COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE DAVIS, CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF DAVIS 1 New Zealand Fruits. Freycinetia Banksii. Coprosma, 3 sp. Astelia Cunningham!!. Dysoxylum spectabile. f lants of ew Zealand BY E. M. LAING, B.Sc. AND E. W. BLACKWELL. With 160 original Photographs by E. W. and F. B. Blackwell. Notothlaspi rosulatimi (& nat. size). SECOND AND REVISED EDITION. LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA CHRISTCHURCH, WElQAJffioN, AND DUNEDIN, N.Z. ; MELBOURNE AND LONDON: WHITCOMBE AND TOMBS LIMITED. 1907 OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE DAVIS -" Earth's crammed with Heav'n, And every common bush afire with God ; But only he who sees takes off his shoes." — E. B. BBOWNIXG. PKEFACE. The Flora of New Zealand is one of the most remarkable known. Indeed, it is so highly specialized, that these islands are generally considered to constitute a distinct Botanical Region. Drude originally divided the earth into fourteen such Regions, and New Zealand was the twelfth on his list.* This little colony is therefore botanically equal in importance to districts of much vaster area. In spite, however, of the fact that our Flora is one of the most interesting on the face of the earth, there are very few who have any real acquaintanceship with it. This ignorance is doubtless due to the inaccessibility and technicality of the literature dealing with the subject. In this work an endeavour has been made to give an account of our native plants that will be intelligible to all. As few technical terms as possible have been employed herein, and those used have been explained either in the text or glossary. An attempt has also been made to give as many interesting particulars of the species as the limits of our space will allow. It is hoped, therefore, that the volume will be of service to all who wish to know something more of a vegetation that is unique. To New Zealand teachers, but especially to those interested in nature study, it should be of considerable value ; as well as to all colonists who have any love for the wild flowers of their neighbour- hood. Tourists, also, will find here the means for readily identifying all the more conspicuous plants that they are likely to meet with, whilst en route through the colony. Though no new species are described here, many fresh facts have been embodied in the text, and a great quantity of botanical information has been culled from many sources for the book. Hitherto the student has only been able to obtain much of this material by wide and laborious reading in English and German publications and -journals. Hence the book will — we trust — be of some value to the botanist who wishes to procure, in small compass, a suggestive guide for further research. * Handbuch der Pflanzengeographie. In a more recent edition of the book, he con- siders the New Zealand Flora to be composed chiefly of Antarctic and Melanesian plants. n -a VI. PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND The work is not a Flora, and therefore does not include all known species. It deals only with flowering plants, and, amongst these, omits the grasses, and certain less important orders. The grasses have been dealt with in special publications by Mr. Buchanan. The other orders omitted are represented by species little likely to attract the attention of any but the trained botanist. Most of the more important and conspicuous flowering plants, and many of the rarer ones, have been here described. In the larger genera, such as Coprosma, Veronica, Ranunculus, Olearia, and Senecio, we have been reluctantly compelled to content ourselves with a selection of the chief types. Such a book as this must be to a considerable extent a compila- tion ; and we have therefore made free use of the labours of our predecessors in the field. Amongst these, especial mention may be made of Sir J. Hooker, Dr. Cockayne, Dr. Diels, and Messrs. T. Kirk, T. F. Cheeseman, G. M. Thomson, and D. Petrie. Indeed, all botanical papers in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute" have been carefully consulted, and all literature obtainable, bearing on the subject, has been read. Unfortunately, the profound paper of Dr. Diels on the New Zealand Flora still remains untranslated, and so is inaccessible to most students. We have therefore made free use of it. We have to thank Dr. L. Cockayne for helping us over many slippery places, and for much generous assistance freely given. We are indebted to Mr. T. F. Cheeseman for the identification