Smooth-Nosed Mungooses(Rhinogale)—Cusimanse (Crossarchus)—The Meerkat (Suricata) and its Interesting Habits—-Madagascar Mungooses (Galidictis and Hupleres)—Extinct Civet-like Animals—Aard-Wolf (Proteletde)—Hyenas (Hyenide)—Characteristics— Striped Hyzena—Brown Hyzna—Spotted Hyzena—Extinct Species, . : . 448
CHAPTER XV.—CarnivoreEs,—continued.
THE Doc TriBe (Canide).—General Characteristics, Distribution and Habits—Extent of the yenus (Canis)—The Wolf—Its Numerous Varieties and Wide Distribution—Habits —Indian Wolf—Coyote—Antarctic Wolf—Kaberu—Jackals—Black-Backed Jackal— Side-Striped Jackal—Dingo—Domestic Dogs—Origin—Eskimo Dog—Hare Indian Dog —Pomeranian Dog—Sheep-Dog—Collie—Drover’s Dog—Pariah Dogs—English Grey- hound—Italian Greyhound—Deerhound—Irish Wolf-Dogs—Other Greyhounds— Hairless Dogs—Lurchers—Field-Spaniels—Irish Water-Spaniel—Setters—Retrievers — Newfoundlands— Bloodhound —Staghound — Foxhound — Harrier — Otterhound — Beagle—Turnspit—Dachshund—Pointer—Dahnatian Dog—Mastiff—Bull-Dog—Bull- Terrier—Boarhound—Pugs—Tibet Dog—Fox-Terrier—Irish Terrier—Skye-Terrier— Dandie Dinmont — Yorkshire Terrier—English Terrier— Poodle— Maltese Dog— Mexican Lap-Dog—Asiatie Wild Dog—Siberian Wild Dog—Indian Wild Dog—Malay Wild Dog—Extinct Species—Maned Wolf—Azara’s Wild Dog—Crab-Eating Dog— Short-Eared Dog—Raccoon Dog—The Foxes—The Common Fox—Grey Fox—Kit Fox Arctic Fox—Desert Fox—Corsac Fox—Indian Fox—Hoary Fox—Asse Fox—Pale Fox — Ruppell’s Fennee—Common Fennec —Cape Hunting-Dog (Lycaon) — Bush-Dog (Icticyon)—Lalande’s Dog (Octocyon)—Extinct Dogs, : : : : . 492
INDEX TO First VOLUME, COMPRISING Sections I. anv ILI, . : : : SaenOue
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
COEOURED ‘PLATES
JAGUAR KILLING TAPIR, . Wepe-Footep SHREWS, TIGRESS AND CUBs, LEOPARDS,
WILp Cat,
LINSANGS, .
Common Fox,
AFRICAN FENNECS,
Lion AnD LIoNEss,
CarRAcaLs HUNTING,
Eoyptian MUNGOOSES,
A GATHERING oF STRIPED Fremuaes Aw Eskruo anpD His Dogs,
Frontispiece Facing page 331
PAGE PLATES
TEXT ENGRAVINGS
Head of Tomb-Bat,
Long-Tailed Bat,
Head of Mastiff-Bat,
Head of Female of the Naked Bat,
Head of Blainville’s Chin-Leafed Bat,
The Great Vampire-Bat,
The Javelin-Vampire, 2 F Head of Long-Tongued Vampire, . Head of Centurion Bat, ; Skeleton of Hedgehog,
The Cobego,
The Common Tree- Shey, Pen-Tailed Tree-Shrew,
Cape Jumping-Shrew,
Rock Jumping-Shrew,
The Common Hedgehog, . Hedgehog and Young,
Raffles’s Gymnura,
Teeth of Swimming-Shrew, Skeleton of Water-Shrew, .
PAGE |
291 293 294 297
The Spider Musk-Shrew and Common Shrew, : : :
The W. epeeeaee
The Common ak: Sites,
Skeleton of Mole,
Russian Desmans, .
Fore-Foot of Mole,
The Common Mole,
Tritubercular Molar Tooth,
The Tenrec,
The Cuban Solenodon,
The Potamogale,
Skeleton of Tiger, . .
Skull of the Common Fox, :
Flesh-Tooth of the Striped Hyzna,
Flesh-Tooth of an Extinct Dog-like Car- nivore, ‘
Cape Maned Lion, .
Teeth of Sabre-Toothed ee
Lion at a Pool,
373 387 422 456 557
568
ge 348
434 467 484 dll
PAGE
325 328 329 332 333 337 338 340 341 344 345 349 352 353
353 358 359 363
Vill LIST OF TIZLOUSTRATIONS
Maneless Lion from Senegal, The Tiger and the Tigress, The Bengal Tiger, . ‘ The Struggle in the Stream, The Leopard,
Black Leopard,
Leopard on the Prowl,
The Snow-Leopard,
The Puma,
The Clouded eee
The Marbled Cat,
The Fishing-Cat,
The Leopard-Cat,
The Serval,
The Ocelot,
The Margay,
The Eyra,
The Cattre Cat,
The Domestic Cat,
The Angora Cat,
The Pampas Cat, . mae, The Jungle-Cat,
The Northern Lynx,
The European Lynx,
The Pardine Lynx,
The Hunting-Leopard, Skull of Sabre-Toothed Cat, Upper Jaw of the Indian Civet, The Fossa, .
The Civet, .
The Indian Civet,
The Rasse, .
The Genet,
The Common Palm-Civ aes The Malay Palm-Civet,
The Chinese Palm-Civet, The Binturong,
The Cynogale,
The Indian Mungoose,
The Crab-Eating Mungoose, The Thick-Tailed Mungoose, The Cusimanse,
The Banded Mungoose,
The Meerkat,
The Aard-Wolf,
Skeleton of Spotted Hyeena,
Lower Jaw of an Extinct Hyeena,
The Brown Hyeena, The Spotted Hyzena,
PAGE 367 373 376 384 387 389 391 393 398 407 409 410 412 414 417 418 419 42] 426 428 431 432 437
Teeth of Common Fox and Azara’s Fox, .
Skeleton of Wolf,
The Wolf,
The Coyote,
The Jackal, ;
The Black-Backed J role The Side-Striped Jackal,
Variety of the Side-Striped Jackal,
The Dingo,
The Pomeranian Dog, Rough-Coated Collies, English Greyhound, Italian Greyhounds, Persian Greyhound, Clumber Spaniel,
Trish Setter, Newfoundland Dog, Rough St. Bernard, Bloodhounds, , Staghounds after a Chase, . Foxhounds in Full Cry, The Otterhound,
The Beagle,
The Dachshund, Liver-and-White Pointer, The Bull-Dog,
German Boarhounds,
Pet Pugs,
Tibet Dog, .
Welsh Terriers,
Yorkshire Terrier, F Smooth and Rough Terriers, White and Black Poodles, . Siberian Wild Dog,
Indian Wild Dog, .
Malay Wild Dog,
Azara’s Dog,
The Raccoon-Dog, . Skeleton of Fox,
Arctic Foxes on the Ice, Fox and Cubs,
The Grey Fox,
Arctic Fox in Summer Duress, Arctic Fox in Winter Dress, The Corsac Fox,
Cape Hunting-Dog,
Hunting-Dogs chasing Gemsbok, .
Lalande’s Dog, Foxhound, .
PAGE
493 494 496 500 503 505 506 507 509 SI
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CEC ASP ipku mo Xeus Bats,—concluded. THE FREE-TAILED INSECTIVOROUS BATs.
THE chief distinctive features of this group are that, as a rule, the tail (when present) either penetrates the membrane between the leys, so that its extremity appears on the upper surface, or it is produced considerably beyond the hinder margin ; secondly, that the innermost (frequently the only) pair of upper incisor teeth are generally of large size, and placed very close together; and, thirdly, that except in two genera, each represented by a single species, the first joint of the third or middle finger of the wing is, when at rest, folded back upon the upper surface of its supporting metacarpal, instead of being extended forwards in the same line, as in the species we have hitherto described. Not a single repre- sentative of this large assemblage of bats is found in the British Isles, and, indeed, only one species occurs within the limits of the European area. They are mainly characteristic of tropical and subtropical regions; but whereas the first of the two families into which they are divided ranges over both hemispheres, the second is strictly confined to the central and southern portions of the Western. The number of genera—to say nothing of species—included in the two families is very large, and as many of them are distinguished from one another by comparatively trivial characteristics, we shall notice only a few typical forms, of special interest either from peculiarities of structure or of habits.
THE SMOOTH-NOSED FREE-TAILED Barts. Family HMBALLONURIDA.
The first family of the group occupies a position precisely similar to that held by the Typical Bats (Vespertilionide) in the other branch of the insect-eaters treated in the preceding section. In addition to the peculiar mode of folding the third finger of the wing, and the characters of the tail already alluded to, they are distinguished by the circumstance that there are but two bony joints in this third finger, as also by the absence of any distinct nose-leaf. As a rule, they have a small tragus in the ear, and only a single pair of upper incisor teeth, which incline towards one another. Moreover, the extremity of the snout is obliquely truncated from above downwards, so as to cause the nostrils to project more or less in front of the tip of the lower jaw. The family is widely distributed over the warmer regions of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and includes one of the two species which are the only representatives of the entire
VOL. I.—19
290 BATS.
order (as, indeed, they are of the whole class of Mammals) found in New Zealand ; but the range on either side is mainly restricted to the belt lying within thirty degrees of the Equator.
THE SHEATH-TAILED Bats. Genus Hmballonwra.
The mountain sheath-tailed bat (4imballonura monticola) is a fairly well- known representative of a group of this family in which the tail is slender, and has its free extremity perforating the membrane between the hind legs, while the legs are relatively long, and the upper incisor teeth comparatively small and weak. The special characteristic of the genus is that there are two pairs of upper incisor teeth; the total number of teeth being 34, of which 2 on each side belong to the incisor, and 2 to the cheek series. The production of the muzzle is more or less strongly marked, the top of the head is flat, and the ears are not united, and have a tragus of somewhat oblong form, and expanded above.
The mountain sheath-tailed bat is of a chocolate-brown colour, and measures about 14 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. It is found in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines; the other four species of the genus inhabiting various islands in the region extending from Madagascar to the Navigator group. The genus is, therefore, exclusively an insular one, and, in this respect, quite peculiar. The Polynesian sheath-tailed bat (4. semzcaudata) is found in the Mergui Archipelago lying off Tenasserim.
THE PoucH-WINGED Bats. Genus Saccopterye.
Omitting two small genera, we come to the remarkable pouch-winged bats (Saccopteryx) of Central and South America, which-do not generally exceed 2 inches in length, and have fewer teeth than the foregoing; the number of incisors being 4, and the cheek-teeth 2 on each side. They derive their name from the presence of a peculiar glandular pouch on the under side of each wing, at or near the elbow-joint. These pouches, which are well developed in the males but rudimentary in the females, secrete a red-coloured strongly-smelling substance, which appears to act as a sexual attraction. In one species from British Guiana (S. leptwra), these pouches are unusually large, and from each of them projects a prominent white frill of skin, which seems capable of being protruded and with- drawn at the will of the animal; the use of this is unknown. In Demerara these . bats may be seen flying about quite close to the houses at dusk. Moseley relates that he caught an example of another species (S. canina) in Bahia, resting fast asleep on the bare bark of a large tree; the dense forest growth overhead making such an exposed situation quite dark enough for a resting-place throughout the day. Nearly all the six species have the fur of a uniform dark brown colour,
although one has a reddish tinge.
PRE E- LALEED (GRO OP. 291
THE TomB-Bats. Genus Taphozous.
These derive both their popular and scientific titles from one of the species being found in vast numbers in the ancient Egyptian tombs, where they were discovered during the first French Expedition to that country. The tomb-bats differ from the other members of the group in having only two pairs of incisor teeth in the lower jaw, and also by the circumstance that the upper pair of these teeth are shed in the adult state. Instead of the glandular pouches on the wings, characteristic of the preceding genus, most of these bats have pouches of a similar nature on the under-surface otf the chin; these being chiefly, and in some cases exclusively, developed in the male sex. Many individuals, especially those taken during the hibernating season, have large deposits of fat around the root of the tail and the base of the thighs. This is probably for supporting life during the hibernating season, which, from the more northerly range of this species, would appear to be longer than among the other representatives of the genus.
The tomb-bats are found in Africa, India, Burma, the Malayan region, and Australia, but are unknown in Polynesia. Most of them are dwellers in caves, fissures in rocks, and old buildings; but
one Indian species has been observed on the stem of a palm tree. Perhaps the best known species is the naked - bellied tomb-bat (Taphozous nudiventris), readily recognised by its tawny fur and the naked under-parts. It is a large species, measuring 33 inches in length, exclusive of the tail, the span of the wing being about 20 inches. This species is widely distributed over Africa, and is the one found in the Kgyptian tombs, while it also extends into Syria and Palestine. According to Canon Tristram, the caves near the Sea of Galilee are inhabited by clouds of these bats.
Writing of the Sumatran species (7. ajfinis), Mr. E. C. Buxton, as quoted by Dr. Dobson, states that at Telok Betong, in Sumatra, “there was an old, hollow cocoa-nut stump in the garden, and about twenty of these bats lived in it. At night, or rather early in the morning, they used to hang at the top of the verandah in company with several other kinds; and I found that they were all fruit-eaters, as there was a great deal of fruit-refuse under them.” Although, as Dr. Dobson remarks, this by no means proves the tomb-bat to be at times a fruit-eater, as, for
HEAD OF TOMB-BAT,—After Dobson.
all we know, the fruit-refuse might have been deposited by its companions, yet that this is probably the case is indicated by the partially frugivorous habits of some of its American allies. The tail of the tomb-bats perforates the membrane between the legs near its centre, and thus has the tip freely projecting. At the will of the animal it can, however, be withdrawn almost completely within the membrane, which thus forms a kind of sheath.
202 BATS.
THE WHITE Barts. Genus Diclidurus.
As white is a colour but rarely met with among the Chiroptera, we cannot pass over the white bats, which are represented only by two species from Central and South America. These bats are allied to the tomb-bats, but have three pairs of lower incisor teeth, and they are also distinguished from other bats by the presence of a peculiar pouch on the under side of the membrane between the legs. The typical white bat (Diclidurus albus) has the fur on the body dark at the base, but the greater portion of each hair, up to the tip, is of a yellowish or creamy- white, while the whole of the wing-membranes are pure white. The first known specimen was found in Brazil reposing between the fronds of a cocoanut palm. If this be the normal habitat of the species, its coloration may perhaps be a protective one, adapted to resemble the silvery hue of the under-surface of the palm leaves. Here it may be mentioned that albino varieties of dark-coloured bats are occasion- ally met with; the most recently described example that has come under our notice being a white specimen of a species of Vesperugo (V. capensis), obtained in 1890 near Cape Town.
THE HaARE-LIPPED BATs. Genus Noctilio.
If the white bats are noteworthy on account of their colour, the two species of hare-lipped bats, which are likewise Central and South American forms, are deserv- ing of mention on account of the curious superficial resemblances of their muzzles to those of the Rodents, while at least the ordinary species (Noctilio leporinus), which has been known since the time of Linnzeus, is not less remarkable from the peculiar nature of its diet. These bats derive their ordinary name from their curiously folded upper lip, which is bent upwards in the middle line in the form of an inverted V, terminated above by the nostrils. The feet and claws are remarkable for their large size. They have 28 teeth, of which there are ? incisors, and # cheek- teeth on each side. The first, or innermost pair of upper incisor teeth, are of great size, and placed close together so as to conceal the small outer pair; and as the large ones bite against the single smaller pair of lower incisors, the resemblance to the mouth of a small Rodent, such as a mouse, is very striking.
These bats appear to be almost omnivorous in their diet. That they would freely eat cockroaches was proved long ago by Mr. P. H. Gosse, when in Jamaica; and it was at the same time shown that they would chew, although not swallow, the flesh of small birds. In 1859, a Mx. Fraser, writing from Ecuador, stated that they had a very peculiar and offensive fishy smell, and that he had observed them “skimming the bank of the river, every now and then making a dash along, and actually striking the water, catching the minute shrimps as they pass up stream.” It was not, however, till 1880, that it was definitely known that they actually eaught and fed upon small fish. Professor M‘Carthy, who made special investiga- tions to determine the truth of their alleged fish-eating habits, writes to Mr. J. E.
FREE-TAILED GROUP. 293
Harting, that in December 1888 he visited a cave in an island near Menos. “This cave is in a soft shale formation, and the top of the opening is about seven feet from the water at full tide. The bats were then in an active state, and the majority appeared to be flying homewards. There were few fish near the surface of the water, and comparatively little local fishing appeared to be going on. An occasional ‘swish’ now and again far out proved that the bats were trying to secure their prey. Five homeward-bound specimens were secured in the cave, about twelve yards from the mouth. The stomach of one specimen opened within half an hour contained much fish in a finely-divided and partially digested state. On the morning of the 31st I visited the cave from which the specimens were procured at 3 A.M., and found that the bats had apparently forgotten the previous disturbance. They came flying in in dozens, and two specimens were secured. Both contained considerable quantities of fish. I have opened several other specimens of these bats, and in the majority of cases fish-scales were found; but the stomachs of two were perfectly empty. This might be attributed to the absence of the desired fish in the locality.”
THE LoNG-TAILED BAT.
Genus Rhinopona.
The last, and at the same time not the least, noteworthy member of the present subfamily, is the long-tailed bat (Rhinopoma microphyllum), which is found from
LONG-TAILED BAT (nat. size).
294 , BATS.
North-East Africa, through India, to Burma. It has 28 teeth, of which $ on each side belong to the incisor, and + to the cheek series. Its most distinctive feature is, however, its very long and slender free tail, which projects far beyond the margin of the very short membrane between the legs, and thereby distinguishes it at a glance from all other bats. It is further quite peculiar in that the second or index finger of the wing has two joints. Another feature, of less import, although that which has given the scientific name to the genus, is the presence of a fleshy prominence on the muzzle, just over the nose; this prominence having been incorrectly regarded as a rudimentary nose-leaf. In specimens taken in India during the cold season, there 18 an enormous accumulation of fat around the tail and thighs, which is sometimes so large as to exceed the weight of the rest of the body; the accumulation being similar to that already noticed as occurring in the naked-bellied tomb-bat and doubtless serving the same purpose. According to Mr. Blanford, “this species is common in North-Western India, and hides during the day in caves, clefts in rocks, old ruins, and similar places. In Cutch it takes up its abode in wells. Jerdon relates that in Madras, in 1848, many were captured in a house for three successive nights, having probably been blown by strong westerly winds from the rocky hills to the westward. The species is not of common occurrence in Madras. According to Blyth, this species formerly abounded in the Taj at Agra (it may still be found there), and Cantor found numbers inhabiting the subterranean Hindu place of worship within the fort at Allahabad.”
THE MAsTIFF-BATS. Genus Molossus.
With the mastiff-bats, which take their name from a supposed resemblance of their broad wide-mouthed muzzles to the head of a mastiff, we come to the first representatives of the second subfamily of this division, the members of which are characterised by the thickness of their tails, which (with a single exception) are prolonged for a considerable distance beyond the hinder margin of the membrane between the hind legs. The legs are short and strong, and the feet of great relative width; while the thumbs of the wings have curious callosities at their bases; and the upper incisor teeth are of large size, and limited to a single pair. As in all these bats, the feet are completely free from the wing-membranes, which can be comfortably er are folded up and stored away between the fore-arms and the Dobson, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1878.) legs, and the membrane between the legs can be retracted
to a greater or less extent by being moved backwards and forwards along the tail. In the strength of their limbs, in the development of the corn-like callosities at the bases of their thumbs, as well as in their large and flat feet, and the freedom of their feet from the wing-membranes, the mastiff- bats and their allies are more adapted for crawling on the ground than any other members of this group of animals. And the result of observations on living
FPREE-TAILED GROUP. 295
specimens has been to confirm these inductions, made upon the evidence of structural peculiarities.