of many dried specimens, and for other kindnesses. Assistance has been received from Miss Irene Wilson in the preparation of the glossary, and from Mr. J. Christie in the proof reading. We are also under obligations to the following gentlemen for the gift of photographs for reproduction as illustrations : Mr. J. Deans, Mr. A. C. Gifford, Mr. A. Hamilton, Mr. H. Larkin, Mr. S. Page, Mr. J. Crosby-Smith, and Mr. E. Speight. It should be mentioned that for the first time an endeavour has been made to bring the classification of the New Zealand flowering plants into accord with modern ideas. We have therefore arranged the families according to Engler's system, and not in accordance with that of Hooker and Bentham, hitherto in vogue. (Unfortunately we have been unable to find room for a synopsis of the families, but *These are shortly referred to in the foot notes, as Trans. PREFACE Vll •* -* v-*t-^t this may be obtained in any good modern text-book of botany.) The book accordingly starts with the pines, — the lowest group of plants described, — and ends with the Composites, the most highly specialized family in the Vegetable Kingdom. This arrangement is much more in harmony with evolutionary ideas than that usually adopted. It is hoped that the book will be found up-to-date, and, though its authors are conscious of its many short-comings, they trust it will be of service to all who wish to learn something of the fascinating problems in the Plant World around them. EOBT. M. LAING. ELLEN W. BLACKWELL. TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. GENERAL INTRODUCTION, p. 1. The open country, p. 3. The fern land, p. 6. The bush, p. 8. The natural permanence of the bush, p. 10. The destruction of the forest, p. 12. " The Passing of the Forest," p. 13 Types of forest, p. 15. Lianes, p. 16. Epiphytes, p. 20. The scrub, p. 21. Alpine vegetation, p. 22. 'I'm. AGE AND AFFINITIES OF THE FLORA, p. 24. Oceanic and Continental islands, p. 26. The age of the Flora, p. 27- The affinities of the Flora, p. 30. The Australian element, p. 32. The Melanesian element, p. 35. South American element, p. 36. Sub- Antarctic element, p. 36. BOTANICAL, INTRODUCTION, p. 88. Plant Life, p. 38. Root and stem, p. 39. The leaf, p. 39. The flower, p. 43. The dispersal of seeds, p. 45. Classification, p. 46. Key to the New Zealand families of flowering plants, p. 49. THE GYMNOSPERMS. THK PINK FAMILY, p. 58. The Kauri, p. 60. The Kawaka, p. 66. The Miro, p. 68. The Totara,'p. 69. The Black Pine, p. 69. The White Pine, p. 70. The Red Pine, p. 74. The Celery-leaved Pine, p. 76. THE ANGIOSPERMS. THE MONOCOTYLEDONS, p. 80. The Screw Pine Family, p. 80. The Palm Family, p. 80. The Lily Family, p. 88. The Iris Family, p. 109. The Orchid Family, p. 109. THE DICOTYLEDONS WITH FREE PETALS, p. 127. The Pepper Family, p. 127. The Beech Family, p. 128. The Nettle Family, p. 136. The Mistletoe Family, p. 138. The Bottle-Brush Family, p. 145. The Sandal-wood Family, p. 148. A Family of Root Parasites, p. 149. The Buckwheat Family, p. 151. The Beet Family, p. 154. The Pink Family, p. 156. The Marvel of Peru Family, p. 159. The Mesembryanthemum Family, p. 159. The Buttercup Family, p. 160. The Magnolia Family, p. 172. The Pukatea, p. 174. The Laurel Family, p. 175. The Wallflower Family, p. 177. The Sundew Family, p. 180. The Currant-Tree Family, p. 185. The " Matipo " Family, p. 189. The Rose Family, p. 195. The Pea Family, p. 203. The Geranium Family, p. -215. The Flax Family, p. 218. The Rue Family, p. 218. The Mahogany Tree Family, p. 222. The Spurge Family, p. 224. The Maple Family, p. 324 The Tutu Family, p. 226. Pennantia, p. 230. The Karaka, p. 233. The Buckthorn Family, p. 235. The Lime-tree Family, p. 242. The Mallow Family, p. 250. The Violet Family, p. 261. The Passion-flower Family, p. 268. The Daphne Family, p. 269. The Myrtle Family, p. 270. The Fuchsia Family, p. 290. The Haloraois Family, p. 295. The Dogwood Family, p. 297. The Ivy Family, p. 300. The Parsley Family, p. 313. THE DICOTYLEDONS WITH UNITED PETALS, p. 323. The Heath Family, p. 323. The Myrsine Family, p. 331. The Primrose Family, 333. The Olive Family, p. 334. The Nux- Yimiica Family, p. 334. The Gentian Family, p. 336. The Periwinkle Family, 1). 340. The Bindweed Family, p. 342. The Borage Family, p. 365. The Verbena Family, p. 349. The Thyme Family, p. 364. The Nightshade Family, p. 346. The Snap-dragon Family, p. 367. The Gloxinia Family, p. 366. The Butterwort Family, p. 388. The Madder Family, p. 389. The Honeysuckle Family, p. 399. The Cucumber Family, p. 399. The Canterbury Bell Family, p. 401. The Goodenia Family, p. 404. The Daisy Family, p. 405. LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. Aciphylla Colensoi , , Monroi Agathis australis (bush) ,, ,, (cones) (tree) Aristotelia racemosa Arthropodium cirrhatum Astelia Banksii , , Cunninghamii , , nervosa (Photo by J. Crosby Smith) Avicennia officinalis (aerial roots) Avicennia officinalis (flower) ,, » (roots) (seed) Beech Forest (Photo by A. C. Gifford) Beilschmiedia Tarairi Brachyglottis repanda Cabbage-tree bush Carex sexta (Photo by J. Deans) Carmichaelia australis (flower] Carpodetus serratus Cassinia Vauvilliersii Celmisia coriacea , , longif olia Clematis indivisa (staminate form) Clematis indivisa (pistillate form) Clematis indivisa (seed) Clematis parviflora Clianthus puniceus Coprosma arborea , , lucida , , tenuicaulis Cordyline australis (bush) FIG. PAGE FIG. PAGE 103 318 Cordyline australis (flower) 23 95 104 320 Coriaria ruscifolia 69 227 6 61 Corynocarpus Isevigata 70 231 7 65 (trees) 71 234 5 59 (Photo by S. Page) 75 245 Corysanthes macrantha 35 126 27 103 Craspedia uniflora 153 434 26 101 Cupressoid Types 124 374 24 97 (Photo by H. LarTcin) 25 99 Dacrydium cupressinum 12 77 Dactylanthus Taylori 42 150 116 355 Dendrobium Cunningham!! 34 123 (Photo by A.C. Gifford) 115 353 Discaria toumatou 73 240 117 357 (Photo by Dr. L. Cockayne) 118 359 Dracophyllum uniflorum 108 330 37 131 Drosera auriculata 52 181 , , spathulata 53 183 51 176 (Photo by J. Crosby Smith) 154 435 Dysoxylum spectabile 68 223 21 93 Earina suaveolens 31 117 2 o » 5 J 33 121 Elseocarpus dentatus 76 247 62 207 , , Hookerianus 77 249 61 205 Entelea arborescens 74 243 55 187 Epacris pauciflora 107 328 152 431 Flax, New Zealand 28 105 144 419 Freycinetia Banks!! (flower) 13 79 145 421 (fruit) 14 81 146 423 Fruit, Group of Frontispiece 46 163 Fuchsia excorticata 94 291 Fusanus Cunninghamii 110 335 48 165 Gaya Lyallii 81 259 Gaultheria rupestris 106 326 45 161 Geniostoma ligustrifolium 111 336 Gentiana corymbifera 112 339 46 167 Gnaphalium trinerve 147 425 63 209 Griselinia littoralis 95 299 133 393 (Photo by R. Berry.) 132 391 Hedycarya arborea 50 173 134 395 Helichrysum bellidioides 151 429 21 93 , , grandiceps 150 428 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS XI FIG. PAGE FIG. PAGE Helichrysum species 124 374 Myrtus bullata 93 289 (Photo by H. Larkin) Nertera dichondrsefolia 135 397 Herpolirion novae- Zelandiae 29 108 New Zealand Flax 28 105 (Photo by J. Crosby Smith) Hoheria populnea 79 253 Ngaio Tree (Photo by S. Page) 119 362 (var. augustifolia) Nigger-heads 2 5 » >» 78 251 (Photo by J. Deans) Ixerba brexioides 54 186 Nikau (bud in sheath) 16 85 Kahikatea berries 11 75 , , (flower) 17 86 Karaka grove 71 234 , , ,, (nat. size) 18 87 (Photo by S. Page) K.fiuri bush. 6 61 ,, (Grove of) 15 83 COtlGS 7 65 , , (abnormally branched) 19 89 5 59 Nothofagus (trees) 37 131 Knightia excelsa Kowhai (yellow) (red) Leptospermum ericoides 41 64 63 87 147 211 209 277 (Photo by A. C. Gifford) ,, Menziesii (flower) Nothopanax Colensoi Notothlaspi rosulatum (Photo by R. Speight) 38 97 Title 135 303 Page , , scoparium 85 273 Olearia Forsteri 142 415 (bush) . (Photo by H. LarJcin) » », 86 275 , , furf uracea 138 409 (flower) , , macrodonta 139 410 Leucopogon fasciculatus 105 324 (Photo by J. Crosby Smith) Lianes 4 17 insignis 137 407 (Photo by S. Page) (Photo by A. Hamilton) Ligusticum piliferum 102 316 , , nummularifolia 140 411 Luzuriaga marginata (Photo by J. Crosby Smith) Macropiper excelsum Mangrove (flower) ,, (aerial roots) (stilt roots) „ (seed) Melicope simplex 22 36 115 116 117 118 66 94 129 353 355 357 359 219 , , virgata Orchids (group) Ourisia macrophylla (Photo by A. Hamilton) Paratrophis microphyllus Parsonsia capsularis Passiflora tetrandra Phormium tenax 141 30 130 39 113 33 28 413 113 385 137 341 267 105 , , . . (nat. size) 67 221 Melicytus ramiflorus Meryta Sinclairii 82 100 265 310 Pimelea virgata Pittosporum cornifolium / f* \ 84 57 271 192 Metrosideros hypericifolia 89 279 (flower) 1 *»ft 1QO ,, robusta (flower) 90 283 , , tenuifolium 1 Uo 56 -Li7O 191 , , scandens 88 92 278 Plagianthus divaricatus 80 255 , , tomentosa 91 OOK Pleurophyllum speciosum 143 417 Microtis porrifolia Miro berries 30 8 113 67 (Photo by A. Hamilton) Podocarpus dacrydioides 10 73 Miihlenbeckia axillaris 44 154 , , f erruginea 8 67 , , complexa Myoporum laetum (flower) (tree) 43 120 119 153 363 362 , , totara Pomaderris phylicaefolia Pseudopanax crassifolium 9 72 99 71 237 308 (Photo by 8. Page.) (flower) Xll PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Pseudopanax crassifolium (tree) (Photo by H. Larkin) Pterostylis Banksii Ranunculus Lyallii Baoulia australis (Photo by H. Larlcin) , , mammillaris (Photo byH. Larkin) Rhabdothamnus Solandri Rhipogonum scandens Rhopalostylis sapida (grove of) Rhopalostylis sapida (abnormally branched specimen) Rhopalostylis sapida (bud in sheath) Rhopalostylis sapida (inflorescence of) Rhopalostylis sapida (flower, nat. size) Rimu (spray of) Rubus australis ,, Schmidelioides Schefflera digitata Selliera radicans Senecio cassinioides ,, Lyallii FIG. PAGE FIG. PAGE 98 306 Senecio saxifragoides 157 439 Solanum aviculare 121 365 Sophora tetraptera (flower) 64 211 32 119 (seed) 65 213 49 169 Stilbocarpa polaris 96 301 148 426 (Photo by A. Hamilton) Styphelia acerosa 109 332 149 427 Supple-jack 20 91 Thelymitra longifolia 30 113 131 387 Totara 9 71 20 91 (Photo by S. Page) 15 83 Tree-ferns 3 7 19 89 Tupeia antarctica 40 143 Tussock Country 1 4 (Photo by J. Deans) Veronica cataractae 129 383 16 85 , , lycopodioides 128 382 , , monticola 127 381 17 86 , , salicif olia 125 377 , , speciosa 122 371 18 87 , , Traversii 126 379 12 77 Veronicas (whip-cord) 123 373 60 199 (Photo by H. Larkin) 59 197 Vitex lucens 114 351 101 312 Whip-cord Veronicas 123 373 136 404 (Photo by H. Larkin) 155 437 White Pine 10 73 156 438 (Photo by S. Page). flants of ew Zealand. GENEBAL INTKODUCTION. " Oh, when I am safe in my sylvan home, I tread on the pride of Greece and Rome, And when I am stretched beneath the pines, Where the evening star so holy shines, I laugh at the lore and the pride of Man, At the sophist schools and learned clan. For what are they all, in their high conceit, When Man in the hush with God may meet ? " R. W. EMERSON. NEW ZEALAND is almost in the centre of the greatest water- surface of the globe. It is indeed the Land's End of the world; and as such affords to the geologist, biologist, and ethnologist, material of the highest interest. But not to the scientist alone is it full of fascination. Any lover of Nature will find here an inexhaustible store-house for his wonder and admiration. Life everywhere is infinite in its variety and unfailing in its resourcefulness. In New Zealand it has developed many plants and animals unknown in any other part of the world. Indeed, three-fourths of the indigenous species of flowering plants are not to be met with elsewhere. This is a much higher percentage of local forms than can be found in any other islands of approximately the same extent. This unparalleled proportion of endemic species is due, partly, perhaps, to the long isolation of the islands, partly to the great 2 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND variety of conditions they offer, and partly, no doubt, to the nature of the floras from which their own has been derived ; but also to unknown factors that have not, as yet, come within the ken of the investigator. Not only does the flora contain a unique assemblage of local species, it also shows an unusually varied assortment of plant families and associations. Nor is this to be wondered at, if we consider the changes of climatic, geographical, and geological conditions to be met with every few miles. We would certainly expect to find many very different kinds of vegetation between the warm sub-tropical ravines of the volcanic Kermadecs, and the wind-swept heights of the sub- Antarctic Auckland Islands ; and we are not disappointed in our search. Hooker, and other early botanists, declared that the plant covering was constant over wide areas ; but this generalization was largely due to an imperfect acquaintance with the distribution of the species, and with the rarer forms of the flora. It has not been borne out by the work of more recent investigators. Many New Zealand plants are very restricted in their distribution. The altitudinal changes of climate are as well marked as those of latitude. There is often not more than twenty or thirty miles distance between the line of sea-level and that of perpetual snow. Thus, within a comparatively small area, all types of plants may be found, from those of the sea-shore, to those of alpine heights. Great variations in rainfall are also to be met with in places not far apart. This, of course, is largely due to the presence of high mountain chains, such as the Southern Alps, the Kaikouras, and Buahines. The smallest average rainfall yet recorded is that of Clyde, with 15 inches, and the highest, 228 inches, at Puysegur Point. The former place is in Central, the latter in South- Western