The mastiff-bats are an American group, found in the tropical and subtropical regions of both divisions of the Western Hemisphere. With the exception of two species, in which the number of the lower incisor teeth is reduced to a single pair, they have either 26 or 28 teeth, of which } on either side are incisors, while the cheek-teeth number either ¢ or ?. The upper incisors are placed close together in the middle line; and the large ears, which have a small tragus (occasionally absent) are united by their inner margins. In common with two nearly allied genera of bats, they have very capacious lips, which in most of the species are thrown into a number of wrinkles or puckers; and they are further characterised by their long and slender wings. ‘The great length and narrowness of the wings indicates, as Dr. Dobson observes, rapid flight ; and since they also possess the power of varying the length of the membrane between the legs by a “reefing” process, they must have great dexterity in suddenly changing their direction, as when they are compelled to double in pursuing swiftly flying insects; and, again, their expansive and capacious lips aid the teeth in seizing and retaining the round and solidly armoured bodies of the larger beetles; so that it would seem that they are better adapted than any other members of the order for capturing insects of very swift flight.
Of the red mastiff-bat (M/olossus rufus) an account is given by Mr. P. H. Gosse, from which it appears that this bat inhabits the roofs of houses and the hollow trunks of palm trees, where colonies of large size may sometimes be found. It is more active when on the ground than any other species; and, indeed, on such occasions its motions are so rapid that some dexterity is required to ensure its capture. In the act of running it rests on its wrists, with the fore-part of the body considerably raised. In the hollow stem of a palm tree, examined by another observer, it was found that while in one place the males of this species were collected together to a number approaching two hundred, in another spot the assemblage consisted almost entirely of females, with only a solitary male among them here and there. This distinction of the resting-places of the two sexes has also been noticed in certain other bats.
In describing the habits of another species, the chestnut mastiff-bat (I. glaucinus), Myr. Gosse writes that “soon after sunset we hear the scrambling of little claws along the plaster (in the loft above) gradually tending towards the point where the hole under the eaves is situated . . . I judge that they crawl along one after another in a straight line to the outlet, in parties. The family assured me that after the mastiff-bats had emerged a few hours, they invariably returned into the hole again; and they several times directed my attention to them when returning. They return between eight and nine o'clock, and issue forth again before the morning twilight. When handled, its impatience of confinement is manifested by a continuous screeching, not very loud, but exceedingly harsh and shrill. The ears are commonly so pendent as completely to cover the eyes; but they are occasionally retracted so as to expose the eyes, especially if the face be touched.”
In certain parts of the Amazon Valley the mastiff-bats, together with some species belonging to the under-mentioned nose-leafed family, are so numerous as to
296 BATS.
become a serious inconvenience to travellers. Thus when at Caripi, a station situated about twenty miles from Para, Bates narrates how for the first few nights of his stay he slept in a room with the roof open to the tiles and rafters, which had not been used for many months previously; and on the second night of his visit was awakened about midnight by the sudden rushing of swarms of bats flying around him. So numerous were they, that the air was alive with them; the lamp had been extinguished by the rush of their wings, but when relighted revealed the whole room blackened by their multitudes. The traveller proceeded to clear them out by laying about vigorously with a stick, and for a time succeeded in making the unwelcome intruders retire to the tiles and rafters. No sooner, however, was quiet restored than the bats reappeared in full force, and once more extinguished his light. On the third night several of the bats got into his hammock, and crawled over him; these were seized and dashed against the wall. In the morning he was unpleasantly reminded of the nocturnal visitation by finding that he had a wound on the hip, evidently caused by the bite of a bat. Being thereby roused to desperation, he set to work in real earnest to mitigate the nuisance. <A large number were shot as they clung to the rafters, while the negroes ascended the roof from outside by means of ladders, and succeeded in routing out hundreds of them from beneath the eaves, among which were several broods of young ones. Although there were altogether four species of bats present on this occasion, one of which belonged to the genus P/iyllostoma, another to Glossophaga, and two to the present genus, by far the greater majority pertained to the large-eared mastiff-bat (JZ. perotis), characterised by the great size of its ears, and having a span of wing of 2 feet. It was these bats which crawled over Mr. Bates while in his hammock; but it was the Phyllostoma (of which more anon) that appears to have inflicted the wound.
THE NAKED Bat. Genus Chiromeles.
One of the ugliest and strangest of all the Chiroptera is the naked or collared bat (Chironeles torquatus), of the Malayan region, which is a large species, measuring 54 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. The total number of its teeth is 26, of which } are incisors, and + are cheek-teeth on each side. With the exception of a collar of thinly-spread hairs, nearly surrounding the neck, the thick and puckered skin is almost completely naked. The great toe is longer than all the others, to which it can be opposed; the ears are not joined together, the lips are smooth, and the tail is very long and thick, with more than half its length freely projecting beyond the hinder border of the membrane between the legs.
The most curious feature about this repulsive-looking animal (in which, by the the way, the muzzle is long and pig-like) is, however, the presence of a deep pouch on the under side of the body below the arm-pits. These pouches, which occur in both sexes, are for the purpose of containing the young during the period of suckling; and are absolutely necessary, since in their absence the young would be quite unable to cling to the naked body of the parent. Since these pouches are
LREE-TLATGED GRO OP: 297
present in the males as well as the females, Dr. Dobson suggests that in cases where there are twins the male parent may relieve his mate of the task of carrying one of the offspring ; instances of a similar division of labour being believed to occur among the fruit-bats.
This bat, which is figured in the illus- tration on p. 246, occurs in the larger islands, such as Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, of the Malayan region, where it dwells in the heart of the densest forests. During the day its place of repose may be either a hollow tree, or a cleft in the rocks, or
even a hole in the ground. Its flight, which is heavy and slow, commences as HEAD OF FEMALE OF THE NAKED BAT.—After Dobson. soon as the sun reaches the horizon, and
takes place in the openings and glades of the forests, or even high up in the air in the open plains.
THE WRINKLED-LIPPED BATS. Genus Vyctinomus.
By far the most abundant in species of the bats of this group, as well as the most widely spread, are the wrinkled-lipped bats of the warmer regions. While closely allied to the mastiff-bats, they are distinguished by the upper incisor teeth being separated from one another in the middle line, and also by the much greater development of the vertical wrinkles on the capacious lips. The ears are generally more or less extensively united together at their bases, and the number of teeth varies from thirty-two to twenty-eight. One member of the genus, Ceston’s bat (Nyctinonvus cestonr), is the solitary representative of the whole family found in Europe, where it extends as far northwards as Switzerland. This species measures nearly 3} inches in length, exclusive of the tail, but most of the others are smaller. Ceston’s bat has the peculiar power of being able to sink its eye within the socket, and then to protrude it again. It has, perhaps, the widest range of all the species, occurring not only in the south of Europe, but also in Egypt, Nubia, Amoy, and China. The late Mr. Swinhoe, writing of this species, observes: “I have often on a cloudless evening, at Amoy, seen these bats flying along, high in the air, being easily distin- guished by the narrowness of their wings. When watched, the creature has a habit of exposing its tail, and of sinking its eye into the socket and thrusting it out again. The membrane extending from the tail to the legs is wrinkled, and covers the tail like a glove, so as to slip up and down as the creature wishes to expand or contract its interfemoral wing, or, in nautical language, to shake out or take in reefs.” The tail cannot, however, be completely withdrawn into the membrane, in the manner of the tomb-bats.
Two species are found in India, two in Australia and New Guinea, and
298 BATS.
four in America, but the majority are restricted to Africa south of the Sahara and Madagascar. The Indian species are generally found during the day in caverns and old buildings, countless myriads inhabiting the lmestone caves of Phagat, 30 miles from Moulmein, in Burma. And it is probable that the habits of most of the other species are very similar.
Writing from Jamaica of the habits of the Brazilian wrinkled-lipped species (NV. brasilie nsis), Mr. W. Osburn observes : “ Vast numbers of these little bats inhabit the shingled roof of my house... . I have often observed them during the day, exactly as Goldsmith’s line expresses: ‘lazy bats in drowsy clusters cling’; for, what seems surprising, notwithstanding the heat of the situation, shingles exposed to the sun (and it was disagreeably hot and confined where I stood, twelve or fifteen feet below), the bats clung in complete clusters. I counted fourteen little heads in a mass about the size of a turnip. But they are not all asleep; now and then a wing is stretched out with drowsy enjoyment; and the luxury King James thought too great for subjects, and which ought to be reserved for kings, is largely indulged in by these bats. First one and then another wakes up, and withdrawing one leg, and leaving himself suspended by the other alone, adroitly uses the foot at liberty as a comb, with a rapid effective movement dressing the fur of the under- parts and head—an action far from ungraceful. The foot is then cleaned quickly with the teeth or tongue, and restored to its first use. Then the other leg does duty. Perhaps the hairs with which the foot is set may aid to this end. I often have seen them do this in confinement, and probably the numerous bat-flies with which they are infested may be the cause of extra dressing.”
THE NEw ZEALAND Bat. Genus Mystacops.
That New Zealand, with its far more favourable climate for these animals than the British Isles, should possess only two species of bats is a very remarkable fact. One of these (Chalinolobus tuberculatus), belonging to a genus closely allied to Vesperugo (p. 273), is common to New Zealand and Australia; while the second is peculiar to the colony, and represents a distinct and aberrant group of the family under consideration.
The New Zealand bat (Mystacops tuberculatus) differs from the other members of the family Lmballonuride in that the third or middle finger of the wing is pro- vided with three distinct bony joints; of which the first, when at rest, is folded back beneath, instead of above, its supporting metacarpal bone. Moreover, while the greater part of the wing-membranes is very thin, the portion along the sides of the body and the lower moieties of the limbs is much thickened; beneath this thickened portion the remaining parts of the wings lie folded away as if in a case; and in this condition this species is better adapted for a crawling or chmbing life than any other member of the order. There are other peculiarities adapted to aid in climbing, connected with the thumb, feet, and legs. The length of the head and body is 24 inches; and the general colour of the upper-parts is brown, though beneath they are paler. Even the fur of this bat can, under the
VAMPIRES. 299
microscope, be at once distinguished from that of all other species; the individual hairs being very thick, and with only faint traces of the projecting scales characteristic of other bats. The tail is extremely short. From its structural peculiarities Dr. Dobson is led to believe that this curious bat hunts for its insect food, not only in the air, but also on the branches and leaves of trees, among which it would certainly be able to creep with ease.
THE VAMPIRE-BATS. Family PHYLLOSTOMATID.
The extensive group which it is convenient to allude to collectively under the name of vampires, is exclusively confined to Central and South America and the West Indian Islands. While related to the preceding family, with which they agree in the characteristics mentioned on p. 289, they differ in certain other points of importance. And they appear to have a relationship to the smooth- nosed free-tailed bats (Himballonuride) similar to that presented by the leaf-nosed bats (Rhinolophide) to the typical bats (Vespertilionide).
They are characterised by the presence of three bony joints in the third or middle finger of the wing, accompanied either by a well-developed nose-leaf, or by folds of skin and warts on the chin. Such of them as have a nose-leaf (and these are by far the great majority) may be always distinguished from the leaf-nosed and horseshoe-bats, not only by the number of joints in the third finger, and by the characters mentioned on p. 289, but likewise by the presence of a distinct tragus to the moderate-sized ears. Moreover, if we examine the dried skulls of any members of the two families, we shall find that while in the leaf-nosed bats and their allies the premaxillary bones, in which the one pair of small upper incisor teeth are implanted, are small, separate, and loosely attached to the skull, in the vampires these bones are large, firmly united both to one another and the skull, and generally carry two pairs of large incisor teeth.
The number of genera and species of vampires is so great that only the more remarkable types can be even mentioned in this work. With the exception of a few species having well-developed tails and a large membrane between the hind legs, which are of strictly insectivorous habits, the vampires are remarkable for the varied nature of their food; some subsisting on a mixed diet of insects and fruits, others being wholly frugivorous, and a few exclusively blood-suckers. Others again, although there has been, and still is, considerable doubt on the matter, appear to vary their ordinary diet by resorting to blood-sucking when occasion occurs. All are of purely aérial habits, and present none of the adaptations for crawling which characterise the mastiff-bats and their allies. They appear to be limited to the forest-clad districts of the regions they inhabit; and, according to Dr. Dobson, do not probably extend much farther south than the thirtieth parallel of latitude. That they are a highly specialised family is apparent both from their structure and the peculiar habits of many of their representatives. In South America the a circum-
hame vampire is applied indifferently to several members of the family stance which has been the fruitful source of confusion among European writers.
200 BARES:
THE CHIN-LEAFED BATs. Genera Chilonycteris and Mormops.
Two genera, the one containing six and the other two species, differ from the other members of this family in the absence of a nose-leaf, the function of which is performed by folds or lappets of skin depending from the chin. These bats may consequently be called chin-leafed bats. They are of small size, the largest only measuring 2! inches in length, exclusive of the tail. The two species belonging to the genus J/ormops are distinguished from those included in the genus Chilonycteris by the great elevation of the crown of the head above the line of the HEAD OF BLAINVILLE’'S CHIN-LEAFED BAT. face ag shown in our illustration. While most
(From |Dobson’s Catalogue of Bats in 4 ame
British Museum.) of the species are dull-coloured, Blainville’s
chin -leafed bat (Mormops blaviviller) is remarkable for the bright orange hue of its fur; and it is also remarkable for its extremely fragile structure, the head being so delicately formed that hght can actually be seen through the roof of the open mouth.
THE HARMLESS VAMPIRES. Genus Vampirus.
We take as our first example of those having a nose-leaf, the well-known great vampire (Vampirus spectrum). It belongs to a group of the family in which the tail, when present, perforates the membrane between the legs. The nose-leaf, as in most members of the family, is spear-shaped, whence the name of spear-nosed bats, frequently applied to all the vampires. The great vampire, according to Bates, is abundant in many parts of the Valley of the Amazon, such as the neighbourhood of Ega; and it is the largest of all the South American species, measuring 28 inches in expanse of wing. “Nothing in animal physiognomy can be more hideous than the countenance of this creature when viewed from the front,—the large leathery ears standing out from the sides and top of the head, the erect spear-shaped appendage on the tip of the nose, the grin, and the glistening black eye—all combining to make up a figure that reminds one of some mocking imp of fable. No wonder that some imaginative people have inferred diabolical instincts on the part of so ugly an animal. The vampire is, however, the most harmless of all bats, and its inoffensive character is well known to residents on the Amazon. I found two distinct species of it, one having the fur of a blackish colour (V. awritus), the other of a ruddy hue (V. spectrum), and ascertained that both fed chiefly on fruits. The church at Ega was the headquarters of both kinds. I used to see them, as I sat at my door during the short evening twilights, trooping forth by scores from a large open window at the back of the altar, twittering cheerfully as they sped off to the borders of the forest. They sometimes enter houses. The
VAMPIRES. 301
first time I saw one in my chamber, wheeling heavily round and round, I mistook it for a pigeon, thinking that a tame one had escaped from the premises of one of my neighbours. I opened the stomachs of several of these bats, and found them to contain a mass of pulp and seeds of fruits, mingled with a few remains of insects. The natives say they devour ripe cajus and guavas on trees in the gardens; but on comparing the seeds taken from their stomachs with those of all cultivated trees of Ega, I found they were unlike any of them. It is therefore
THE GREAT VAMPIRE-BAT (+ nat. size).
probable that they generally resort to the forest to feed, coming to the village in the morning to sleep, because they find it more secure from animals of prey than their natural abodes in the woods.”
It will be observed that Mr. Bates speaks of the great vampire as the vampire, but, according to Dr. Dobson, this title is more properly applicable to the blood- sucking vampires noticed below. While the great vampire is entirely without a tail, the lesser vampire (V. awritus) has a small rudiment of that appendage. The latter species serves to connect the former with an allied genus of bats known as Lophostoma, in which the nose-leaf is narrower in front, and the chin has a central naked space marked by small warts. It also shows resemblances to the javelin-bats, mentioned on the next page, in the presence of a glandular opening near the top of the breast-bone.
302 BATS.
THE JAVELIN-BATSs. Genus Phyllostoma.
Omitting mention of several allied genera, we come next to the javelin-bats, of which there are three species. These are distinguished from the harmless vampires by the much shorter and broader muzzle, and also by the presence of two (instead of three) premolar teeth on each side of the lower jaw.
The common javelin-bat (Phyllostoma hastatwi) measures just under 4 inches in the length of head and body, and is next in point of size to the great vampire. Its general colour is usually dark-greyish, or reddish-brown above, and paler beneath, but sometimes the upper parts are of a brillant chestnut-brown. The other two species are much smaller, measuring only 3 inches, or a fraction more, in length of head and body. All are found in Brazil, and they generally rest in the trunks of hollow trees, or beneath the leaves of palms. They have been accredited
THE JAVELIN VAMPIRE,
with blood-sucking propensities, and although Dr. Dobson seems disinclined to accept this view, yet the testimony of several observers inclines us to believe that the indictment is true. We have already alluded to Mr. Bates’ account of his being wounded during the night by a bat which he refers to the present genus; and in the same passage he observes that “the fact of their sucking the blood of persons sleeping, from wounds which they make in the toes, is now well established; but it is only a few persons who are subject to this blood-letting. According to the natives, the Phyllostoma is the only kind which attacks man.” The latter part of the statement makes this testimony the less convincing, since there is no doubt but that the blood-sucking vampires mentioned below are the species which most generally and habitually attack mammals. That the bat caught by Mr. Bates was a javelin-bat, or an allied form, is evident from his allusion to the large size of the nose-leaf; and thus the only way in which his statement could be disproved would be by assuming that, while a true blood-sucking vampire was the real culprit, the javelin-bat was the one caught and charged with the attack.
Mr. Wallace’s testimony, as given in his T’ravels on the Amazons, is very similar to that of Mr. Bates; the javelin-bats being here also the ones charged with blood- sucking. In a later work (T'’ropical Nature), Mr. Wallace indeed speaks of the
VAMPIRES. 303
bats charged with this crime as having their tongues armed at the tip with horny papillee—which would seem to point to the under-mentioned long-tongued vampires, whose food is insects and fruit. He alludes, however, in both places to the blood- sucking bats as javelin-bats; and although there is evidently some confusion in regard to the tongue question, it is difficult to believe that two independent observers should have been so deceived as to charge members of one group of bats with an attack committed by those of another.
THE LONG-TONGUED VAMPIRES. Genus Glossophaga, ete.
A group of several genera of rather small or medium-sized bats are at once distinguished from the other members of the present family by their long and narrow muzzles, and their slender, elongated tongues, which can be protruded for a considerable distance beyond the mouth. At their extremities these tongues are armed on the upper surface with a number of long, thread-like papille; and it was long considered that these papille were employed for abrading the skin of animals previous to the process of blood- sucking. It now appears, however, that their use is either to extract the soft pulp from the interior of hard-rinded fruits, or to lick out insects from the tubes of flowers. That some of the species feed on . fruits has been ascertained by direct obser- Peat ik a ey (Cheeronycteris). vation ; but the discovery of the remains of insects in the stomachs of others proves that the diet of all is not of the same kind. One of the species which is known to feed on insects is the Soricine long- tongued vampire (Glossophaga soricina), and since this species has a well-developed membrane between the hind legs, while in some of those subsisting entirely on fruit the same membrane is very short, Dr. Dobson considers that we may predicate the nature of the food of any given species by the size of this membrane. The species with the longest tail-membrane will be the best flyers, and consequently those best suited for the capture of insects.
Writing of Sezekorn’s long-tongued vampire (Phyllonycteris sezekornt), of which some individuals were taken from a large colony in a cave in Jamaica, Mr. Osburn describes their mode of feeding on the fruit of the so-called clammy cherry : “The tongue was rapidly protruded and drawn in again, and the juice and softer pulp cleared away with great rapidity. I noticed he was very particular in clearing out the bit of loose skin of berry, and licked my fingers clean of the juice spilt on them, carefully cleaning out any that had collected under the nail. I then got another berry. The bat was hanging against the edge of the box, its under- surface against the side ; and as I held the berry a little distance off to see the action of the tongue, it had, whilst feeding, to bend the neck so as to raise the head a little; this seemed to fatigue it. It therefore raised itself on one wrist,
304 PATS;
and turned round so that its back was against the box’s side; but as it did not change the position of the feet, of course the legs crossed, the right foot now being on the left side, and vice versd. In this odd position it appeared perfectly at ease, and went on licking at a fresh berry with great relish. As the pulp and juice became exhausted I expected the bat would drop it, and was prepared with another berry ; but, to my surprise, he brought up the wrists to the muzzle, took the berry between them, gave it two or three energetic bites, and then held the berry off So I now understood what the unusually long thumbs were for; for they applied themselves dexterously to the berry, held it firmly, and then, as it appeared to me, by a reverse action of the two wrists the berry was turned round, a fresh hold taken by the teeth, and the same licking process renewed till the seed in the centre was cleaned of the pulp, all but the little bit which served for the last tooth-hold. It was then dropped, and the eager little muzzle raised for more.”