Otago ; and the distance between them is only 150 miles. Indeed, there are few districts of equal extent that can show so many changes of climate, elevation, and surface in such a small GENERAL INTRODUCTION 3 space as New Zealand. It might be expected, therefore, that not many plants would cover large areas of the country to the exclusion of other species ; and this is the case. Except for the beeches, the manuka, the tussock-grass, and the bracken fern, few species monopolize any large tract of country. The constant changes of surface, altitude, and climate must of necessity be reflected in the plant-covering of the land. Even the most careless observer is struck by the great differences in the floras of the eastern and western sides of the dividing range — differences corresponding in a large measure, to increase or decrease of average rainfall. In some places, within a distance of a mile or two, the beech forest of the drier regions changes into the mixed bush of the moister western area. New Zealand, therefore, presents a field of unsurpassed interest to the botanist. Here he may find plants grouped together into as many different associations as on a continent. All classes of habitat, from the littoral to the alpine, from the arid plain to the lake, from the rock to the peat-bog, from moorland to salt meadow, are well represented. Plants are to be met with in an almost endless variety of situations. We shall, however, at present consider only the plants of the open plains, the forest (or, as it is locally termed, the " bush "), the scrub, and the mountains. THE OPEN COUNTRY. " I see again the upland wilds, Stern, rugged, bleak, and bare ; The strong winds sweep o'er the hill sides steep And the tussocks toss in the icy air Silver and gold in the changing light, Gold and silver far up on the heights Of the mountain wild and bare." DAVID MCKEE WRIGHT. Throughout New Zealand, from Southland to the North Cape, there are numerous open plains of greater or lesser extent. In England such spaces would be meadow lands, carpeted with PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND a grassy sward, which would in spring and summer be spangled with flowers. In New Zealand, they are covered with a vegetation of a very different type. As far north as Lake Taupo, it consists chiefly of tussock grass, toe- toe and cabbage tree (palm-lily) . This plant formation is most highly developed in Canterbury, where wide open tussock-clad plains cover an area of two and a half million acres. The Englishman, on his arrival here, is puzzled by the appearance of detached hillocks of grass, in place of the continuous turf of the green fields to which he is accustomed. He cannot understand that this dry Fig. 1— Tussock Country. hard wiry straw can replace, to a large extent, the pasture lands of England. This plant association not only covers much of the flat country, but is found in many places, throughout the South Island upon the hills, especially on the eastern slopes of the ranges. The chief species of grasses, in it are Poa caespitosa and Poa anceps, but Danthonias and Festucas are also to be met with in such situations. The tussock country is dearly loved by every New Zealander. It is full of associations for him. The stock-rider, the shepherd, the swagger, and even the sun-downer know every aspect of GENERAL INTRODUCTION 5 it. They have seen it in early morning, when every tawny thread had its string of clammy mist drops. They have seen it again at midday, a parched and thirsty land, that seemed to be covered with broken yellow wavelets, flying before the fierce squalls of the nor'-wester. They have stumbled through the entangled tufts at night, too tired to lift their feet. They have slept amongst them, tying together adjacent bunches to form a tunnel in which they might be sheltered from the cutting night winds of the plain. In many places, particularly near water courses or shingly river beds, the toe-toe (Arundo conspicua) largely replaces the tussock. It is the tallest and most conspicuous grass in the New Zealand Flora. It bears a considerable resemblance to Fig. 2— Nigger-heads. the magnificent Pampas Grass of the Argentine, now cultivated all over the world. It is not, however, so large or so beautiful as the American grass ; it flowers at a different season, and may readily be distinguished by the more graceful droop of the flowerstalk. The plumes of the pampas grass are taller, straighter, and stiffer than those of the toe- toe. The edges of streams on the tussock-clad plains are often fringed with flax and bulrush, whilst, in the water itself, stand numbers of blackened stumps about two feet high, bearing on their summits drooping brushes of long, coarse, green, or tawny threads. These are termed by the colonists, nigger-heads. This plant, (Carex secta) carries out literally the advice of St. Augustine, and makes of its dead-self a stepping stone to O PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND higher things, for the lower portion of the stump consists of the dead roots of past seasons ; and by growing on these the plant gradually raises itself out of the water of the bog in which it grows, into higher and drier levels. The edge of the New Zealand swamp has been well described by Mr. A. H. Adams, in a poem called The Brave Days To Be— " Out in the open, by the swampy pools, The army of waving grasses went ; First in the van the hosts of 1raupo reared Long lines of ruddy spears ; close following The green ranks of the 2harakeke came, Lifting aloft their sullen flashing blades, And sturdy bronze-brown standards ; and, behind, * The 3tois' white battalions flaunted far Their dazzling banners and soft silver plumes, While gaunt and motionless upon the hill, The naked 4cabbage-trees stood sentinel." THE FEBN LAND. North of Lake Taupo, the tussock country ends. In Auckland the open land is covered with heath or fern. Fern country is found throughout New Zealand, but becomes more plentiful towards the North. Here there are large areas covered with the bracken, (Pteris aquilina ; var. esculenta). In many places it grows in great luxuriance, rising to the height of ten feet, and forming miniature forests that cover the land to the exclusion of all other vegetation. The rhizome of this fern, as is well known, was used by the Maoris for food when none other could be obtained. It therefore held an important place in their dietary, though it can scarcely be described as a staple article of food. To prepare it for use it was soaked, washed, placed on a flat rock, .and repeatedly beaten by a heavy stone pestle or club (patu.) 1. The bulrush (Typha angustifolia) . I 3. Arundo conspicua. 2, The flax (Phormium tenax). 4. Cordyline australis. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 7 During the beating the fibres were picked out. The material left behind bore some resemblance to arrowroot, but only the pangs of hunger would induce the European to consider it palatable. Though there are no other varieties which cover so wide an area, yet the ferns form such a prominent feature in the Flora, that New Zealand is often termed " The Land of Ferns," and a fern frond has been taken as its emblem. Fig. 3— Tree Ferns. Perhaps there is no country of equal size outside of the Tropics, which has such a large number of different kinds of ferns as New Zealand, and possibly none could show greater magnificence of fern-life. Prominent amongst the species are the tree-ferns. These help to give the forest that semi-tropical appearance, which will shortly be described. There are, in addition, a large number of species of Filmy-Ferns, (Hymenophyllum),Po\ypods, Aspleniums, and Lomarias. The 8 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND New Zealand Club-Mosses (Lycopods) are also exceptionally well developed, and are the largest of the order known. The discovery of a number of the germinating spores of various species in New Zealand is likely, before long, to add consider- ably to our knowledge of the life-history and affinities of this interesting order of plants. THE BUSH. " I am Tane— the Tree-God ! Mine are forests not a few — Forests, and I love them greatly, Moss-encrusted, ancient, stately." DOMETT. The New Zealand bush can scarcely be said to show any typical aspect. It reflects the prevailing lack of uniformity of the plant associations. Consequently, it is impossible to describe in a single epithet its chief characteristic. Indeed, so varied is it, that one can often find in a single forest, as many different kinds of trees as there would be in half of Europe ; and these, not belonging to a few orders as do the European trees, but to the most widely divergent families. Palm and pine, rata and mangrove, cabbage tree and fuchsia, beech and fern — the Malayan and South American plant grow here in apparent, if not real amity. At first sight, it would seem as if the ends of the earth had been laid under contribution for strange forms, which were afterwards assembled on these islands, but a closer examination shows that this has not been the case ; for, though the bush has quite a