THE SHORT-NOSED VAMPIRES. Genus Artibews, ete.
The short-nosed vampires comprise a group of nine genera, all the members of which are mainly of frugivorous habits. These bats may be easily recognised at sight by their very short and generally wide muzzles, furnished with a short nose- leaf, of which the front portion is horseshoe-shaped, and the hinder part spear-like. The membrane between the hind legs has its hinder margin excavated to form a hollow curve; and there is no trace of a tail. Two of the best known species are Artibeus planirostris and A. perspillatus, the former of which was regarded by Charles Waterton as the veritable blood-sucking vampire. The latter is abundant in the caves of Jamaica, and feeds on bread-nut, mangoes, and other fruit; it measures 34 inches in length, and, with its allies, may be considered in South America to take the place of the fruit-bats of the Old World. These bats fly early in the evening, and are in the habit of reposing during the day in places exposed to a considerable amount of light, having been
a Shares BAT, observed beneath the eaves of a house in Demerara with rom obson,
the rays of the setting sun shining full on them. In other places they have been found roosting in large clusters beneath the fronds of the cocoanut palm. Of another Jamaica species (Stenoderma achradophilum) My. P. H. Gosse remarks that it “feeds on the fruit of the naseberry. About a quarter of an hour after the sun has set, and while the sky is still glowing with effulgent clouds, these bats begin to fly round the tree... . On picking up a fruit you find that it has been just bitten and nibbled in a rugged manner. Fragments of naseberry of considerable size, partly eaten by a bat, are frequently found at the distance of half a mile from the nearest naseberry tree.” The centurion bat (Centurio senex), of which the head is represented in the accompanying illustration, differs from all the members of this group by the absence of a distinct nose-leaf. Owing to the remark- wble foldings of the skin, the face of this bat presents a most grotesque appearance.
VAMPIRES. 305
THE BLooD-SUCKING VAMPIRES. Genera Desmodus and Diphylla.
The two species of blood-sucking vampires, each the solitary representative of a distinct genus, with which we close our account not only of the vampires, but also of bats generally, present the following distinctive characters :—
Firstly, they may be recognised by their very short and conical muzzles, surmounted by a small though distinct nose-leaf; as well as by the shortness of the membrane between the hind legs, and by the total absence of a tail. Secondly, they are characterised by the fewness and peculiar structure of their teeth; of which the total number is only twenty in one species, and twenty-four in the other. In the former there are no molar teeth, although a small rudimentary one is present on each side of the jaws of the latter. In the upper jaw there is a single pair of very broad-crowned incisors, which fill up the whole of the space between the tusks or canines, and have keen and sharp-cutting edges like chisels. The premolar teeth, of which there are two pairs in the upper and three in the lower jaw, have lkewise trenchant cutting-edges working against one another, and being quite unlike those of any other bat. When we add to these character- istics the sharp tusks with which each jaw is provided, it will be evident that the teeth of the blood-sucking vampires must be specially adapted for some particular purpose—that purpose being blood-letting.
It is not by any means only in their teeth that these bats are adapted for their mode of sustenance, the structural modification also extending to their internal organs. Thus, whereas in other bats the stomach has the usual sub- globular form common to Mammals in general, in the blood-sucking vampires it becomes an elongated organ of a tube-like form; blood naturally requiring little or no process of digestion before being absorbed into the tissues of the animal by which it has been swallowed.
The common blood-sucking vampire (Desmodus rufus) is a comparatively small- sized bat, measuring only about 3 inches in length, and of a reddish-brown colour above, and usually some shade of yellowish-brown beneath. It has no true molar teeth, and likewise no spur on the ankle for the support of the membrane between the legs. The geographical range of this species is large, extending from Central America to Southern Brazil on the east of the continent, and to Chili on the west.
The smaller blood-sucking vampire (Diphylla ecaudata) serves to connect the common species with the other members of the family, having a small rudimentary upper molar tooth on each side of both jaws, and also a tiny spur on the ankle. It is further distinguished by the middle portion of the membrane between the hind- legs being quite undeveloped, as well as by certain features connected with the lower incisor teeth, which are peculiar in having distinct notches on the summits of their crowns. The colour of this bat is very similar to that of the common species; but the size of the animal is slightly less. This smaller vampire, which appears to be confined to Brazil, is stated to be far from common; and we have not met with any account of its having been caught in the act of blood-sucking, although there can be no doubt that this is its constant habit.
VOL. I.—20
306 BATS:
During the daytime these bats repose in caves or hollow trees, whence they issue forth for their nightly blood-sucking. It appears that when they have selected a victim for attack, they either settle down on or hover over the part to be operated on; and then proceed to shave away a thin portion of skin by a razor-like action of the sharp upper incisor teeth, by which the blood is caused to ooze from a number of the small capillary vessels, and is then sucked up by the mouth and swallowed. From their structure, it is probable that blood constitutes their whole diet.
The fact that certain bats in South America were veritable blood-suckers has been long known; our first information dating from a period soon after the conquest of that country. Great uncertainty prevailed, however, for a lengthened period as to which particular species of the large family of vampires were the real culprits; and the question was not finally decided till, during the voyage of the “ Beagle,’ Mr. Darwin had the good fortune to see a desmodus caught in the very act. His account has been quoted over and over again, almost ad nauseam, and we shall refrain from repeating it here; merely mentioning that the bat in question—which was the common blood-sucking vampire—was caught by one of the great naturalist’s servants actually sucking the blood from the withers of one of the camp horses. ‘Thus was set at rest for ever the long vexed question as to which was the true blood-sucking vampire. It may be observed, however, that whereas it is now certain that the present group is the only one of which the members subsist entirely on a diet of blood, yet it is possible that, as already mentioned, some of the javelin-bats or their allies may, on occasions, vary their ordinary food with it.
Fossit Bats.
From the exigencies of space our account of the bats has been somewhat brief ; but it may serve to show what an extensive assemblage of animals it really includes, and how different from one another in habits, as well as in details of structure, are many of its members, though all bats agree very closely in their general plan. This conformity to a common structural standard is as fully characteristic of the few fossil bats with which we are at present acquainted, as it is of their modern allies; the whole of them belonging to living families, and a large proportion to existing genera. At the comparatively early period when the Upper Eocene strata of the Paris basin were deposited, leaf-nosed bats, as well as typical bats nearly allied to the living noctule, had already come into existence, and have left their remains buried in the rocks alongside those of strange extinct hoofed mammals, such as the Paleotheres and Anoplotheres. And it is, there- fore, manifest that if we ever succeed in discovering the ancestral forms from which bats have been derived, it will be in rocks of far greater age than those of the Paris basin, which belong to the lower portion of the Tertiary period of geological history. It is, indeed, within the bounds of probability that bats have existed as such from a period as remote as the one during which the English chalk was deposited on the floor of an ancient ocean.
CoH ALP RnR, Xe eT, THE INsEcTIVoRES,—Order INSECTIVORA.
THE absence of any vernacular name for that group of Mammals, of which the shrews, moles, and hedgehogs are the best known representatives, compels us to adopt an anglicised form of the Latin term by which the group is known; and we accordingly use the term Insectivores in this sense. This term, it is almost superfluous to add, refers to the insect-eating habits of most of the members of this order, and it is a good one, since, with the exception of the bats, there is no other group of Mammals which prey so exclusively on insects, or other small creatures.
Most of the Insectivores are comparatively small-sized animals; and, with the exception of the family of tree-shrews, and some of the aquatic forms, all are of more or less purely nocturnal habits. In the absence of any very strongly-marked characteristics, like the wings of the bats, the group is by no means easy of strict definition,—more especially when we have to avoid entering into the consideration of abstruse anatomical details.
In addition to their generally small size and nocturnal habits, the Insectivores may immediately be recognised by the following struc- tural features. All their toes are furnished with claws, and are in most eases five in number on each foot; while in no instance is either the thumb or the great toe capable of being opposed to the other digits. They walk either on the whole, or the greater portion, of the soles of their feet; and never on their toes only, in the manner of a cat or dog. Their upper molar teeth carry a number of small and sharp cusps, which are arranged either in a V-shaped or a W-shaped pattern ; and their incisor teeth, of which there are not less than two pairs in the lower jaw, never assume the chisel-like form found in all the Rodents (rats, porcupines, hares, etc.); but the first or innermost pair is very frequently larger than either of the others, thereby distinguishing them from the Carnivores. In no instance is one pair of the cheek-teeth in each jaw ever modified so as to act with the scissor - like action characteristic of so many of the Carnivores. Then again the tusks, or canine teeth, are generally not markedly distinct from the other teeth, so that it is frequently a matter of some difficulty—especially in the lower jaw—to decide which teeth are incisors, which tusks, and which premolars. This may be readily verified by comparing the skull of a hedgehog with that of a dog, in which the tusks cannot possibly be confused either with the incisors in front, or with the premolars behind.
If, again, we examine the skeleton of an Insectivore, it will be found that there are (with the single exception of one peculiar African species) always a pair
Characteristics.
1 This is not so in the common tenrec, which has large tusks.
308 INSECTIVORES.
of complete collar-bones, or clavicles, connecting the blade-bones (scapula) with the breast-bone, by which the order is at once distinguishable from the Carnivora. Externally, the Insectivores are very generally characterised by their very long and narrow snouts, in which the muzzle is produced considerably in advance of the end of the lower jaw; while their bodies are covered either with fur, or, more rarely, with a protecting armour of spines. On opening the skull it will be found that the upper surfaces of the lobes of the brain are smooth; and thereby very different from those of a Carnivore.
There are other distinctive characters of the order, for the proper appreciation of which a knowledge of anatomy is requisite. If, however, the whole of the points mentioned above receive due consideration, there will be but little fear of confusing an Insectivore with any other Mammal, except it be a Marsupial. The Marsupials, however, as will be shown in the sequel, are broadly distinguished by
SKELETON OF HEDGEHOG,
many important characteristics; while, were it not for the opossums, they would be restricted to the Australian region, in which Insectivores are unknown. More- over, with the exception of the Virginian species, the opossums are confined to South America, where Insectivores are absent; and there is accordingly not much risk of a living Marsupial being mistaken for an Insectivore, or vice versd. In all respects, as is well shown by their small and smooth brains, the Insectivores occupy a very low position in the Mammalian series; and, next to the Marsupials and Monotremes of Australia, they may be regarded as more nearly allied to the original primitive Mammalian stock than any other members of the class now existing. Their nearest relatives are the bats, which, as already mentioned, may be regarded merely as Insectivores specially modified for a life in the air. It must not, however, be supposed that any living Insectivore can be regarded as the ancestral form of the bats; such ancestors having totally disappeared ages and ages ago. In other directions indicated by extinct types, it is probable that the Insectivores are allied to the lemurs on the one hand; while, on the other, they may have been derived from the Marsupials.
The Insectivores are widely scattered over the globe, although absent from the two large regions mentioned above. Some of the most curious forms are found in Madagascar, Africa, and the West Indian Islands.
Distribution.
COBEGOS. 309
The tendency being for low forms to disappear when brought into competition with higher types of animal life, it is interesting to observe that the Insectivores have either survived in islands, ike Madagascar or Cuba, where the higher forms of Mammals are few or wanting, or, in the continental areas have acquired habits which serve to protect them from the attacks of foes. For instance, in addition to being strictly nocturnal, which is of itself a great protection, most of the Insectivores live in the depths of forests, or concealed among the stems and roots of coppices and shrubs, or in the deserted holes of other animals; while the moles have taken to a completely subterranean life,and the hedgehogs have acquired a special pro- tection in their coat of thick-set spines. Others, again, like the water-shrews and the desmans, have resorted to the water, and hide themselves during their periods of repose in holes in the banks of rivers and lakes; while the diurnal tree-shrews seek the protection afforded by a life among the boughs of forest trees, after the manner of squirrels. Finally, the flying cobegos are peculiar in possessing the power of taking flying leaps from tree to tree, and are thus secure during their hours of movement from most enemies except man.
THE COBEGOS OR KAGUANS. Family GALEOPITHECIDA.
Few Mammals have been a greater puzzle to zoologists, as regards their proper systematic position, than the cobegos, colugos, kubongs, or kaguans, of the Malayan region. These animals, of which there are two species, are known to the natives of the regions they inhabit by the names above mentioned, but they are commonly spoken of by Europeans either as flying lemurs or flying bats. They constitute the genus Galeopithecus of zoologists, which is the type of a distinct family ; and as recent researches have shown that they come nearer to the Insectivores than to any other group, they are now generally regarded as con- stituting a special division of that order.
The most characteristic external feature of these curious animals is the para- chute formed by folds of skin running along the sides of the neck and body, and connected with the long and slender limbs, of which the fingers and toes are webbed as far as the roots of their strong and curved claws. This parachute-like membrane is continued between the hind-legs to include the whole of the long tail, in which respect these animals differ from the flying squirrels to be mentioned hereafter. One of their most peculiar features is to be found in the structure of their lower front, or incisor teeth, which are quite unlike those of any other Mammal, or indeed of any animal. In both jaws these incisor teeth are expanded laterally, and compressed from front to back, with a number of cusps on their summits, and those of the lower jaw have very wide, flattened crowns, penetrated by a number of parallel vertical slits, so that they resemble small combs mounted upon narrow stems. Then, again, the outermost of the two pairs of upper incisor teeth, as well as the upper tusk, or canine (which is nearly similar to the incisors), are inserted in the jaws by two distinct roots. Thisis a unique feature among living Mammals, although the moles and hedgehogs have two roots to their upper tusks.
310 INSECTIVORES.
The common cobego is found in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, the Malay Peninsula, Tenasserim, and Siam, and is known as Galeopithecus volans. It is about the size of a cat; and its habits have been well described by Mr. Wallace, who met with it in Sumatra. He observes that the cobego “is sluggish in its motions, at least by day, going up a tree by short runs of a few feet, and then stopping a moment as if the action was difficult. It rests during the
Habits.
day clinging to the trunks of trees, where its olive or brown fur, mottled with irreeular whitish spots and blotches, resembles closely the colour of mottled bark,
Yj
ne
.
WY ys ag
THE COBEGO (4 nat. size),
and no doubt helps to protect it. Once, in a bright twilight, I saw one of these animals run up a trunk in a rather open place, and then glide obliquely through the air to another tree, on which it alighted near its base, and immediately began to ascend. I paced the distance from the one tree to the other, and found it to be seventy yards; and the amount of descent I estimated at not more than thirty-five or forty feet, or less than one in five. This I think proves that the animal must have some power of guiding itself through the air, otherwise in so long a distance it would have little chance of alighting upon the trunk. The galeopithecus feeds chiefly on leaves, and possesses a very voluminous stomach and long convoluted intestines. The hair is very small; and the animal possesses such a remarkable
COBEGOS. 216
J
tenacity of life that it is exceedingly difficult to kill it by any ordinary means. The tail is prehensile, and is probably made use of as an additional support while feeding. The animal is said to have only a single young one at a time; and my own observation confirms this statement, for I once shot a female, with a very small, blind, and naked little creature clinging closely to its breast, which was quite bare and much wrinkled, reminding me of the young of the Marsupials, to which it seemed to form a transition. On the back, and extending over the limbs and membrane, the fur of these animals is short but exquisitely soft, resembling in its texture that of the chinchilla.”
A very similar account is given of this species in Java by a much earlier writer, Horsfield, who states that, in addition to leaves, it feeds on the fruits of several trees when in an unripe condition, among these being young cocoanuts. In Java it is said to be “confined to particular districts, where it is met with chiefly on isolated hills, covered with a fertile soil, and abounding with young luxuriant trees, the branches of which afford it a safe concealment during the day. As the evening approaches, it leaves its retreat, and is seen in considerable numbers making oblique leaps from one tree to another; it also discovers itself by a croaking, harsh, disagreeable noise.”
Philippine Of the slightly smaller Philippine cobego (G. philippinensis),
Cobego. restricted to the islands from which it takes its name, we have a short account by Professor Moseley in his Naturalist on the Challenger. This observer relates how, when on Basilan Island—one of the Philippines—he was conducted by a native guide to a particular spot, for the purpose of shooting specimens of this animal. Here “some few trees were standing isolated, not
having been as yet felled on the clearing. On one of these, after much search, a kaguan was seen hanging to the shady side of a tall trunk. It was an object very easily seen, much more so than I expected. It moved up the tree with a shambling, jerky gait, hitching itself up apparently by a series of short springs. It did not seem disposed to take a flying leap, so I shot it. It was a female with a young one clinging to the breast. It was in a tree at least forty yards distant from any other, and must have flown that length to reach it. I understood from my guide that numbers of these animals were caught when trees were cut down in clearing. They are especially abundant at the Island of Bojol, north of Mindanao; their skins were sold at Zebu, which lies near, at five dollars a dozen.”
In their leaf-eating habits the cobegos stand apart from all other Insectivores, in this respect occupying the same relationship to the typical members of the order as is presented by the fruit-bats to the typical bats. Instead of possessing the power of true flight, characteristic of the bats, the cobego merely enjoys spurious flight, or the power of continuing the extension of an ordinary leap by the aid of its parachute.
It would require but comparatively little further modification to alter a cobego into a creature much resembling a bat, and endowed with the power of true flight; and we thus gain a good idea of the way in which the bats may have probably been derived from the Insectivores. It must not, however, be thereby supposed that the cobego is in any sense the missing link between these orders; its leaf-eating habits, as well as the peculiar structure of its incisor teeth, being alone amply sufficient to disprove its claim to that position;—the insect-eating
aie INSE CTIVORES.
bats, which appear to be the ancestral groups of the order to which they belong, having in all probability been directly derived from insect-eating Insectivores. The cobego should, indeed, be regarded rather as the sole representative of a side branch, which, while to some extent simulating the bats, never gave rise to any descendants showing the special modifications for true flight.
THE TREE-SHREWS, OR TUPAIAS. Family TUPAID/&.
With the tree-shrews, or tupaias, we come to the first family of the true Insectivores, or those which are incapable of flight, and have their front or incisor teeth of a normal form.
The tree-shrews, which are entirely confined to the Oriental region, take their name from their strictly arboreal habits; and are small, long-tailed animals, so closely resembling the smaller squirrels in external appearance as to be frequently mistaken for them. Indeed, it appears that the native term Tupai, from which these animals derive their second title, is applied indifferently by the Malays both to them and to squirrels; the affix Tana serving to denote the members of the present group. That they have really nothing to do with the squirrels is shown by an examination of their teeth, when it will be found that, instead of the single pair of chisel-like incisor teeth, they have two pairs of small incisors in the upper jaw, and three pairs in the lower. .
The tree-shrews belong to a group of Insectivores characterised by their upper molar teeth, having broad crowns carrying a number of cusps, arranged in the form of the letter W. They are peculiar in that the socket of the eye, or orbit, is surrounded by a bony ring, whereas in other members of the order it is open behind. They are further distinguished from the other true Insectivores not only by their completely arboreal, but likewise by their diurnal, habits, as they feed entirely by day. They resemble squirrels in the general form of the body and limbs, and in possessing a more or less bushy tail. They have 388 teeth, of which 2 are incisors, } canines, and ¢ cheek-teeth, on either side of each jaw. Their feet, like those of squirrels, are naked beneath, with moderately curved and sharp claws. The muzzle is sharply pointed, the ears are small and rounded, and the long hair of the bushy tail is confined to its upper surface and sides, the under-surface having much shorter hair.
Altogether, there are about thirteen species of the genus Tupaia, which have a wide distribution over the Oriental region. They are found in India, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, the Nicobar Islands, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines. They are very much alike in general appearance, the species differmge mainly in respect of size and colour, as well as in the length of the fur. Many are restricted to particular islands; the Bornean tree-shrew, the Nicobar tree-shrew, and the recently discovered Philippine tree-
Characteristics.
Distribution.
shrew, being unknown out of the islands from which they take their names. Others, again, have even a still more restricted distribution; two species having hitherto been obtained only in the forests of Mount Dulit in North Borneo.
TREE-SHRE WS. 313
The largest member of the group is the Bornean tree-shrew (Tupaia tana), They may be found in clumps of trees as well as in forests; and, in addition to their resemblance to squirrels in appearance, they simulate those animals very closely in their movements, as they may not unfrequently be seen sitting upon their hind-quarters and holding their food in their fore-paws. Their food consists of insects and fruit; and although insects are usually sought on trees, tree-shrews may sometimes be seen hunting for food on the ground.
The Madras tree-shrew (7° ellioti), which is found in the forests of the greater part of Peninsular India to the southward of the plains of the Indus and Ganges, is a well-known species, of which the head and body measure from 7 to 8 inches in length, while the tail (including the hair) is about an inch longer. From the fact of several of this species having been met with by Prof. Ball lying dead in the jungle, it would seem that a fate similar to that which overtakes at
THE COMMON TREE-SHREW (4 nat. size).
certain times of the year our common English shrew also befalls the tupaias. The Malay tree-shrew (7. ferruginea) is a rather smaller species, with a much wider distribution, extending from Assam and the Eastern Himalaya (where it is found at elevations of from three thousand to six thousand feet) to Burma and the Malayan Islands.
ees Of the Malayan species, General M'Master writes, that it “is a harmless little animal, in the dry season living in trees, and in the monsoon entering our houses, and in impudent familiarity taking the place held in India by the common palm-squirrel; it is, however, probably from its rat-like head and thievish expression, very unpopular. I cannot,’ he adds, “endorse Jerdon’s statement as to their extraordinary agility, for they did not appear to me to be nearly as active as squirrels; at least | remember one of my terriers on two
314 INSECTIVORES.
Se)
oceasions catching one—a feat which I have never seen any dog do with a squirrel. Cats, of course, often pounce upon them.” Another observer, the Rev. Mr. Mason, remarks that “one that made his home in a mango tree, near my house at Tonghoo, made himself nearly as familiar as the cat. Sometimes I had to drive him off the bed, and he was very fond of putting his nose into the teacups immediately after breakfast, and acquired quite a taste both for tea and coffee. He lost his life at last by incontinently walking into a rat-trap.’ The familiarity of this tree- shrew, and the ease with which it can be tamed, are mentioned by all who have written of its habits; and Dr. Cantor mentions that after feeding they are in the habit of dressing their fur and paws, after the manner of a cat, and that they are partial to water both as a bath and to drink. In disposition they are described as being pugna- cious in the extreme, fighting fiercely with one another when confined together in a cage, and in their wild state driving away all intruders of their own kind from their particular preserves. Their usual call is a short, peculiar, tremulous, whistling sound, but when roused to anger it is changed to shrill protracted cries.
The resemblance of the tree- shrews to the squirrels comes under the head of what is now termed “mimicry,” and may have been originally due to the extreme agility of the latter animals insur- ing them from pursuit by other creatures, as being a useless task. Hence it would clearly be an advantage for a slower animal to
PEN-TAILED TREE-SHREW (4 nat. size). (From Gray.) be mistaken for a squirrel. There
is, however, a remarkable little squirrel (Sciwrus tuparoides) found in Sumatra and Borneo, which appears, for some reason or other, to simulate the tree-shrews, and thus to afford an instance of a kind of reversed mimicry. “Not only does this Rodent,” remarks Blyth, “resemble 7. ferruginea in size, and the texture and colouring of its fur, but the muzzle is similarly elongated, and there is even the pale shoulder-streak usual in the genus Tuwpaia.”
Pen-tailed Tree- In addition to the ordinary genera, the only other living
Shrew. member of the family is the pen-tailed tree-shrew (Ptilocercus low?), which differs so remarkably in the structure of its tail as to form the solitary representative of a distinct genus. This little animal is between 5 and 6 inches in length, exclusive of the tail, which is of great length, and characterised by its upper two-thirds being naked, and the lower third ornamented with a double
JUMPING SHREWS. 315
fringe of long hairs, arranged like the barbs of a feather. The general colour of the fur is blackish-brown above, with the cheeks and lower-parts yellowish, and a dark streak running backwards from the muzzle to encircle the eye; while the tail is black, with most of the long hairs of the “pen” white. The first specimen known was captured by Mr. Low in the house of Sir James Brooke, at Sarawak ; and the species was considered to be confined to that island. Of late it has, however, been discovered in some of the small islands in the neighbourhood of Borneo.
Fossil Tree- As is the case with many of the Mammals of the Oriental region, eo ] Shrews. the tree-shrews were represented in Europe during the middle of
the Tertiary period by certain extinct genera. One of these (Lanthanotherium) appears to have been very nearly related to the living tree-shrews, while the other (Galerix or Parasorex) presents characters that connect it both with the tree-shrews and the jumping shrews.
THE JUMPING SHREWS. Family J4CROSCELIDIDA.
As the tree-shrews simulate the squirrels in the Rodent order, so the jumping shrews approximate in form to the gerboas and gerbils. But while the resem- blance in the former instance is a case of true mimicry, in the other it appears to be merely due to adaptation for a similar mode of life.
The jumping shrews, or, as they are sometimes called, in allusion to their pro- longed snouts, elephant-shrews, are the African representatives of the tree-shrews, with which they agree in many points of their structure, although not in habits. They are exclusively confined to Africa; and while agreeing with the members of the preceding family in the relatively large size of their brains, as well as in certain other features of their internal anatomy, they are distinguished by structural differences entitling them to be regarded as the representatives of a separate family. Among these differences we may refer to the circumstance that the socket of the eye is not surrounded by a bony ring, but is open behind. Then, again, the metatarsus, or that portion of the foot immediately below the ankle- joint, instead of being of the normal proportions, is greatly elongated, so as to make the whole foot nearly as long as the lower leg. Further, instead of pursuing an arboreal and diurnal life, like the tree-shrews, the jumping shrews restrict them- selves to the ground, upon which they progress by leaps, and are mainly or entirely nocturnal. pee rorea The typical Jumping shrews, constituting the genus Macroscel ides, of which a species (J. typicus) is represented in the illustration on the following page, are characterised by the number of their teeth and toes. With one exception, these animals have 42 teeth, of which % are incisors, + canines, and £ cheek-teeth on either side of the jaws. Invariably they possess five toes on the fore-feet ; while, with the single exception above mentioned, where there are but four, the same number obtains in the hind-foot. Their ears are large, and the tail naked and rat-like.
316 INSECTIVORKRES.
Numerous species of this genus are found over a large part of the African continent, their range extending from the Cape to Algiers; and most of them being very much alike, both as regards size, form, and colour.
Distribution.
The species figured here is the Cape jumping shrew, a tawny-brown animal of about 5 inches in length, exclusive of the tail; the length of the latter being about 3 inches. They are very common in South Africa, where they dwell among grass and bushes, coming forth at dusk from their hiding-places to scour the plains in search of their insect food. The Algerian jumping shrew (W/. rozeti) is a very similar animal, known to the French colonists of the districts it inhabits as the rat @ trompe, which is said to vary the insect diet of the Cape species with
CAPE JUMPING SHREW (% nat. size).
an admixture of vegetable food. Like the tree-shrews, this species can be readily tamed, and soon becomes familiar, not to say impudent.
Rock Jumping Of larger size than any of the other species of the genus, is the Shrew. = yock jumping shrew (J. tetradactylus), of the Mozambique coast of
East Africa, which derives its name from dwelling in rocky districts, where it conceals itself in the crannies and clefts of rocks. The most important characteristic of this species is, however, the presence of only four toes to the hind-feet, the small inner toes found in the other species having disappeared. It is hkewise peculiar in having but forty teeth, owing to the loss of the last molar on either side of the lower jaw.
Long-nosed More remarkable than any of the above are the long-nosed Jumping Shrew. jumping shrews, of which there are four species from Zanzibar and the adjacent regions of the East Coast of Africa. These collectively constitute the genus Rhynchocyon, distinguished from the preceding group by having only thirty-six teeth, and but four toes on both fore- and hind-feet. Further, the hind-
HEDGEHOGS. 317
limbs are relatively shorter than in the typical jumping shrews, while the muzzle is so much produced as to form a veritable trunk. The reduction in the number of the teeth is due to the disappear-
ance of two out of the three pairs 2 of incisors in the upper jaws; and ———— => in very aged individuals even the = single remaining pair may be shed, thus leaving the creature without any upper front teeth. The length of the head and body of the best- known species is about 8 inches; and that of its long, scaly, rat-like tail somewhat less. Its general colour is rusty-brown, becoming blacker on the top of the head and along the back; while the flanks have some bright reddish spots just below the hinder part of the back.
Habits.
From the reduc-
tion in the number of
their teeth and toes, as weil as k from the prolongation of the rock sumprye sHRew (4 nat. size), (From a Plate by Peters.)
muzzle, we may regard the long-
nosed jumping shrews as very specialised creatures. Unfortunately, we know little or nothing of their habits; but from their relatively shorter hind-legs it may be assumed that they are less habitual leapers than the typical members of the family. Like many of the more aberrant Insectivores, the long-nosed jumping shrews appear to be very rare aninals.
THE HEDGEHOGS AND GYMNURAS. Family HRINACEIDZ.
The hedgehogs and their near allies the gymnuras constitute a well-marked family, distinguished by several important characters from the preceding groups. The more important of these characteristics are, however, of such a nature as to be but briefly referred to in this place. It may be observed, however, that the brain (as may be readily seen from the dimensions of its chamber in the dried skull) is relatively smaller, and the union of the anterior elements of the pelvis in the middle line on the inferior aspect of the body shorter than in the preceding families. Further, if the cavity for the eye in the dried skull be examined, it will be found that there is not even a trace of any bony process to mark off its hinder limit from the larger hollow containing the muscles that work the lower jaw. With the exception of one species, all the members of the family have five- toed feet, provided with simple claws not adapted for digging; this feature being
318 INSECTIVORES.
in accordance with their purely terrestrial and non-fossorial habits. And the broad first and second molar teeth of the upper jaw are characterised by having five distinct cusps, of which the central one is very small, and connected with the two inner ones by a pair of oblique ridges.
THE HEDGEHOGS. Genus Hrinaceus.
The European hedgehog, or urchin, which is far the largest of the British Insectivores, is the best known representative of a somewhat extensive genus distributed over the greater portion of Europe, and parts of Africa and Asia, although unknown in Madagascar, the Malayan Peninsula and Islands, Burma, Siam, Southern China, and Siam.
The essential characteristics of the hedgehogs, as distinct from the gymnuras, are to be found in the dense coat of short spines covering the back and sides of the body, and also the shortness of the tail. The hedgehogs have 36 teeth, of which, on each side, 3 are incisors, + canines, and § cheek-teeth. An examination of the skull will show that the first pair of front or incisor teeth in the upper jaw have remarkably long crowns, which are widely separated from one another in the middle line; while the two remaining incisor teeth on each side of the same jaw are much smaller. It will further be observed that the middle region of the palate of the skull contains some open spaces not occupied by bone. The common hedgehog (Hrinaceus ewropeus) is characterised by the short and almost imperceptible neck, the pig-like snout, from which it derives its popular name, and also by the shortness of its limbs. Exclusive of the short naked tail, which measures about 1} inches, an average-sized hedgehog is about 10 inches in length. The great peculiarity of all the hedgehogs is the power they possess of rollmg themselves up into a ball-like form, presenting a chevaua-de-frise of spikes, impenetrable to the great majority of other animals. This rolling-up process is effected by the aid of an extraordinary development of a layer of muscles found beneath the skin of most Mammals, and known as the paniculus carnosus. When rolled up, the head and feet are tucked inwards, so that only the spines are exposed; and it requires a bold dog or fox to attack a hedgehog when in this condition. Under the microscope the spine is seen to be marked by a number of parallel longitudinal grooves; the ridges between them being ornamented, in some of the foreign species, with rows of tubercles. Hedgehogs date from a remote antiquity; and it is doubtless solely due to this protective armour of spines that animals of such low organisation and of such comparatively large size have been enabled to survive without resorting to the protection afforded by a subterranean or aquatic mode of life.
The food of the European hedgehog is very varied, including insects, worms, slugs, snails, lizards, snakes, birds’ eggs, rats, mice, and other small animals ; while roots and fruit are also consumed to a certain extent. The partiality of hedgehogs for insects is often taken advantage of in ridding houses of beetles and cockroaches; although the hedgehog itself not unfrequently
Habits.
HEDGEHOGS. 319
o
comes to an untimely end by a too close approach to the kitchen stove for the sake of warmth. A hedgehog kills a snake by inflicting a series of bites, and quickly assuming the defensive when threatened with attack. That eggs are largely con- sumed by these animals is proved by the readiness with which they are caught in traps thus baited. On account of such depredations, as well as from their destructiveness to young birds, they are much persecuted by gamekeepers. There is, moreover, at least one instance on record of a hedgehog having attacked a young leveret, which it would doubtless have despatched had it not been interrupted. Hedgehogs venture forth from their hiding - places in hedges, coppices, or
THE COMMON HEDGEHOG (3 nat. size).
shrubberies during summer, as soon as the dews of evening commence, and may
be detected devouring
eaten slowly by being seized by one extremity, and turned from side to side of
worms or other prey on moonlight nights. A worm is
the mouth, while it is being chewed by the sharp cheek-teeth; much the same process taking place in the case of a snake.
Although properly nocturnal in their habits, they may occasionally be met with searching for food during the day; and it has been suggested that on such occasions they are driven to depart from their ordinary habits by the necessity of procuring a sufficient supply of food for.their young, which are usually produced during the months of July and August, and are said not to exceed four in a litter, although it was formerly considered that the number might be as
320 INSE CTLV ORES:
many as eight. Occasionally a second litter is produced during the autumn; and it is believed that the period of gestation is not longer than a month. The new- born young are almost naked, and their imperfect spines are soft, flexible, and white, although rapidly hardening in the course of a few days. They are at first totally blind, and « juite incapable of rolling themselves up. The nest in which the young are born is carefully constructed, and is said to be always protected from rain by an efficient roof. In winter the European hedgehog hibernates completely, laying up no store of food, but retiring to a nest of moss and leaves, where, rolled up in a ball, it hes torpid till awakened by the returning warmth of spring. As
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HEDGEHOG AND YOUNG, ‘ . a rule, hedgehogs are comparatively silent creatures, but on occasions they give vent to a sound said to be something between a grunt and a low piping squeak.
The range of the hedgehog in Britain includes the whole of England and portions of Ireland, but does not extend beyond the middle of Scotland; its presence in the Shetland Islands being probably due to human introduction. Eastwards it extends to Eastern China and Amurland, and it also embraces the region from the sixty-third parallel of latitude in the Scandinavian Peninsula, to Southern Italy, Asia Minor, and Syria. Not only is the European hedgehog found in the lowlands of the regions over which it extends, but in the Alps it ascends to an elevation of six thousand feet, and in the Caucasus to upwards of eight thousand feet above the sea-level.
Altogether there are nearly twenty known species of hedgehogs, and among these the European form is in some respects quite peculiar. Its fur mingled with the spines is very coarse and harsh, and the upper tusk, or canine tooth (the fourth tooth from the extremity of the muzzle), is inserted by a single root,
Distribution.
GYMNURAS. 321
while in all the others the fur is softer and finer, and the upper canine tooth has two roots, and closely resembles the cheek-teeth.
Hedgehogs are represented by five distinct species in India, all characterised by having minute tubercles on the ridges of their spines. It is remarkable that while one of these hedgehogs (£. micropus) is found in Madras, no repre- sentative of the genus is recorded from the Central Provinces and Bengal, the other species not occurring till we reach the North-West Provinces, the Punjab, ete. But little is known of the habits of these Indian species, and nothing as to their breeding ; although it is probable that in both these respects they conform closely to their European cousin. The long-eared Afghan hedgehog (4. megalotis), common in the neighbourhood of Kandahar and Quetta, hibernates, but the species from the Punjab and Southern India are active at all seasons of the year, thus showing how absolutely dependent is the habit of hibernation upon climate. The collared hedgehog (4. collaris), found in the plains of North-Western India, inhabits “sandy country, hiding in holes beneath thorny bushes or in tufts of grass during the day, feeding chiefly on insects, especially a species of Blaps, and also on lizards and snails. It makes a grunting noise when irritated, and when touched suddenly jerks up its back so as to throw its spines forward, making at the same time a sound like a puff from a pair of bellows.” Mr. Blanford just quoted, also states that the Afghan hedgehog feeds on the slugs and snails so common in the fields round Kandahar, as well as worms, insects, and lizards. It hides during the day in holes; and hibernates from the end of October or beginning of November till February.
If we know but little of the habits of the Asiatic hedgehogs, this lack of information is still more marked with respect to those of Africa, where some species are found in the Cape district, and others in the regions to the north of the Sahara (Z. algirus), and in Egypt, as well as on the West Coast. One of these (2. albiventris) is peculiar in having lost the inner toe of the hind foot; although its claw has been found on one foot of an adult female from Lagos, as well as on both feet of young specimens from the same locality.
Fossil hedgehogs are met with in the Tertiary rocks of Europe as far back as the early portion of the Miocene period. Some of the extinct hedgehogs belonged to the existing genus Hrinaceus; and one of them (EL. wningensis), from the middle Tertiary fresh-water limestones of Baden, appears to be allied to the Algerian hedgehog, being totally different in the structure of its teeth from the common European species. Others are, however, distinguished by having a complete bony roof to the palate, and these form a distinct genus, which may be allied in this respect to the gymnuras.
African Species.
Extinct Species.
THE GYMNURAS. Genus Gymnura.
The gymnuras, which are not unlike large rough-haired shrews, take the place of the hedgehogs in Burma and the Malayan region. Although closely allied to the hedgehogs in the structure of their teeth and other details of their anatomy,
VOL. I.—21
322 INSECTIVORES.
these Insectivores are so unlike them in external appearance that it is difficult to believe in their close affinity. It must be remembered, however, that the spines of the hedgehogs totally alter the appearance of the creature from what it would be, if unprovided with these appendages ; and if we were to compare a gymnura with a young hedgehog, in which the spines were still rudimentary, the difference in appearance would not be so very marked.
The gymuuras are distinguished from the hedgehogs by the total absence of spines; and also by the long naked tail, from which they derive their name. Further points of distinction are afforded by the complete bony roof to the palate, and also by the larger number of teeth in the gymnuras, which is upwards of forty-four. The large and typical number of teeth characteristic of these animals is, indeed, but very
Characteristics.
rarely met with among existing Maminals, although it was com- mon amongst extinct forms. In this respect, therefore, the gymnura betrays the antiquity of the group to which it belongs. eee eee Rafiles’s gymnura (Gymnwra
rafiles:) —so named after Sir
Stamford Rafiles—is an animal somewhat resembling a large rat with a long pointed nose; the length of the head and body varying from 12 to 14 inches, and that of the long rat-like tail from 84 to 9} inches. The head and body are generally parti-coloured, with considerable individual variation in the distribution of the black and white. Usually, however, the greater part of the head and neck is white; but there is a black patch in front of and another above each of the eyes, and there are frequently some long black hairs on the crown of the head. The terminal third of the tail is generally white. Occasionally specimens are found in Burma of a uniform white colour throughout; these, however, must not be regarded as albinos. The hair is of two kinds—a close, soft under-fur and long coarse bristles. RafHles’s gymnura is found in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo,
in the Malay Peninsula, and in Burma. It is either a rare animal, or on account of its retiring and strictly nocturnal mode of life is but seldom met with. Of its habits we are still ignorant. It is, however, said to make its home beneath the roots of trees; and, from the contents of the stomachs of specimens that have been examined, we learn that its food consists of different kinds of insects ; cockroaches, white ants, and larvee being apparently its favourites. It
is distinguished by a peculiarly disagreeable smell of a somewhat oniony or garlic-like nature.
Distribution.
Still more rare is the lesser gymnura (G. swilla), a small rusty-brown coloured animal, paler beneath, measuring just short of 5 inches in length, with a tail not exceeding an inch. It occurs in Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, ascending in Borneo to a considerable elevation above the sea-level on Mount Kina Balu in the northern part of the island.
SHRE WS. 323
Extinct Gym- Extinct Insectivores, more or less closely allied to the gymnuras, nuras. have left their remains in the Tertiary deposits of France belonging
to the upper portion of the Eocene and the lower part of the Miocene period. These extinct forms, although belonging to distinct genera from those now existing, serve to show the antiquity of this group of animals; and, in common with many others, further indicate how the early Tertiary fauna of Europe has its nearest representatives in the remote islands of the Malayan Archipelago.
THE SHREWS. Family SorrIciD#.
The elegant little creatures known as shrews, or shrew-mice as they are often termed from their mouse-like form, constitute the fourth family of the true Insectivores. So like, indeed, are these animals to mice and rats, that in popular estimation they are often confounded with them; although they are readily distinguishable by their long and pointed snouts, their rounded ears, closely pressed to the sides of the head, and the characters of their teeth.
Though there would be little likelihood of mistaking a shrew for a hedgehog, it 1s necessary to point out in some detail the characters on which naturalists refer these groups to separate families; since, as we have seen, the spines of the hedgehogs do not form a characteristic of more than generic importance.
Perhaps the most ready means of determining whether or no an Insectivore belongs to the shrew family is afforded by the characters of the first pair of front or incisor teeth. In all shrews these teeth are different from the others; those of the upper jaw (as shown in the figure) being long and generally sickle-shaped, with a more or less distinct cusp at the base of their hinder border; while in the lower jaw they are long and project horizontally forwards, sometimes curving ite a upwards at the tips. Moreover, with the single excep- tion of one peculiar African species, which has a rudi- mental seventh tooth, the lower jaw of every shrew has only six teeth on each side.
SIDE VIEW OF THE RIGHT ANTERIOR
The above features are sufficient to distinguish SoERe” IRS ACRE aR a shrew from any other Insectivore ; but a few additional MING SHREW FROM UNALASKA sie. . wae ISLAND. characteristics may also be mentioned. Thus the first
and second upper molar teeth of all the shrews differ | Much enlarged. The first upper incisor (the tooth on the right of from those of the hedgehogs and gymnuras by the th. figure) is less sickle-shaped absence of the fifth or central cusp on the crown. _ than usual.—After Dobson. Then, again, the skull of a hedgehog or gymnura, as shown in the figure of the skeleton of the former given on p. 308, has a complete bony bar—the zygomatic arch—running below the socket for the eye to connect the upper jaw with the hinder part of the skull. In a shrew, on the other hand, this bony arch, as shown in the accompanying figure, is invariably incomplete beneath the eye, owing to the absence of the cheek-bone.!| A further char- acteristic feature of the shrews is the extreme length and narrowness of their skulls.
1 Tn one Indian hedgehog the zygomatic arch is incomplete.
324 INSEE CTIV ORES.
od
With the exception of a few species which have taken to an aquatic life, the shrews are terrestrial and nocturnal in their habits. They are all covered with fur, generally remarkable for its softness; the head is long, with a sharply pointed snout projecting far in advance of the tip of the lower Jaw; their eyes are extremely small and bead-like; and the external ears, if present at all, are rounded, and not unlike the human ear in general contour. ;
Distribution The shrews have a more extensive distribution than any other
and Habits. family of Insectivores, and likewise comprise a far larger number of species. They are to be met with throughout the whole of the temperate and tropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, as well as on many of the adjacent islands; one species extending as far north as Unalaska Island in the Aleutian group. “From their obscure and retiring habits,’ writes Bell, “the shrews are difficult of observation; their long and pointed snout, their extensible form, and short and velvety coat enable them to pass through the closest herbage, or beneath the carpets of dry leaves in the coppice and woodland, in which situa- tions, as well as in the open fields, whether cultivated or in pasture, they seek their
SKELETON OF WATER-SHREW.
food. But they are not confined in their habitat to such situations, as with their congeners, the water shrews, they are often met with in marshy and fen districts.” On the other hand, one of the Indian shrews constantly frequents dwelling-houses. The number of genera (to say nothing of species) of shrews is so considerable, that it is only possible to notice here some of the more interesting and important. The genera may be arranged under two groups, according as to whether the teeth are stained of a reddish-brown colour or are of the ordinary white hue.
THE TYPICAL SHREWS. Genus Sore.
Tn addition to their red teeth, the typical shrews, as represented by the common Kuropean shrew (Sorex vulgaris), figured on the right side of the following illustration, are characterised by the number of their teeth being thirty-two, and by the large size of their ears and the length of the tail; the latter being covered with hairs of nearly, or quite, uniform length. With the exception of two peculiar species, all these shrews are terrestrial; and they inhabit Europe, Asia north of the Himalaya, and North America. And it may be remarked here that the red-
SHRE WS. 325 toothed shrews are quite unknown in Africa south of the Sahara, and they are only represented in India and the rest of the Oriental region by a single small genus (Soriculus).
The common shrew, found abundantly in the British Islands, measures just short of 3 inches in length, exclusive of the tail, and is usually of a reddish mouse-colour above, paler beneath, with the tail somewhat quadrangular and rather shorter than the body. There is, however, considerable individual variation in colour, specimens being sometimes found banded with white.
Like the mole, the common shrew has a wide geographical range, extending from England, through Europe and Asia to North America. The facility with which this species conceals itself has been already mentioned. Its
Common Shrew.
Habits.
THE SPIDER MUSK-SHREW AND COMMON SHREW (nat. size),
food is chiefly insects and worms, supplemented by snails and slugs. In disposition it is so pugnacious that two are rarely seen together except when engaged in combat; and if two or more are confined together, it is not long before the stronger kills the less robust. The strong scent with which the shrew is provided probably acts as a preventive against the attacks of some of its foes, but it is now ascertained that this is not sufficiently repulsive to deter owls from killing and devouring shrews. It was long considered that the numbers of dead shrews to be found in most gardens during the autumn were due to the attacks of cats, which are known to kill, although they will not eat these animals. Dr. Dobson considers, however, that the real cause of death is rather to be attributed to insufficiency of their proper food at that season of the year; and this interpretation is supported by the consideration that it would be otherwise difficult to account for the mortality being confined to one period of the year. Shrews hibernate in Europe throughout the winter, and during the spring and summer produce their litters of blind and
326 INSECTIVORES.
toothless young; the number in each litter being usually five, six, or seven, but occasionally more.
In Ireland the place of the common shrew is taken by the lesser shrew (S. pygmeus), which, although also found in England, is there much more rare. It may be distinguished by its inferior size, and also by the circumstance that the third tooth from the extremity of the upper jaw (the third incisor) is not longer than the fourth. Like its larger cousin, this species has an extensive range in Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya, but does not extend across Behring Strait into America.
In marked contrast to the wide range of these species is the restricted distribution of the Alpine shrew (S. alpinus), a species of rather larger size than the common shrew, and distinguished by the uniform coloration of the upper and under surfaces of the body. This shrew is only found in the mountains of Central Europe.
Lesser Shrew.
Alpine Shrew.
North American A variation in size comparable to that existing among the Shrews. Kuropean members of the genus is likewise found in its North
American representatives, among which Bendire’s shrew (S. bendirez) is the largest, and Cooper's shrew (S. cooper’) the smallest form. Of the latter Dr. Hart Merriam writes that “although underground life does not appear to be as attractive to it as to its relatives the moles, yet it avoids too much exposure, and commonly moves, by night and by day, under cover of the fallen leaves, twigs, and other débris that always cover the ground in our northern forests. The naturalist well knows that, however cautiously he may walk, the stir of his footsteps puts to flight many forms of life that will reappear as soon as quiet is restored; therefore, in his excursions through the woods, he waits and watches, frequently stopping to listen and observe. While thus occupied, it sometimes happens that a slight rustling reaches his ear. There is no wind, but the eye rests upon a fallen leaf that seems to move. Presently another stirs, and perhaps a third turns completely over. Then something evanescent, like the shadow of an embryonic mouse, appears and vanishes before the eye can catch its perfect image. Anon the restless phantom flits across an open space, leaving no trace behind. But a charge of fine shot dropped with quick aim upon the next leaf that moves will usually solve the mystery. The author of the per- plexing commotion is found to be a curious sharp-nosed creature, no bigger than one’s little finger, and weighing hardly more than half a drachm. Its ceaseless activity, and the rapidity with which it darts from place to place, are truly astonishing, and rarely permit the observer a correct impression of its form. Whenever a tree or a large limb falls to the ground these shrews soon find it, examining every part with great care, and if a knot-hole or crevice is detected, leading to a cavity within, they are pretty sure to enter, carry in materials for a nest, and take formal possession. . . Not only are these agile and restless little shrews voracious and almost insatiable, consuming incredible quantities of raw meat and insects with great eagerness, but they are veritable cannibals withal, and will even slay and devour their own kind.”
The marsh-shrew (S. palustris) from the Rocky Mountains, together with the swimming shrew (S. hydrodromus) from one of the Aleutian Islands, differ from the other members of the genus in having their feet provided with fringes of long hair to aid them in their aquatie life.
SHRE WS. 327
THE SHORT-TAILED OR EARLESS SHREWS. Genus Blarina.
With the exception of the water-shrews, the only other members of the red- toothed section of the family to which we shall allude are the so-called short-tailed and earless shrews, of North and Central America. These shrews are readily distinguished by their short tails and the truncation of the upper part of their ears ; some of them having the same number of teeth as the typical shrews, while in others the number is reduced to thirty. The variation in the size of the different species of this genus is nearly as marked as in the preceding one.
The common short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) occurs in the Adirondack Mountains, near New York, and is remarkable for remaining active during the whole of the rigorous winters of these regions, having been observed running about on the snow when the thermometer indicated 20° below zero. This peculiar habit is correlated with equally marked peculiarities in the diet of this species, which frequents both the dense pine forests of the uncultivated districts, and the cleared tracts of the inhabited regions. This shrew, writes Dr. Merriam, “seeks its food both by day and night; and, although the greater part of its life is doubt- less spent under ground, or at least under logs and leaves, and amongst the roots of trees and stumps, it occasionally makes excursions upon the surface, and I have met and secured many specimens in broad daylight. It subsists upon beech-nuts, insects, earthworms, slugs, sow-bugs, and mice, and can inno way be considered other than as a friend to the farmer.”
THE WATER-SHREW. Genus Crossopus.
The water-shrew (Crossopus fodiens) is the sole representative of a genus agreeing with some of the short-tailed shrews in possessing thirty teeth, but distin- guished by the small ears not being truncated, by the long tail, and also by the fringes of long hair on the under surface of the latter and on the feet. This shrew, as its name implies, is of thoroughly aquatic habits; the fringes of stiff hair on the tail and limbs being designed to afford aid in swimming. In length it measures about 34 inches, exclusive of the long tail. Owing to the circumstances, that while in most cases the under-parts of the body are white, while in others they partake more or less completely of the black hue of the back, it was formerly considered that there were two distinct species of water-shrews, although subsequent observa- tions have shown that such variations are merely individual.
The water-shrew, although unknown in Ireland, is commonly, but locally, distributed over England and the south of Scotland. It likewise occurs over a large area of continental Europe, from whence it extends eastwards into Asia as far as the Atlas range. In the water these graceful little
Habits.
creatures are as much at home as water-voles or beavers; and in clear streams they may not unfrequently be observed during the day diving or running along the
328 TINSE C TIVOLRE S;
bottom, and turning over the pebbles with their sharp noses in search of fresh- water shrimps, which appear to constitute their favourite food. In addition to these crustaceans, the water-shrew devours many kinds of aquatic insects or their larvee, while it is also probable that it likewise preys on the spawn or fry of minnows and other small fish. There are, moreover, several instances on record where water- shrews have been found feeding on the flesh of larger animals, which they have found dead. The swimming of the water-shrew, writes Prof. T. Bell, seems to be “ principally effected by the alternate action of the hinder feet, which produces an unequal or wriggling motion; it makes its way, however, with great velocity, and as it swims rather superficially, with the belly flattened, the sides, as it were, spread out, and the tail extended backwards as a rudder, it forms a very beautiful and
Alii
y/
THE WATER-SHREW (nat. size.)
pleasing object, moving on the calm surface of a quiet brook, or diving, in an instant, after its food, its black velvety coat becoming beautifully silvered with the in- numerable bubbles of air that cover it when submerged; and on rising again the fur is observed to be perfectly dry, repelling the water as completely as the feathers of a water-fowl. When submerged, the ear is nearly closed by means of three little valves.” The burrows of the water-shrew are constructed in the banks of the pond or stream in which it dwells; and, if disturbed from the protection thus afforded, the creature plunges forthwith into the water to seek safety in what must be regarded as its native element. The female gives birth to the young in the burrow, the usual number produced at a litter varying from five to seven or eight.
In addition to its darker coloration, and the structural differences already mentioned, the water-shrew may be distinguished at a glance from the common shrew by its stouter and somewhat depressed muzzle. The red stain on the teeth
SHRE WS. 329
is, moreover, much less decided than in the latter; and indeed, when the teeth have, been much worn by long use, tends more or less completely to disappear.
THE MusK-SHREWS. Genus Crocidura.
With the musk-shrews, which include by far the largest representatives of the entire family, we come to the first members of the group characterised by their white teeth. No representatives of the musk-shrews occur in Britain, although the spider musk-shrew (Crocidura aranea), represented on the left side of the illustration on p. 325, and the common musk-shrew (C. suaveolens), shown in the accompanying
THE COMMON MUSK-SHREW (nat. size).
figure, occur on the continent of Europe. These shrews, which are of terrestrial habits, have either thirty or twenty-eight teeth, well-developed ears, and a long tail, and are covered with a coat of mingled long and short hairs. The eyes are very small, and placed nearer to the ears than to the tip of the nose. Each side of the body is furnished with a gland (sometimes absent in the female), secreting the musky product from which these shrews derive their popular name.
More than eighty species of musk-shrews have been described; the range of the genus embracing Southern and Central Europe, Africa, and Asia. The species with the widest range is the spider musk-shrew, above-mentioned, which is found from North Africa and Central and Southern Europe to Central Asia, extending as far north as North-Eastern Siberia, and as far south as Ladak. It belongs to the typical group of the genus, characterised by having only three small conical teeth behind the large first upper incisor; and it is a comparatively small species, of about
330 INSECTIVORES.
3 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. This shrew frequents cultivated grounds in Europe, not unfrequently entering houses; and preys on insects, worms, and the young of the smaller Mammals and Birds. The young are born in summer, and vary from five to as many as ten in number.
The common musk-shrew (C. suaveolens), of which a figure is given on p. 329, is the second representative of the genus Crocidura in Europe. It belongs to a group characterised by the presence of four small conical teeth, of which the hindmost is very minute, behind the first upper incisor tooth! This group, which is numerously represented in India, includes the largest of all shrews, and those most strongly scented with the characteristic musky odour. The best known, and at the same time the largest, of these Indian species are the brown musk-shrew (C. muwrina), and the grey musk-shrew, C. cwrulea), the latter of which is commonly termed by Anglo- Indians the musk-rat. Both these species have nine teeth on each side of the wpper jaw, and their length may be as much as 6 inches exclusive of the tail. Whereas the hair of the former is of a brownish tinge on the body and feet, in the latter it is more of a slaty hue; while the feet are flesh-coloured or yellowish-white. In other respects these two shrews are very closely allied, but whereas the brown musk-shrew is found as a rule in woods (although it will occasionally enter buildings), the grey musk-shrew generally, if not invariably, haunts human habita- tions. It has accordingly been suggested that the latter is merely a peculiar variety of the former. The grey musk-shrew is nocturnal, and is a common visitor to Indian houses. During the day it les concealed in holes and drains, issuing forth at night to hunt over the floors of rooms for cockroaches and other insects ; while thus engaged it utters from time to time a short, sharp squeak. In respect of its insect-eating habits, this musk-shrew is a benefactor to mankind; but these benefits are accompanied by the drawback that various articles may be so impreg- nated with the musky secretion of the animal as to become utterly useless. There has, however, been much exaggeration as to the penetrating power of this scent, the well-known but absurd story that wine or beer becomes impregnated with a musky flavour from the circumstance of one of these shrews having run over the outside of the bottle containing such liquor, being a case in point. In addition to its favourite cockroaches and other insects, the grey musk-shrew will also readily devour meat, and accounts are on record of an attack made by one of these animals ona frog, and by another on a snake.
Other Indian musk-shrews belonging to the same group of the genus, such as Blyth’s musk-shrew (C. fuliginosa) have but eight teeth on each side of the upper jaw, or the same number as in the European spider musk-shrew (C. wraneq).
THE BURROWING SHREWS. senus Anwrosoren.
The burrowing shrews are small mole-like creatures, inhabiting Tibet, Western China, and Assam, where they are apparently very rare. They are characterised by their large heads, minute eyes, the absence of ear-conchs, a very short tail, and
1 In the figure of the jaw of a true shrew (Sorex) on p. 323 there are five of these small teeth.
SHRE WS. 331 fore) thick velvety fur. The total number of teeth is twenty-six, of which there are seven on each side of the upper jaw. There are only two species, of which the one from Assam measures about 5 inches in length, exclusive of the stumpy tail, and is of dark slaty colour, with a tinge of brown.
The interest attaching to these shrews arises from the circumstance that their structure is indicative of burrowing habits like the mole, although nothing is known on this point from actual observation.
THE SWIMMING-SHREWS. Genus Chimarrogale.
Although the name swimming-shrews would be equally applicable to the water-shrews (Crossopus), and the latter name to the members of the present genus, yet it is convenient to take the two terms with the signification here given. The swimming shrews, of which one species (Chimarrogale himalayica) is found in the Himalaya and Mount Kina Balu in Borneo, and the other (C. platycephalus) in Japan, closely resemble the water-shrews in general appearance, but are distin- guished by the teeth being entirely white, and likewise by bemg twenty-eight, instead of thirty in number. These shrews have a small external ear-conch; broad scaly feet, with a fringe of coarse white hairs on their margins, and on the sides of each toe; and the long tail is also fringed with similar hairs. The individual toes are, however, not connected together by webs.
The Himalayan swimming-shrew has a slaty-grey fur above, with the tips of the hairs blackish-brown. A female measured a little over 4} inches in length, exclusive of the tail, the length of the latter being 3 inches; but it is probable that other individuals are considerably larger. This shrew inhabits the south-western portions of the Himalayan range, at elevations from three thousand to five thousand feet above the sea-level; and it is also found in the hills of North Burma. It inhabits the banks of streams, and, doubtless, swims quite as well as the European water-shrew. Dr. Anderson has observed it plunging into the water, and running over the stones on the bed of a stream. Like its European cousin, it is said to feed on aquatic insects and their larvee, as well as on tadpoles, and the smaller fish and their fry. The assumption of aquatic habits by members of both the red- toothed and white-toothed sections of the shrews is an interesting example of how animals belonging to different’ groups may acquire almost exactly similar external characters, as being essential to their particular mode of life.
THE WeEB-FOOTED SHREW.
Genus Nectogale.
A still further modification for the purposes of an aquatic life is exhibited by the web-footed water-shrew (Nectogale elegans) of Tibet, of which a group is shown in our coloured Plate. In these shrews not only are the feet and tail fringed with hairs, but the external conchs of the ears are wanting, and the toes are completely joined
332 INSECTIVORES.
by webs, while the soles of the feet are furnished with large disc-like pads. The web-footed shrew has a tail of 4 inches in length, while the length of the head and body is but just over 3% inches. ‘The fur, which is extremely dense and soft and evidently adapted to withstand the icy cold of the Tibetan rivers, is of a rich dark brown colour above, with the longer hairs of a glistening white, while the chin and throat are whitish, and the belly light brown.
It does not appear that this shrew has ever been seen by Europeans disporting in the waters of its native streams. From its structure we may, however, con- fidently infer that it is more thoroughly aquatic than any other member of the family ; and it has been suggested by Milne-Edwards, its original describer, that the disc-like pads on the soles of the feet act as suckers, and thus enable the animal to cling to the surfaces of smooth pebbles or rocks during its sojourn beneath the water.
THE DESMANS AND MOLES. Family TALPIDZ.
The European desmans and the more widely-spread moles are the best known representatives of two sections of a family which, while allied in many respects to the shrews, possess characters of sufficient importance to justify its separation
ie (eA ae
3s
SKELETON OF MOLE.
therefrom. In the first place, the skull in all members of the family Talpide is distinguished from that of the Soricide by having a distinct zygomatic arch connecting the upper jaw with the region of the ear; this difference being distinctly shown by a comparison of the figure of the skeleton of the mole given herewith with that of the skeleton of the water-shrew on p. 3824. Then, again, on the under- surface of the hinder part of the skull, whereas the so-called bulla of the internal ear 1s represented in the shrews merely by an open ring, in the desmans and moles it has a complete bladder-like form. Further, the first incisor tooth of both jaws in the members of the present family is of a normal type, and never assumes the peculiar form which has been shown to be characteristic of all the shrews.
Most of the members of the present family are of fossorial habits, although a few are more or less completely aquatic, and others cursorial. All have long shrew- like skulls, and small eyes and ears; while in most cases the fore-limbs are placed
DESMANS. 338 very far forward on the body, and are more or less specially modified for the purpose of digging in the ground. The family, although by no means so numerous in species as the shrews, is a comparatively large one, containing at least eight distinct generic modifications. It is entirely confined to the Northern Hemi- sphere, where it is widely distributed over the temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and North America. |
THE DESMANS. Genus Myogale.
The strange-looking desmans, of which there are two species, are aquatic animals belonging to a section of the family characterised by the fore-limb not
RUSSIAN DESMANS (3 nat size).
being specially modified for the purpose of digging, and thus forming a connecting link between the shrews and the moles. This absence of special modification is exhibited by the bones of the skeleton of the fore-limb, in which the collar-bone (clavicle), and the arm-bone (humerus) still retain a distinctly elongate form, while there is no additional bone in the fore-foot.
The desmans are provided with the typical number of forty-four teeth, and are further characterised by their completely webbed feet, their long trunk-like snout, which projects far in advance of the upper lip, and the elongated and scaly tail. The
Russian desman (Myogale moschata) is considerably the larger of the two, its total length being about 16 inches, of which some 64 are occupied by the tail. The fur is dense and thick, like that of an otter, with the outer portion formed of long stiff hairs, and the under-coat soft and woolly. Above,
Russian Desman.
it is of a full reddish-brown, and beneath of an ashy-grey, with a silvery lustre
334 IN SE CTIVORES.
when viewed in certain lights. The first incisor tooth in each jaw is very large and powerful, the upper one being somewhat chisel-shaped. The tail is laterally flattened. This species inhabits the banks of streams and lakes over a large portion of South-Eastern Russia, dwelling in holes after the manner of the water-vole, and being as much at home in the water as an otter. Indeed, the greater part of the creature's time appears to be spent in that element ; the burrow, which terminates in a large chamber above the level of the water, being chiefly used as a resting and breeding-place. Its chief food consists of aquatic insects and their larve, although it probably also devours small fish. Insects and larve are sought after by means of the proboscis-like snout, which is
Habits.
used to probe under stones and in chinks and hollows. A sharp hissing sound is given forth when the animal is irritated or disturbed. The specific name of the desman is derived from the musky odour produced by the secretion of a large gland situated beneath the rest of the tail; this taint rendering its flesh quite uneatable. Owing to its beautiful fur, which is not unlike that of the otter or beaver, the Russian desman is largely hunted by the peasants of the regions where it is found ; early autumn being the season when the fur is in the finest condition.
Although now confined to the steppes of South-Eastern Russia, it is remark- able that the Russian desman once extended as far westwards as the British Isles, its fossilised remains having been obtained from the so-called forest bed of the Norfolk coast, which was deposited during the epoch immediately preceding the Glacial period. Remains of extinct species of the genus have also been obtained from the Tertiary deposits of the continent as far back as the lower portion of the Miocene period.
Pyrenean Des- Far smaller than the Russian species is the Pyrenean desman man. (M. pyrenaica), found on both the French and Spanish flanks of the
mountain range from which it derives its name. In total length this animal does not much exceed 10 inches, of which about half is formed by the tail. It is, however, also distinguished from its larger relative by the greater proportionate length of its proboscis, and likewise by the tail being perfectly cylindrical. In mode of life the two species seem to be very similar, although it has been stated that the smaller one has a more marked preference for a diet of fish.
THE MOLE-SHREWS. Genera Urotrichus and Uropsilus.
A very brief notice must suffice for the curious mole-shrews, which closely connect the moles with the shrews. The true mole-shrews, of which there are two species, constitute the genus Urotrichus, and are respectively found in Japan and North America. They have 36 teeth, of which % are incisors, and either ~ or ¢ cheek-teeth on each side; and they are further characterised by their broad and unwebbed fore-feet and fossorial habits. They are mole-like in appearance and of small size. The Tibetan mole-shrew (Uropsilus soricipes) is the sole representative of a distinct genus differing from the last by having only thirty-four teeth, a narrow fore-foot, and a naked and scaly tail. In habit.it is cursorial; and while
WEB-FOOTED MOLES. 335
in external appearance it resembles a shrew its skull and teeth are like those of a mole. Its general colour is slaty-grey.
THE WeEs-FooTtepD MOLES. Genus Scalops.
With the web-footed moles of North America we come to the first representa- tives of the second section of the family, characterised by having the collar-bone (clavicle) and arm-bone (humerus) so shortened and widened as to have lost all resemblance to the ordinary form; and also by the presence of an additional sickle- shaped bone on the inner side of the fore-foot, next to the thumb, both these features being intimately connected with the purely fossorial habits of all the members of this section of the family.
All the moles, whether they belong to the New World or the Old World group, are characterised by their peculiar form, which, as we shall mention later on, is so admirably adapted for their mode of life. All have the fore-paws naked and of enormous width and strength; while in all there are
Structure.
no external ear-conchs, and the small and useless eyes are deeply buried beneath the fur, and are often further protected by an investing membrane. Then, again, these animals are characterised by the extreme thickness and density of their short velvet-like fur, to which no fragments of the soil through which the burrows are driven ever adheres. Like the New World moles, the web-footed moles are dis- tinguished from their cousins of the Old World by the circumstance that the first incisor tooth in the upper jaw is of much larger size than the second. The special characteristics of the web-footed moles are that they have only 36 teeth, of which 3 are incisors, 3 canines, and € cheek-teeth; and that the hind-feet are webbed, and the tail is short and nearly naked.
The common web-footed mole (Scalops aquaticus) doubtless received its specific name on account of its webbed hind-feet, which led to the very natural inference that it was a swimming animal. But according to Dr. Hart Merriam, this is a complete misnomer, for not only is this mole “not known voluntarily to swim, but in the selection of its haunts it shows no preference for the vicinity of water, but manifests rather a contrary tendency. Its home is under ground, and its entire life is spent beneath the surface. Its food consists almost wholly of earth-worms, grubs, ants, and other insects that live in the earth and under logs and stones. It is almost universally regarded as an enemy to the farmer, and is commonly destroyed whenever opportunity attords; for, not- withstanding the fact that it subsists upon insects that injure the crops, it is never- theless true that, in the procurement of these, it disfigures the garden paths and beds by the ridges and little mounds of earth that mark the course of its subter- ranean galleries, and loosens and injures many choice plants in its probing for grubs amongst their roots.” The nest of this mole, “is commonly half a foot or more below the surface, and from it several passages lead away in the direction of its favourite foraging-grounds. These primary passages gradually approach the surface, and finally become continuous with, or open into, an ever-increasing
Habits.
336 = LNSECTIVORES.
multitude of tortuous galleries, which wind about in every direction, and sometimes come so near the surface as barely to escape opening upon it, while at other times they are several inches deep. Along the most superficial of these horizontal burrows the earth is actually thrown up in the form of long ridges, by which the animal's progress can be traced. The distance that they can thus travel in a given time is almost incredible. Audubon and Bachman state that they have been known, in a single night after a rain, to execute a gallery several yards in length; and I have myself traced a fresh one nearly one hundred yards. The only method by which we can arrive at a just appreciation of the magnitude of this labour is by comparison ; and computation shows that, in order to perform equivalent work, a man would have to excavate in a single night a tunnel thirty-seven miles long, and of sufficient size to easily admit of the passage of his body.”
THe Hairy-TAILED MOLES. Genus Scapanus.
The hairy-tailed moles, of which there are two species inhabiting the United States, form a connecting link between the web-footed and the star-nosed moles, having the general external appearance of the former, but the same number (forty- four) of teeth as in the latter. The habits of the common hairy-tailed mole (S. americanus) appear very similar to those of the web-footed moles; both inhabiting dry meadow-land in preference to the swampy ground affected by the star-nosed mole. The mounds of the hairy-tailed moles do not, however, contain the central and surface opening of those of the web-footed moles; neither do the former animals indulge in the midday excursions so characteristic of the former.
THE StTaR-NosED MOLE. Genus Condylura.
The last of the three genera of North American moles is represented only by a single species, the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata), so called on account of the peculiar ring of riband-like appendages surrounding the end of the muzzle, in the middle of which are situated the nostrils. In addition to this feature, this mole is characterised by the tail being nearly as long as the body, and also by the circumstance that the bones of the terminal joints of the fingers are not cleft at their extremities, as they are in the Old World moles. Like the latter, the star- nosed mole possesses the typical number of forty-four teeth. In length this species measures about 5 inches, exclusive of the tail.
The food of this mole consists entirely of earth-worms and insects, and its habits are very similar to those of the web-footed mole, although it does not apparently make such extensive excavations, and the hillocks thrown up from the runs are of larger size. In gardens and arable land these moles tunnel near the surface, throwing up a ridge of loose earth along the line of their tunnels, but in pasture land they work at a lower level. In both these respects they
Habits.
Mi (OULIB, S: 3317
resemble the common European mole, with which they also agree in that, during the late autumn, when the surface of the ground becomes frozen, they follow the worms downwards until a plane is reached where the frost has not penetrated. By following the ridge of loose earth which marks the progress of one of these moles in a garden, and quickly sinking a spade in the creature’s path, a few inches in advance of the moving earth, it is frequently possible to turn a specimen out upon the surface. So quickly, however, do these animals pass through the soft soil of a garden, that the spade, although aimed several inches in front of the moving earth, will not unfrequently cut them in two.
Although the precise function of the peculiar dise of tentacles round the muzzle is not yet definitely ascertained, it appears highly probable that it acts as a sensitive organ of touch to aid its owner in discovering the whereabouts of the worms and insects encountered during its subterranean wanderings. In the newly-born young these tentacles are so small as to be scarcely perceptible. A nest examined by Dr. Merriam contained three young ones.
THE TRUE MOLES. Genus Talpa.
The Old World moles may be at once distinguished from all their North American cousins by having the first upper incisor tooth scarcely larger than the second. With the exception of a single species from Eastern Tibet, the whole of the Old World moles are included in the genus Talpa, of which the typical representative is the common European mole (7. ewropea). The members of this genus, nine in number, are distributed over temperate Europe and Asia, two of the Asiatic species being found to the south of the Himalaya. Asa rule, there is the typical number of forty-four teeth, but a few of the species have not quite so many, owing to the loss either of the lower canine tooth or of the first upper premolar ; while in one species the first premolar is wanting in both jaws. All are characterised by the width
UPPER AND LOWER SURFACE OF RIGHT of the fore-foot. FORE-FOOT OF MOLE.
As we entered at considerable length into the structure and habits of some of the American moles, our remarks on those of the Old World may be comparatively brief, as there is a great similarity between the two. It is remarkable that, as the European hedgehog differs from all the other species of its genus, so the European mole is distinguished from all its congeners by the absence of a membrane covering the eyes. Nearly or all the moles are normally black in colour, with a more or less pronounced greyish lustre when viewed in certain lights; but pied, buff, or white varieties are not very uncommon. The naked feet are flesh-coloured. The different species of moles show considerable variation as regards the relative length of the tail. Thus, whereas in the European mole the length of the head and body is about 5 inches and that of the tail 1 inch, in the Himalayan short-tailed mole (7. micrwra) the naked tail is
VOL. I.—22
338 INSECLTIVOLRES:
less than a quarter of an inch in length, and is completely concealed among the fur of the body.
The European mole is remarkable for its wide geographical dis- tribution, ranging from England in the west, through Asia north of the Himalaya to Japan, and extending northwards as far as the Altai Mountains. Like its cousin, the common shrew, it 1s, however, unknown in Ireland. The “runs” of the European mole are very similar to those of the American moles already referred to, but the central chamber, or dwelling-place, is of a more complex structure. As this dwelling-place will be found described in detail in almost all works treating of the mole, it will suffice to mention here that it is usually placed near a hillock, or between two trees, and is composed of a central chamber with passages
Distribution.
THE COMMON MOLE (4 nat. size),
conducting to two circular galleries placed one above another. The higher of these two galleries has a smaller diameter than the lower one. From the larger lower gallery there are given off several diverging runs, one of which is larger than either of the others, and is known as the main run, being the one which alone leads to the burrows driven in various directions for the purpose of procuring food. These burrows, or runs, except when so close to the surface as to allow of the earth being raised directly upwards in the form of a ridge showing their course, are marked at intervals by the well-known “ mole-hills,” which are mounds of loose earth pushed up from below, and not containing any internal chamber or passages.
Since the voracity of the mole is proverbial, and its food consists exclusively of earth-worms, insects, and their larve, its visits ought to be welcomed alike by the farmer and the gardener. As a matter of fact, however, the mole has an awkward habit of driving its tunnels below the drilled rows of young farm and garden crops,
MOLES. 330
o
by which not only are the roots of the plants disturbed, but the whole row may be dried up. Moreover, it appears pretty certain that field-voles will take advantage of runs driven in such localities as convenient points from which to make inroads on the sprouting seeds or the roots of the young plants. Then, again, in addition to the unsightliness of a host of mole-hills in a garden, such elevations are incon- venient in a field of standing grass, as they impede the process of mowing. From these and other circumstances, farmers and gardeners generally unite in a war of extermination against the mole, although there can be no doubt but that in many respects its visits are a distinct advantage to its destroyers.
It is well known that male moles are more numerous than females, and this seems to be explained by a writer in the /%eld newspaper, who states that a family “of moles appears to consist of five members, in the proportion of four males to one female—this as a rule, though with many exceptions. In the course of my experience I have never caught more than five in succession in the same run; and this, there- fore, appears to be the limit.” It is well known that moles have the habit of feeding at regular hours during the day, and that they may be found at work at eight, twelve, and four o’clock. In regard to mole-catching, it is mentioned that, “when setting a trap in light crumbling soil, as in a flower-bed, care should be taken to remove only sufficient earth to allow of the trap being put in, and the hole leading each way should be carefully cleared, so as to allow the mole a free passage, or he will infallibly dive underneath your trap. <A piece of slate put at the bottom of the run is a good preventive of this kind of thing.” Like their North American relatives, moles swim well, and will take to the water readily.
According to Mr. Blanford, the short-tailed mole, which is abundant near the Himalayan station of Darjiling, at elevations of from about five thousand to eight thousand feet above the sea-level, “inhabits the deep bed of black vegetable mould found wherever the original forest has not been destroyed. This mould contains earth-worms and larvee of insects, the chief food of moles, in abundance. Jerdon noticed that the runs of 7. micrwra often proceeded from the base of one great oak to that of another. Such runs are not marked by mole-hills, as in the ease of the European species.”
Fossil moles are found throughout the Tertiary strata of Europe from the Upper Eocene deposits of Central France. As far down as the succeeding Lower Miocene beds these extinct species seem to belong to the existing genus Talpa, but the Upper Eocene species, on account of the arm-bone (humerus) being rather less expanded, has been regarded as representing a distinct genus, Protalpa. The occurrence of these Tertiary moles is interesting, as they show how extremely ancient must be the insectivorous type of Mammals, since even at those early epochs the remarkable peculiarities distinctive of the skeletons of the existing members of the group had already attained their nearly complete
Extinct Moles.
development. Yellow-Tailed Our notice of the Mole family may conclude by a reference to the Mole. yellow-tailed mole (Scaptonyx fuscicaudatus) of Eastern Tibet. This
mole, which has only two pairs of lower incisor teeth, and consequently but forty- two teeth altogether, differs from the true moles in the considerably lesser width of the fore-feet, and thus approaches the mole-shrews noticed on p. 334.
340 INSECTIVORES.
THE TENRECS. Family CENTETIDA.
With the curious-looking animal represented in the figure on the next page, we reach the first member of a group of Insectivores, comprising four families, which differ from all those yet noticed in the characters of their upper molar teeth. In all the preceding families the upper molar teeth have broad crowns, with their cusps arranged somewhat in the form of the letter W. On the other hand, in all those remaining for consideration, the crowns of these teeth are narrow, and carry on their crowns only three cusps, arranged in the form of the letter V. These cusps, or tubercles, thus form a triangle, with the apex directed inwardly ; and this type of molar tooth, of which an example is represented in the accompanying illustration, is consequently known as the tritubercular. It may seem that such CROWN SURFACE OF a point of distinction is of comparatively shght importance. Such,
oi Saat a however, is by no means the case, since the researches of paleeon- CULAR TYPE. tologists have shown that nearly all the earlier Mammals had these tritubercular molar teeth, from which we infer that Mammals still
retaining them in their primitive form belong to an extremely ancient stock.
From this and other structural peculiarities it may be taken as certain that the Insectivores of the present and three following families belong to a much lower type of organisation than those already mentioned. And this is borne out in a remarkable manner by their geographical distribution. Africa, and more especially
Madagascar, are characterised by the number of Mammals belonging to ancient and primitive types still living there, as is well exemplified by the host of lemurs found in Madagascar. Now of the Insectivores with tritubercular molar teeth, the present and largest family is restricted to Madagascar and a few of the neighbouring islands; a second is found both in Madagascar and Africa; the third is solely African; while the fourth is confined to the West Indies—a region also peculiar for the ancient types of its few Mammals. The whole of the tenrecs, which as already mentioned are confined to Madagascar and a few small islands in the vicinity, are characterised by their long skulls, which are not constricted between the eyes, and have no zygomatic arch below the socket for the eye to connect the upper jaw with the region of the ear, while the so-called tympanic bulla is in the form of a simple ring.
THE COMMON TENREC. Genus Centetes.
This animal, which is the one represented in the illustration on p. 341, is readily recognised by its comparatively large size, and the total absence of a tail. It is the sole representative of its genus, and, from the feature last mentioned, is technically known by the name of Centetes ecaudatus. Adult males attain a length of upwards of 16 inches, and are thus the largest of all Insectivores. The body is
TENRECS. 341
covered with a mixture of flexible spines, bristles, and hairs; but whereas in the young the former are arranged in longitudinal lines down the back, in the fully adult state they are restricted to a kind of collar round the upper side of the neck. Both spines, bristles, and hair are yellowish or whitish towards the tips, and brown near the middle, so that the general colour of the head and body is a kind of yellowish-brown. When fully adult, the tenrec has 40 teeth, of which on each side 3 are incisors, } canines, and 7 cheek-teeth. The tusks, or canines, of the males are very long and sharp, and would be capable of inflicting a severe wound. The most remarkable peculiarity connected with the dentition relates, however, to the upper cheek-teeth, and has only quite recently been discovered by Mr. O. Thomas. Thus in a middle-aged tenrec it will be found that there are six cheek-
THE TENREC (3 nat. size).
teeth behind the canine on each side of both jaws; three of these belonging to the premolars, or those preceded by milk-teeth, and three to the molar series, which have no such predecessors. Very late in life, however, a small fourth molar appears in the upper jaw behind the other three. Considering that no other Mammals with teeth divided into distinct series, have four upper molars as a normal condition, except Marsupials, and one peculiar kind of dog, this is a very remarkable circumstance. Taken, indeed, in conjunction with the fact that both the tenree and the carnivorous Marsupials have tritubercular molar teeth, while the skulls of both have certain very remarkable resemblances, this feature in the dentition renders it pretty certain that of all living Mammals the tenree is the one which is most nearly related to the Marsupials of Australia and America. Further collateral evidence of this relationship is, perhaps, afforded by the cireum- stance that the tenree produces a large number of young at a birth; although in this respect it even exceeds the Marsupials, an instance being recorded when as
342 INSECTIVORES.
many as twenty-one young were brought forth at a single birth, fifteen or sixteen being the common number.
Owing to its strictly nocturnal habits, our acquaintance with the mode of life of the tenrec is by no means so intimate as could be wished. It appears, however, that these animals are chiefly found in the mountains of Madagascar, where they inhabit low covert formed by ferns and bushes. Earth- worms form a large proportion of their diet, which is, however, extensively sup- plemented by insects; and it would seem that the worms and insects are rooted out from their holes and hiding-places by the aid of the flexible snout with which the tenrec is furnished. During the cooler season of the year the tenrecs hibernate for a long period, burrowing deep holes in the ground about May or June, from which they do not emerge till the following December. Whether this is to avoid a season of drought, when their natural food is difficult to procure, we are unaware. Like other animals, which enjoy a periodical rest, the tenrecs at the commencement of their hibernation are in a fat condition, and are then much sought after by the natives of Madagascar as an article of food; the whereabouts of their burrows being usually revealed bv the heap of dirt or débris covering the entrance.
Habits.
THE STREAKED TENREC. Genus Hemicentetes.
The streaked tenrec (Hemicentetes semispinosus), together with a second nearly allied species (H. nigriceps), represent a genus distinguished from the preceding by having three, instead of two, upper incisor teeth, and probably only three upper molars; as well as by certain peculiarities in the structure of the skull, and the smaller size of the canine teeth, which are scarcely larger than the incisors, and cannot properly be termed tusks.
The streaked tenrec is an animal of about the size of the common mole, and derives its name from the streaks of black and yellow with which the body is ornamented. In this and the allied species the longitudinal rows of spines on the back, which disappear in the adult of the common tenrec, are retained throughout life.
The Hedgehog- The little animals known as hedgehog-tenrees, are so like small
Tenrecs. hedgehogs in general appearance that they might be readily taken for members of the same family. Like hedgehogs, they have the whole of the upper surface and sides of the body covered with short, particoloured bristles ; and they are also furnished with a short tail. Of more importance as a generic character, is the circumstance that there are only two incisor teeth on each side of both the upper and lower jaw. Although it is probable that these animals can to a certain extent roll themselves up into a ball, yet from the feeble development of the layer of muscle beneath the skin, Dr. Dobson is of opinion that this cannot be done so completely as in the case with the hedgehogs. Since it cannot be considered that the hedgehog-tenrees are in any way nearly related to the hedge- hogs, it is somewhat remarkable that both should have developed such exactly similar spines, which are used for defensive purposes in the same manner. The
SOLENODONS. 343
a
common hedgehog-tenree (Hriculus setosus) is about two-thirds the size of the Kuropean hedgehog, and has thirty-six teeth. Telfair’s hedgehog-tenree (EZ. telfairz) is considerably smaller, with only thirty-four teeth, owing to the absence of the first pair of premolars in the upper jaw. The Long-Tailed Two small mouse-like animals from Madagascar, each having
Tenrecs. forty teeth, are distinguished from all the preceding members of the family by the absence of spines mingled with the fur, and also by the great length of the tail. In one of the species (Microgale longicaudata) the length of the tail is double that of the head and body—a proportion only equalled among the pangolins. Of the 40 teeth, # are incisors, } canines, and § cheek-teeth on either side.
The Rice- The last members of the Centetidw are the two small mole-like
Tenrecs. = animals known as rice-tenrecs, distinguished by the extreme shortness of their tails, and likewise by their burrowing habits. The four-toed rice tenrec (Oryzorictes tetradactyla) is peculiar in having but four toes on the fore-feet, of which the three innermost ones are armed with powerful claws for digging. The second species (0. ova) has five front toes, but both agree in having long, trunk- like snouts. These animals are a great pest to the agriculturists of Madagascar, owing to the damage they inflict on the rice crops by burrowing in the earth beneath the young plants in search of worms and insects.
THE SOLENODONS. Family SOLENODONTIDA.
Strange as it may seem that the nearest relatives of the tenrecs of Madagascar should be found in a region so far removed from that island as the West Indies, yet it appears that the two solenodons really occupy this position; although in the form of the incisor, canine, and premolar teeth they approximate, very closely to the desmans (p. 333).
They have a total of forty teeth, corresponding serially with those of the long- tailed tenrecs; and they are distinguished from the Centetidw by the circumstance that the skull is somewhat narrowed between the eyes, and also by the mammee being entirely confined to the region of the groin, instead of extending on to the breast, as in all other members of the order. The snout is long, cylindrical, and trunk-like, with the nostrils situated on each side of its extremity; the tail naked, cylindrical, and of considerable length; and the toes, especially those of the fore- feet, are armed with powerful curved claws. The fur covering the body is long and coarse. The Haytian solenodon (Solenodon paradoxus) is restricted to the island of Hayti, and was the first known of the two species. It may be compared in size to a small rabbit, the head and body measuring about 12 inches, and the tail about 8. The head and upper-parts are brown, becoming blackish behind and on the thighs; while the sides of the head and under-parts are lighter in colour.
The Cuban solenodon (S. cubanus), is distinguished by the whole of the head, neck, and chest being tawny, or yellowish, while the remainder of the upper part and sides of the body is dark blackish-brown. The nature of the fur is also some-
344 INSECTIVORES.
what different from that of S. paradorus. It is found in the mountains of the southern and western portions of the island from which it takes its name, and it issues forth from its diurnal resting-place during the late afternoon and early evening, to spend the night in search of food. From the readiness with which, when in captivity, it will tear in pieces meat that is offered to it, it may be inferred that in the wild state its food is not restricted to insects.
a By — Vf. =f ee == ere
Ni
THE CUBAN SOLENODON (+ nat. size).
THE POTAMOGALE. Family POTAMOGALIDZ.
The curious aquatic Insectivore from West Africa, discovered by Du Chaillu, and named by him Potamogale, differs so much from all other members of the order that, like the solenodons, it forms the representative of a distinct family. P. velox may be recognised by its otter-like form, and long laterally compressed tail, passing almost imperceptibly into the body. In size it is rather large for an Insectivore, the length of the head and body being 11 inches, and that of the tail nearly the same. It has a total of forty teeth, which have the same serial arrangement as in the long-tailed tenrees, and are placed very near together. The head is characterised by the great width of the broad muzzle, which is provided with a number of large bristles, and has its nostrils closed by valves. The body is long and cylindrical, and the limbs are short, with the toes not connected together by webs. The body is covered with a coarse outer coat of long hairs and an inner one of a finer and softer nature; the colour of the upper-parts being dark brown, while the under-parts are whitish. In certain lights, however, the dark portion of the pelage is shot with a purplish metallic tint. The skeleton of the potamogale
GOLDEN MOLES. 345
differs from that of all other Insectivores, except, probably, that of the under- mentioned geogale, by the total absence of collar-bones.
The compressed tail becoming cylindrical at its base to join the body, together with the presence of valves to close the nostrils, would alone suffice to indicate the aquatic habits of this curious creature. In addition, we have, however, the direct testimony of Du Chaillu, who ‘ = observes that the potamogale “ is SSS found along the water-courses of limpid and clear streams, where fish are abundant. It hides under rocks along these streams, lying in wait for fish. It swims through the water with a rapidity which astonished me; before the fish has time to move it is caught. - On account of the rapidity of its movements I have given it the : = = specific name of velox. The er a
Habits.
animal returns to land with its THE POTAMOGALE (1 nat. size).—After Allman.
prey almost as rapidly as it
started from its place of concealment. The great motive-power of the animal in the water seems to be in its tail.”
Probably more or less closely allied to the potamogale is a small mouse-like Insectivore from Madagascar, described under the name of Geogale. This creature has thirty-four teeth, which resemble in form those of the potamogale, but our information is at present insufficient to render us certain as to its full affinities.
Geogale.
THE GOLDEN MOLEs. Family CHR YSOCHLORIDZ.
The golden or Cape moles, constituting the genus Chrysochloris, are so different from all other Insectivores of this group that they are referred to a distinct family. They are entirely confined to South Africa, where they are represented by about seven species, and are commonly termed moles by the colonists.
The skull of the golden mole differs from that of the tenree in possessing a distinct zygomatic arch below the socket for the eye, and also in that its tympanic bulla is bladder-like. In appearance these animals have some resemblance to the moles, but they have shorter and thicker bodies, with a deeper head and blunter snout. The whole form is, however, admirably adapted for tunnelling through the ground; since the eyes are totally covered beneath the hairy skin, and the minute ears are deeply buried in the fur. While the hind-feet retain a normal form, the fore-feet have been specially modified for the purpose of digging, having only four toes, of which the two central ones are furnished with enormous triangular claws of great power. The more typical species have altogether forty teeth, but
346 INSECTIVORES.
in others the number is reduced to thirty-eight, owing to the loss of the first pair of premolars in each jaw. The molar teeth have very tall crowns. The golden moles derive both their popular and scientific names from the brilliant metallic lustre of the fur, which shows various tints of green, violet, or golden bronze; the brilliancy of these metallic hues bemg much intensified when the skin is immersed in spirit.
The runs are made so near the surface of the ground that the earth is raised above the tunnel, which can accordingly be followed with ease in all directions. When one of the moles is seen to be at work, owing to the movements of the soil, it can readily be thrown up on to the surface by the aid of a stick or spade. The food of the golden moles consists mainly of earth-worms.
The nearest relatives of the golden moles appear to be the tenrecs, while the ordinary moles are closely allied to the shrews; and it is thus interesting to find
Habits.
two widely different groups of animals modified for a similar kind of subterranean life. This modification has, however, by no means followed the same lines in the two groups, for not only do the skeletons of the golden and true moles differ con- siderably from one another, but there is a still more marked difference in the form and structure of the fore-foot. Thus, whereas the fore-foot of the true mole has assumed the well-known hand-like form, with an additional sickle-like bone near the thumb, that of the golden mole, as we have just seen, is of a totally different type, the power of digging being mainly due to the enormous horny claws of its two middle fingers.
D LIONESS.
AN
LION
SKELETON OF TIGER.
ChE Aye Be Xela Wy, THE CaRNIVORES,—Order CARNIVORA.
THE CaAt-TRIBE. Family PELIDZ.
UNpDER the common title of Carnivores, or Flesh-eaters, zoologists include all the members of that extensive assemblage of placental’ Mammals, comprising cats, civets, hyenas, dogs, bears, weasels, etc., together with their aquatic allies the seals and walruses. The name refers to their most distinctive habit, that of subsisting on the flesh of other animals; but it must by no means be assumed that all Carnivores are entirely or even chiefly flesh-eaters, the bears being notable exceptions. Neither must it be assumed, on the other hand, that the Carnivores are the sole flesh-eating Mammals; since, as we have seen, many of the Lemurs and Insectivores will eat the flesh of other Vertebrates, while one group of Mar- supials is almost exclusively carnivorous. With the exception of the members of the last-named group, which are otherwise broadly distinguished, there is, however, no assemblage of Mammals which is so generally carnivorous as the present one, and accordingly the name by which it is designated is the most appropriate that could have been selected.
1 The term “‘ placental” refers to the circumstance that the embryos of the higher Mammals are connected during
intra-uterine life with the body of the female parent by means of an organ called the placenta, through which the blood of the parent communicates with that of the offspring. The Marsupials have no such connection.
350 CARNIVORES.
There has been a considerable amount of—more or less unprofitable—discussion as to whether the Carnivores, or Apes and Monkeys, are entitled to occupy the highest place among Mammals. Putting man on one side, there can, however, be but little doubt that, for their particular mode of life, the higher Carnivores, both as regards their bodily structure and their brain power are fully as highly organised as the Apes; and to say that the one group is higher or lower than the other is thus practically an impossibility. A more just view is to compare the Carnivores and the Primates with two trees of different kinds, each of which has attained practically the same height; and bears fruit and flowers of an equally perfect development.
Had we to deal only with the existing forms of the animal kingdom, and if the seals and walruses were excluded (as is done by some zoologists) from the Carnivores, there would be no great difficulty in giving a short and concise defini- tion which would at once distinguish the order from all the others. The seals and walruses differ, however, so markedly in the characters of their teeth, as well as in many other structural points, from the more typical Carnivores, while a number of extinct forms appear to connect the latter on the one hand with the Insectivores, and on the other with the Marsupials, that any such concise definition is impossible.
Among the characteristics common to all Carnivores, whether terrestrial or aquatic, the following are some of the most important. In all cases the toes are provided with claws, which are very generally sharp and curved, with no resem- blance to nails. Then, again, the number of complete toes is never less than four to each foot, and is frequently five. And in no ease is the first toe capable of being opposed to the other digits; so that a Carnivore can in no sense be said to have a hand in the popular acceptation of that term.
The teeth, in conformity with the flesh-eating habits of the great majority of the members of the order, are generally large and well developed; and are always divisible into incisors, tusks or canines, and cheek-teeth. As a general rule, the incisor teeth are three in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, and in no case do they exceed this number ;! while the third or outermost of these three incisors is always larger than either of the others, more especially in the upper jaw. The tusks are large, and adapted for seizing and retaining the prey of these animals. The different families of the order show a considerable diversity in the form and structure of the cheek-teeth; but, as a general rule, the more anterior of these teeth have sharp and more or less compressed crowns, while very frequently, as will be explained later on, one pair of teeth in each jaw is specially modified to bite with a scissor-like action against an opposing pair in the opposite jaw. Moreover, in such Carnivores as have the crowns of the molar teeth flattened and expanded, these crowns are not divided into distinct portions by infoldings of the enamel, as we shall find to be so frequently the case with those of the Rodents.
The most distinctive feature of the skull of the Carnivores is to be found in the mode of articulation of the lower jaw; the condyle, or projecting process by which the latter hinges on to the skull proper, taking the form of a half-cylinder, elongated in the transverse direction. This half-cylinder is received into a similarly
1 The Marsupial Carnivores never have less than four pairs of incisor teeth in the upper jaw.
GENE KALNCHARACPERTISTICS. 351
shaped hollow—the glenoid cavity—in the skull, bounded by overhanging edges. In consequence of this arrangement, the motion of the lower jaw of a Carnivore is strictly limited to an up-and-down direction; thus allowing only of a biting or snapping action, and not permitting that rotatory or backwards-and-forwards movement found in so many other Mammals. The interlocking of the lower jaw with the skull is most marked in the badgers. ‘
A less important feature of the carnivorous skull is to be found in the cireum- stance that in the great majority of instances the orbit, or the cavity for the eye, is not bounded posteriorly by a bar of bone so as to form a complete ring, but com- municates freely with the greatly elongated hollow on the side of the skull which contains the powerful muscles for working the jaws. Occasionally, however, as in some cats and the ichneumons, the eye-socket is completely surrounded by a bony ring; and a process at the back of the upper part of the cavity for the eye always marks the posterior limit of that cavity. More constant is the presence of a strong zygomatic arch bounding the inferior border of the socket of the eye, and connecting the upper jaw with the region of the ear.
An important feature distinguishing the skeleton of a Carnivore from that of an Insectivore (with the exception of the potamogale) is that the collar-bones or clavicles are frequently absent, and when present are never complete; that is to say, that instead of each collar-bone forming a bar to connect the shoulder-blade with the breast-bone, as in ourselves, when it exists at all it merely forms a little splint of bone embedded in the muscles of the chest between these two points.
Two other features in regard to the skeleton must not be overlooked, since they are of some help in distinguishing between Carnivores and Insectivores. In many of the latter, as shown in the figure of the skeleton on p. 332, the two bones of the fore-arm (radius and ulna), and of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are respectively united together, whereas in all the former they are completely separate. In the fore-limb this separation of the two bones is essential in order to permit of the free use of the paw. A characteristic of the wrist-joint of all Carnivores is that two of the bones of the upper row, respectively known as the scaphoid and the lunar, are completely welded together; and it may be added that the central bone, which we have seen exists in all the lower Primates, is invariably absent. Another feature distinguishing the Carnivores from the Insectivores is to be found in the well-marked convolutions on the upper surface of the lobes of the brain, which is indicative of a far higher degree of mental power.
With the exception of Australia and New Zealand, Carnivores are distributed over all the continents and larger islands of the globe, ranging from the icy ocean of the Arctic circle to the tropical plains of Africa and India; but while some of the families, like the cats and dogs, have a distribution almost coextensive with that of the order, others, like the civets and hyenas, are much more restricted in their range. Exclusive of the larger Man-like Apes, the Carnivores include the largest of the so-called Unguiculate Mammals, that is, those in which the toes are furnished with claws or nails, in contradistinction to hoofs. As is usually the case, the largest representatives of the order are to be found in the aquatic section, where we have the walrus and elephant-seal. Among the terres-
a8 CARNIVORES.
trial Carnivores the largest species are to be found in the warmer parts of the globe, although the bears form, to a certain extent, an exception to this rule. The more typical and purely carnivorous terrestrial members of the order, which, as a general rule, subsist on the flesh of animals killed by themselves, are characterised by the elegance and neatness of their build, and their bodily strength and activity, as well as by the fierceness of their disposition.
The terrestrial, or, as they are often called, in allusion to their free toes, the Fissipede Carnivores, are, as a rule, adapted for a life on land, although some forms, like the otters, pass a large portion of their time in the water. In no instance, however, are their fore-limbs modified so as to assume the form of flippers, neither do their hind-limbs ever present the peculiar structure characteristic of those of the seals, being, on the contrary, invariably suited for walking with ease on the ground. Of more importance, however, is the structure of the teeth of the land Carnivores. In the first place, the pre- sence of three pairs of incisor teeth in both the upper and thelower jaw isan extremely constant feature. Then, again, in- stead of the uni- formity pervading the whole series of cheek-teeth, which we shall find to be characteristi¢e of the seals and their allies, the cheek-
SIDE VIEW OF THE SKULL OF THE COMMON FOX,
To show the nature of the teeth of a Carnivore. The upper flesh-tooth is lettered . pm.4, and the lower flesh-tooth m.1. (From Proc. Zool. Soc.—After Huxley.) teeth of the terres-
trial Carnivores of the present epoch are distinguished by having one of their number on each side of both the upper and the lower jaw modified in a special manner so as to bite against one another in a more or less markedly scissor-like fashion. The tooth in the upper jaw thus specially modified is the last of those which have milk, or deciduous predecessors, and is thus the fourth of the premolar series in those species where four of those teeth are developed. This is shown in the accompanying figure of the skull of the fox, where the fourth upper tooth (pm.4) behind the tusk is the one specially modified. In the lower jaw, however, in those forms which have the full number of teeth, it is the fifth tooth (m.1) behind the tusk which bites against the specially modified tooth in the upper jaw, as shown in the same figure. This modified lower tooth, which has no deciduous milk predecessor, is thus the first of the molar series. To these two pairs of modified teeth is applied the name of /lesh-tecth, as being those specially adapted for cutting the flesh of the victims of the terrestrial Carnivores. The upper flesh-tooth, as
CALS TRIBE. 353
exemplified in that of the striped hyzena represented in the accompanying woodcut, consists of an outer blade, and of a strong tubercle on the inner side. The blade, as in the figured specimen, may consist of three lobes, or as in the dogs and civets, of only two such lobes, which bite on the outer side of the lower flesh-tooth, in a manner well known to all who have ever examined the skull of a tiger, lion, dog, ete. The lower flesh-tooth, of which an example is repre- sented in the next figure, likewise has a large cutting-blade on the outer side of its front portion, which is invariably divided ouypp (4) anv onat (8) ASPECTS OF THE RIGHT into two distinct lobes, of which the second — upper FLESH-T0OTH OF THE STRIPED HYNA, is generally the taller. In the more general-
ised Carnivores, such as the dogs, the second lobe of the blade of this tooth has a small cusp (¢) on its inner side; while posteriorly the tooth is extended in the form of a long heel (d). The lower flesh-tooth of the more specialised forms, such as the hyenas and cats, consists, however, only of the two-lobed blades, with or without a minute inner , 1
cusp and a small hind ledge representing the heel.
Under the general title of cats it is found convenient to include all the living representatives of the extensive family of the Felidae, the whole of
which, with the single OUTER (A) AND INNER (B) ASPECTS OF THE RIGHT LOWER FLESH-TOOTH OF AN EXTINCT DOG-LIKE CARNIVORE.
exception of the hunting- . : : a, b, first and second lobes of the blades ; c inner cusp of do.; d, heel. leopard, are classed in the _After Kittl.
genus Felis. In this sense
lions, tigers, leopards, jaguars, pumas, lynxes, and the smaller species more nearly allied to the domestic cat, are all designated Cats.
The members of the Cat family may be regarded as the ideal representatives of the Carnivores, being those most completely adapted in all parts of their structure for the pursuit and destruction of living prey. Their long, lithe bodies exhibit in its fullest perfection the combination of strength and agility distinctive of Carni- vores in general; while their strength is so great that the larger species are enabled to kill and drag away animals of far greater bulk than their own.
The essential characteristics of the living cats are to be found in the extreme shortness of their muzzles; in the reduction of the number of their teeth far below that in the more generalised Carnivores, such as the dogs; in the powerful develop- ment of their tusks and flesh-teeth; and in their strongly curved and retractile claws, as well as in the free and supple movements of their fore-paws. Omitting mention of certain features distinctive of the skulls of the cats and their nearest
VOL. I.—23
354 CARNIVORES.
allies, as requiring a considerable amount of special knowledge of osteology, we may particularise somewhat more fully the leading characteristics of the cats of the present day. And we say those of the present day advisedly, since the researches of paleontologists have now brought to hight the remains of a large number of Carnivores, many of which, although they must undoubtedly be called cats, differ from the existing species by the greater number of their teeth, as well as by many other structural peculiarities, so as to render it difficult to draw any well-marked distinction between cats and civets.
We may first of all notice that, as a general rule, they have 30 teeth, of which 3 are incisors, } canines, 3 premolars, and + molars. Occasionally, however, there may be only 2 premolars on each side of the upper jaw, thus reducing the total number of teeth to 28. Thus a cat has at most only three or four cheek-teeth on each side of the upper jaw, of which the last but one is the flesh-tooth; while in the lower jaw there are but three of these teeth, of which the last is the flesh-tooth. The upper flesh-tooth is of the same general type as that of the hyzena’s tooth shown in the woodcut on p. 353; its blade consisting of three distinct cutting-lobes, and usually having a distinct tubercle on the inner side, although this tubercle is always smaller than in the hyenas, and may be wanting. The lower flesh-tooth is also of the same general type as that of the hyenas (of which an example will be found figured under the head of that group), and consists only of the two-lobed blade, without any trace of the inner cusp or hinder heel, which form such import- ant elements in the corresponding teeth of the dogs and civets. The flesh-teeth of the cats have, indeed, lost the whole of those elements which are adapted for masticating or bruising food, and are reduced simply to the condition of cutters. Moreover, the single molar remaining in the upper jaw is of such small size that it can be of but little, if any, use as a masticating agent; and we accordingly find that the dentition of the cats is adapted solely for seizing their prey, and sub- sequently devouring it by cutting off the flesh from the bones by the scissor-like action of the flesh-teeth. Any person who has watched a domestic cat eating a piece of meat, or who has observed a captive lion or tiger shearing off huge morsels from its allotted meal, will fully understand the mode of action of these teeth. In all cats the tusks, or canines, are very long and strong, and frequently have their hinder border forming a sharp cutting edge, by which their rending power is of course much increased. An important feature distinguishing the lower incisor teeth of the cats from those of all other Carnivores is to be found in the circumstance that the whole series of six are placed in the same straight transverse line, whereas in other Carnivores the second pair of these teeth is thrust up above the level of those on either side.
The fore-feet of all the cats are provided with five toes each, whereas the hind- feet have but four toes. The claws in which these toes terminate are invariably curved and sharp, and, with the single exception of the hunting-leopard, can be completely retracted within sheaths for their protection when not in use. The mechanism of the retraction of the claws is due to the peculiar shape of the terminal joints of the toes, and the mode by which they are articulated to the second joints. Thus the terminal joint of each toe has the broad sickle-like form of the horny claw which it supports, and it is articulated to the end of the second or preceding joint
CAT TRIBE. 355
only by the lower portion of its vertically expanded base. From the end of the second joint there runs a ligament to be inserted on the upper side of the base of the terminal joint, the ordinary action of which is to draw back the whole claw upon the upper surface of the second joint, when it becomes nearly concealed within its projecting sheath. To the under-side of the base of the terminal joint there is, however, inserted the end of a long tendon coming from one of the so-called flexor muscles of the fore-leg. When the animal springs upon its prey the paw, in the act of striking, is sharply bent upon the wrist by the action of these flexor muscles, the result of which is to pull downwards the terminal joints of the toes, and thus to fully expose the claws. In order to keep their claws in good condition, most cats—from the tiger downwards to the domestic cat—are in the habit of drawing them down the bark of trees, whereby they are rendered sharp and clean.
All the species of cats walk solely upon their toes, and are hence termed digitigrade ; the hinder part of the foot being entirely raised from the ground to form a continuation of the leg. This mode of progression indicates a higher specialisation than the so-called plantigrade mode of walking, in which, as exem- plified by the bears, the whole of the sole of the foot is applied to the ground.
Formerly the distinction between digitigrade and plantigrade Carnivores was regarded as an important one in classification, but it is now known that nearly allied groups vary greatly in this respect, and that the character is a purely adaptive one. It has been already mentioned that the fore-feet of the cats are furnished with five toes. The innermost toe, corresponding to the human thumb, is, however, placed at a much higher level than the other four toes, and is consequently of no use in walking. The missing toe in the hind-foot corresponds to the human great toe. The stealthy walk characteristic of all the cats is due to the soft cushions, or pads, on the under-surface of the feet; each toe having a separate pad, behind which is a large pad occupying the middle of the sole of the foot. The fore-foot is thus furnished with six, and the hind-foot with five foot-pads. There is, however, on the fore-limb an additional pad on the outer side of the palmar aspect of the meta- carpus. The impression, or spoor, of a cat’s foot always shows the form and number of the pads, and it should be particularly noticed that in such impressions there is no mark of the claws, which in walking are completely retracted. This affords a ready means of distinguishing between the track of a cat and a dog.
In order to enable them to lick off the meat from the bones, and perhaps also to aid in cleaning their beautiful fur, the tongues of all the cats are furnished with a number of flat processes, or papille, which are inclined backwards, and enable the tongue to act as a most effective rasp. In this respect cats again differ very markedly from dogs, in which the tongue is quite smooth; and it is probable that this difference may be accounted for by the fact that the teeth of the dogs are adapted for cracking and breaking bones, which are then swallowed; while those of the cats are not suited for this purpose, and the bones of their prey are conse- quently licked clean and left.
The fur of most members of the cat tribe is usually short, and of even length over the entire body; but the male lion is an exception in this respect, owing to the development of the large masses of long hair on the neck and shoulders. Such species as dwell in cold climates, like the ounce, have, however, much longer fur;
and it is noteworthy that when a species, like the tiger, inhabits both hot and cold regions, the length of the fur varies according to the climate.
Very characteristic of all the cats are the long bristle-like hairs, commonly known as “ whiskers,” but technically designated “ vibrissze,” fringing the muzzle. These hairs are provided with special nerves, and act as delicate organs of percep- tion to aid the animals in finding their way, and detecting objects during their nocturnal wanderings. In correlation with these nocturnal habits the eyes of the cats are large and full, and their “pupils” can be altered largely in size by the contraction or expansion of the iris, according to the amount of hght they have to receive. In most of these animals the ears are short and rounded at the tips, but in the lynxes, and some allied species, they are elongated by the addition of pencils of long hairs to their tips. The tail in the majority of cats is long, eylin- drical, and capable of peculiar snake-like moments; these movements being brought into play when the animals are excited or in pursuit of their prey. In some of the smaller typical cats, and in all the lynxes, the tail is, however, relatively short: while in the lion it is furnished with a large brush of hairs at the tip.
The usual coloration of the members of the cat tribe takes the form of dark spots or stripes on a lighter ground; the ground-colour generally varying from shades of grey through tawny to yellowish or orange. The spots may be either simple, or in the form of rings or rosettes enclosing an area of darker tint than the general ground-colour of the fur. From these ringed spots there is a gradual transition, as is well displayed in the marbled tiger-cat, to stripes, which are gener- ally more or less vertical, and assume the most regular development in the tiger. In a few species, however, such as the lion and the puma, the entire coloration is tawny; but even then traces of spots may often be detected in certain hghts, while the young are invariably spotted. From this it may be inferred that the uniform tawny coloration of such species is an acquired character—probably originally adapted to the desert-haunting habits of the species in which it occurs—and that all the cats were primitively either spotted or striped. A black colour among the wild members of the family is of comparatively rare occurrence, but it is met with among the leopards, and in certain other species.
In point of size, the members of the cat tribe present a greater degree of variation than is found in any other family of Carnivores; the larger species, lke the tiger and lon, being only equalled in bulk by some of the bears, while the smallest member of the family—the rusty-spotted cat of India dimensions to the common domestic eat.
The total number of living species of the genus Felis may probably be reckoned at or about forty-one; and these have a distribution in space nearly coextensive with that of the entire order of Carnivores. They do not, however, extend so far northwards as do the bears and the dog family; and they are totally unknown in the Island of Madagascar. The greater number of species—more especially those of large size—are found chiefly in the tropical and subtropical regions of the globe ; but the evidence of geology proves that the geographical range of some of these species was much more extensive at an earlier period than is the case at the present time. In respect of diet, the cats are purely carnivorous, and although when pressed by hunger some of them are known to eat the flesh of any dead animals they may
is inferior in
LION. 357
come across, as a normal rule they kill their own prey. This is always effected by cautious stalking, followed by a sudden final rush; and, although it is said that two or more lions will occasionally combine to drive game in a given direction, when it can be seized by another member of the party, the cats almost invariably pursue their prey alone. The general antipathy of the cat tribe to water is proverbial, but in the swampy sandarbans of Lower. Bengal, the tiger has often been observed swimming from one marshy island to another; and the fishing cat of India largely subsists on fresh-water fish captured by itself.
THE Lion (Felis leo).
Till well on in the present century the title of “King of Beasts” was almost universally bestowed upon the lion by writers on natural history, on account of its generally majestic appearance, and the assumed nobility and fierceness of its character. Of late years, however, there has been a strong tendency on the part of those who have had the best opportunities of observing the animal in its native haunts, to depose the lion from the proud position it had so long occupied. The reasons for this change of view appear to be that when roaming abroad by daylight the lion, as Mr. F. C. Selous, the well-known African hunter, informs us, does not carry his head so high up as he ought to do in order to be entitled to the epithet majestic; while his disposition, instead of being noble and fearless, is considered by Livingstone and other writers to be more correctly described as cowardly and mean. Although it is impossible to doubt the accuracy of such observations as to its true character, yet the magnificent proportions of the animal, coupled with the splendid mane decorating the head and chest of the males, render the lion by far the most striking in appearance of the whole of the Cat tribe, and, indeed, of all the Carnivores.
In common with the other large cats of the Old World, the lion has the pupil of the eye circular; but it is at once distinguished from all the other members of the family by the long hair growing on the head, neck, and shoulders of the males to form the flowing mane. This mane varies considerably in size and colour in different individuals, but, contrary to what has often been stated, is present in Indian as well as in African lions. Frequently, although by no means invariably, the long hair of the mane is continued as a fringe down the middle line of the belly. Another distinctive characteristic of the male lion is the brush of long hair at the tip of the tail. In the middle of this brush of hair, at the very extremity of the tail, is a small horny appendage surrounded by a tuft. Much writing has been devoted as to the use of this so-called “thorn” in the lion’s tail ; one old story being that it was employed to rouse the animal to fury when the tail was lashed against the flanks.
The hair on the remainder of the body of the male lion, and on the whole of both the head and body in the female, is short and close. In the adults of both sexes the colour of the body-hair is the well-known yellowish-brown, or tawny, but the tint varies in intensity in different individuals. The long hair of the male’s mane may vary from tawny to a blackish-brown. Young lon-cubs are marked with transverse dark stripes running down the sides of the body, and likewise by
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a single stripe of similar tint along the middle of the back. In certain lights more or less faintly marked spots may be observed in many lions nearly or quite up to the period of maturity ; these markings, as a rule, being more conspicuous in females than in males. The mane of the male does not make its appearance till the animal is about three years of age, and continues to grow until the age of about six years. Although the full length of the period of a lion’s life does not appear known, it has been ascertained that they will live to thirty, and it is said even till forty years.
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THE CAPE MANED LION,
Owing to the circumstance that the measurements of lions are frequently taken from skins, exaggerated notions of the length attained by large males have obtained currency. Mr. Blanford states that a male—presumably an Indian specimen— measured 8 feet 10 inches from the tip of the muzzle to the tip of the tail; 2 feet 11 inches of this being occupied by the tail alone. Mr. Selous, writing of South African lions, observes that “the following are the lengths of the pegged-out skins of six full-grown males shot by myself, and carefully measured with a tape-line: viz., 10 feet 3 inches, 10 feet 6 inches, 10 feet 9 inches, 10 feet 10 inches, 9 feet 7 inches, and 11 feet 1 inch. These are the lengths of the skins after being pegged
out and stretched out to a certain extent. However, aiter having flayed it, I
LION. 359
carefully measured the naked carcase of the largest lion. From the top of the front teeth to the end of the tail it measured 9 feet 7 inches, laying the tape along the curves of the body, and as all the gristle and meat of the nose had been cut away with the skin, and at least an inch must have been lost with the tuft at the end of the tail, I think it would have measured all but 10 feet before it was skinned, even without making any allowance for the mane.” Although Cornwallis Harris gave 10 feet 6 inches as the length of a large lion, Mr. Selous’ estimate may be provisionally taken as representing the full size of the African type. Females are generally about 1 foot shorter than males. There is a dearth of information as to the height of a full-grown lion at the shoulder; but Mr. Blanford tells us that one measuring 8 feet 94 inches in length, had a height of 3 feet 6 inches. <A fine menagerie lion recently measured had a total length of 10 feet, of which the tail occupied 3 feet 2 inches.
Still more imperfect is the information relating to the weight of lions. Mr. Selous states that an African lion in poor condition shot in 1877 weighed 376 lbs.; but a fine, well-nourished example killed later on weighed 500 lbs. This weight is, however, exceeded by a male shot in the Orange Free State in 1865, which on good evidence is reported to have weighed over 583 lbs. The menagerie specimen, of which the dimensions are given above, weighed 434 Ibs. Sir Samuel Baker is of opinion that a lion would weigh more than a tiger of the same approximate dimensions; but against this may be set the opinion of Mr. Blanford, who considers that a tiger, although standing lower than a lion, is heavier in the body and more powerful.
Before entering upon the consideration of the geographical distribution and habits of the lon, it may be well to point out how the skull of a lion may be readily distinguished from that of a tiger. In a lion’s skull the so-called nasal bones, or those forming the roof of the cavity of the nose, have their superior termination on the forehead situated in the same transverse line as the terminations of the upper jawbones or maxille. In the skull of a tiger, on the other hand, the upper extremities of the nasal bones extend considerably higher up on the forehead than do those of the upper jawbones. The skull of a ion may also be dis- tinguished from that of a tiger by the much smaller size of the tubercle on the inner side of the upper flesh-tooth. Thus, whereas in the tiger this tubercle is but little smaller than in the corresponding tooth of the hyena, figured on p. 353, in the lion it more nearly approaches the condition obtaining in the
tooth of an extinct cat, represented in the accompanying figure, THE LEFT UPPER FLESH- 6 TOOTH (~) AND MOLAR
although it extends nearer to the front edge of the tooth. (m) OF AN EXTINCT The skull of an adult male lion may measure as much as 13 SABRE-TOOTHED TIGER.
inches in extreme length, with a breadth across the widest — The projection on the
a rn side a . er Di f
part of the cheek-bones of 9} inches. pie med oN
= ; f the figure is the inner
The present range of the lion includes the whole con- tubercle of the flesh-tooth. tinent of Africa, from the Cape Colony to Abyssinia and
Algeria, although in many of the more civilised districts the animal is now greatly
reduced in numbers, or even completely exterminated. In Asia it is found through
360 CARNIVORES.
Mesopotamia and South Persia to the north - western districts of India, being, however, now on the verge of extinction in the latter country. Formerly, even within historic times, the lion had a much more extensive geographical range, extending westwards into Syria and Arabia, and ranging over a considerable portion of South-Eastern Europe, such as Roumania and Greece. This, however, by no means limits the original extent of its range, for bones and teeth found in the caverns and superficial deposits of Western Europe prove that lions, which appear specifically undistinguishable from the existing form, once roamed over Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and the British Isles. The ancient prehistoric lions of Western Europe were in all probability exterminated by the cold of the glacial period; but the destruction of those infesting Eastern Europe and parts of Western Asia during the historic epoch was probably effected, at least to a con- siderable extent, by human agency.
In South Africa lions are now scarce in the districts to the southward of the Orange River, but are locally abundant in the regions farther north, such as Mashonaland. Although it is quite probable that its range may once have embraced the countries of Afghanistan and Baluchistan, the lion is now quite unknown in Asia to the northward of India. Writing some years ago of the habitats of the lon in Western Asia, Canon Tristram observes that “the Arabs say it is found in Arabia; but of this we have at least no evidence. Occasionally it crosses the Euphrates, and a few years ago a lion’s carcase was brought into Damascus. Between the Lower Tigris and Euphrates they still abound. Mr. Layard saw them frequently, and during his excavations in the neighbourhood of Babylon, found fresh traces of their footsteps almost daily among the ruins. It extends also far higher up, to the jungle of the Khabour, or Chebar, on the upper Tigris, above Mosul and Nineveh (the ancient Chebar), where Layard mentions an Arab being attacked by one, and escaping with the loss of his mare.”
The late Sir O. B. St. John, as quoted by Mx. Blanford, observes that “ lions, which are very numerous in the reedy swamps bordering the Tigris and Euphrates, are found also in the plains of Susiana, the modern Khuzistan, and extend into the mountain country south of Shiraz as far east as longitude 53°. I have no accurate information of their northern limits, but Captain Pierson, who spent many years in the country between Tehran and Baghdad, tells me that he never heard of lions in the oak forest west of Karmanshah. It is the acorns of this same oak forest which feed the wild pigs whose presence tempts the lion into the mountains of Fars... . The little Valley of Dashtiarjan, thirty-five miles west of Shiraz, is notorious for the number of lions found in its vicinity. Part of the valley is occupied by a fresh-water lake, on the edges of which are extensive beds of reeds ; the surrounding hills, which rise some four thousand feet above the valley, itself six thousand five hundred feet above the sea, are covered with oak forest, or with pretty thick brushwood of hawthorn, wild pear, and other bushes, and contain very extensive vineyards. Dashtiarjan is thus a perfect paradise for swine, and they increase and multiply accordingly, so that the lions have plenty to eat, varying the monotony of constant pork with an occasional ibex, or with a calf from the herds which graze in the valley. Every year some four or five lions are killed in Dashtiarjan or the neighbourhood, and a few cubs brought into Shiraz for sale.”
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With regard to the lion in India, Mr. Blanford states that “there are probably a few still living in the wild tract known as the Gir, in Kattywar, and a few more on the wildest parts of Rajputana, especially southern Jodhpur, in Oodeypur, and around Mount Abu. About twenty years ago lons were common near Mount Abu, several were shot near Gwalior, Goona, and Kota, and a few still existed near Lalotpur, between Saugor and Jhansi. One is said to have been killed near Goona in 1873. In 1864 one was killed near Sheorajpur, twenty-five miles west of Allahabad; and when the railway was being made from Allahabad to Jabalpur in 1866, a fine lion, with a good mane, was shot by two of the engineers, near the eightieth milestone from Allahabad. About 1830, lions were common about Ahmedabad. Several years previously, in the early part of the century, lions were found in Hurriana to the northward, and in Khandesh to the south, in many places in Rajputana (one was shot in 1810, within forty miles of Kot Deji, in Sind), and eastward as far as Rewah and Palamow. It is probable that this animal was formerly generally distributed in North-Western and Central India.” A few years will probably witness the extinction of the lion throughout the peninsula. It is noteworthy that the lion, unlike the tiger, has never been known in the Malayan region, or, indeed, anywhere to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal.
For a long period it was considered that the Indian lon differed from its African relative by the total absence of the mane in the male, which was hence regarded as indicating a distinct species. Moreover, owing to the differences in the length and colour of the manes of African lions from different districts, it was likewise held that there were two or more species in Africa. It, however, has been definitely settled that such variations are not constant, and that there is but a single species. Although it may be that some adult specimens of the Indian lion are maneless, yet well-maned examples have been killed, while those which were stated to prove the existence of a maneless race are now known to have been immature individuals.
With regard to the variations of the African lion, Mr. Selous says that the Dutch hunters maintain the existence of from three to four distinct species, which they assert themselves to be capable of recognising. “For my part,” adds Mr. Selous, “and judging from my own very limited experience of lions, I cannot see that there is any reason for supposing that more than one species exists, and as out of fifty male lon skins scarcely two will be found exactly alike in the colour and length of the mane, I think it would be as reasonable to suppose that there are twenty