patch-work appear- ance, most of our trees, as will be shown subsequently, have come to us from Malaysia, or at any rate from Melanesia. There is, however, one undeniable characteristic of the forests. They are gloomy, though it may be doubted whether they are more sombre than those of many other regions. The dark hue and leathery texture of the foliage, is no doubt due to GENERAL INTRODUCTION 9 the fact that the native trees are evergreen. Leaves that have to last through several seasons are rarely so soft in texture, or light in tint, as those that have only to withstand the storms of a few months. There are but few deciduous plants of any kind in New Zealand. Gaya Lyallii, Plagianthus betulinus, Olearia Colensoi, two species of Miihlenbeckia, a North Island variety of Sophora, the Fuchsias, Discaria toumatou, are perhaps the only deciduous, or partially deciduous, plants to be found here. Hence the tender greens and browns, which in spring delight the eye in the English woods, and the more brilliant tints of autumn, are almost wanting in New Zealand. Some few of the evergreens, however, (e.g., Entelea, Aristotelia racemosd) in addition to the native deciduous species, have leaves of lighter green and softer texture than the ordinary bush tree. Indeed, if a forest is closely looked at from above, it will be found to show many different shades, though the prevailing type of foliage is undoubtedly the dry, hard, glossy, dark-green, simple, more or less oblong leaf. Nor is the characteristic gloom of the forest relieved by its blossoms, for the flowers of most of the New Zealand trees are quite inconspicuous. They are generally small, and oftentimes green, and completely hidden by the foliage. There are, of course, exceptions. Among these may be mentioned those of the whau, the hinau, pokaka, Gaya, Hoheria and the various species of Metrosideros (rata and pohutukawa). As none of these except the ratas ever form large forests, to the more or less complete exclusion of other trees, it is rare to find the bush showing any great profusion of bloom. Occasionally, however, the rata covers with its crimson flowers the flanks of some great mountain range, and the sight is then well worth going far to see. Such brilliancy of colouring, however, is rare. Yet, particu- larly in the North Island, the beauty of the bush is much enhanced by the Nikau Palm, the fern-tree and the cabbage- tree, which are frequently found growing together in great 10 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND profusion. It would then almost seem as if the vegetation of a tropical island from the warm Southern Seas had been dropped in amongst our more sombre flora, for these three plants all bring with them suggestions of a warmer land than this. Indeed, some have said, basing their statements on this and similar facts, that the climate of New Zealand has been, in recent geological times, much warmer than at present. They endeavour to strengthen their argument by adducing in support of it, the evidence afforded by the profusion of climbers and twiners, which often render the bush an almost impenetrable jungle. However, conclusions as to past climate based only on present characteristics of mature plants are of little value. The true explanation of the resemblance between our forests and those of sub-tropical regions is to be found in the fact that nearly all our bush trees are of Melanesian origin. The beeches are the most important exceptions to this rule. THE NATURAL PERMANENCE OF THE BUSH. Another erroneous opinion is that the bush is impermanent ; that it actually flies before the advancing footsteps of civili- zation. It is said that whenever tracks are cut through it, decay sets in on both sides, the undergrowth dies, the ferns and mosses disappear, and even the trees themselves become gaunt and misshapen, and their leaves few and tattered. This statement can only be regarded as incorrect. Even in the drier districts where the trees are struggling against very adverse conditions, a forest that has been " cut out " will, in time, replace itself, if not subjected to the interference of man .and other animals. Surveyors' tracks through damp bush are isoon overgrown when left undisturbed ; and, as Dr. Cockayne has shown, a burnt area is soon reforested, in the wetter •districts at least, though not necessarily retaining the same predominant species. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 11 Yet, it must be admitted that the limits of conditions within which the varied life of the forest can maintain itself, are comparatively narrow. Many of the native trees are extremely susceptible to frost. Some of the bush-plants of Otago cannot endure the winters of the more Northern Canterbury Plains, but this is not because the forest is decadent. The climate of these plains is an extreme one. Plants that can flourish there must be able to withstand excess of drought, heat, cold, and insolation. Mr. T. W. Adams, of Greendale, has shown that there are but few foreign trees and shrubs which can adapt themselves to these con- ditions. It is, therefore, scarcely a matter for surprise that this district and the somewhat similar one of Central Otago, should be treeless. Undoubtedly, they were both once partially bush-clad ; but the destruction of their forests was probably not in any way due to an increasing severity of climate. It is susceptible of quite another explanation. In these districts the rainfall does not reach thirty inches a year. Now, the experience of many countries, but particularly of the United States, proves that forests cannot exist permanently in regions with a rainfall of less than thirty inches per annum. If, owing to a cycle of wet weather, accompanied perhaps by other contributing causes, they manage to get a foothold in arid districts, they are always liable to be swept off by fire ; and, being once so destroyed, it is difficult for them, without artificial assistance, to become reinstated. The soil, unprotected by the shade of the foliage, dries up, and germination is soon made impossible. On hill slopes the spongy mosses no longer retain the moisture. After rain, the rivers and streams become more quickly flooded. Hundreds of acres of soil are thus frequently swept away, and a bare rocky surface replaces the once dense forest. This process is going on throughout New Zealand wherever the bush is being artificially cleared, but the devastation is greatest on the steep hill tops. In America it has been found 12 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND necessary to take special steps at great expense, to re-forest the upper mountain slopes. In New Zealand, the Forestry Department, with admirable foresight, has already secured a number of climatic reserves on mountain summits. These will have to be fenced off to secure the exclusion of sheep and cattle, for such animals work irretrievable havoc in the forest undergrowth, and to them must be attributed much of the apparent decadence of the natural forests. Wherever they have secured admission to the dense bush, seedlings and young trees are soon trodden under foot, broken down, and killed; light is let in, and the bush gradually decays and disappears. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE FOREST. As we have already seen, much of the tussock country of the South was at one time forest-clad. The evidence of charred logs on or below the surface of the ground, proves that some of it, at any rate, was cleared by fire in recent times. This may have been started spontaneously, or may have been the work of pre-historic dwellers in the land The Maoris in the South Island have a tradition that when the Te Rapuwai tribe spread over the country, Inver car gill was submerged by water, the forests of Canterbury and Otago were destroyed by fire, and the Moa was exterminated. Canon Stack put this in his list of uncertain traditions , but there is at least nothing inherently improbable in the destruction of these forests about this time. In Auckland, the presence of the kauri gum in vast areas now treeless, or occupied only by the manuka and other heath plants, is proof that at one time the kauri forests were of much greater extent than at present. The cause of their disappearance is unknown. Whatever may have been the causes in the past, affecting the reduction or increase of forest areas, they fall into insig- nificance compared with the changes artificially wrought since GENERAL INTRODUCTION 13 the arrival of Europeans. It is impossible to give any but the roughest estimate of the area covered by forest, when the first white men reached New Zealand, but it was undoubtedly very great. In 1893 the area still bush-clad was estimated at twenty millions of acres. This acreage is being reduced annually by an amount of not less than 100,000 to 200,000 acres. Clearly, our forests will last only a comparatively short time if this rate is maintained. Of course, only a very small proportion of timber is removed and utilized. Most of it is burnt on the spot. Much of this destruction has been inevi- table, but some of it, unfortunately, has been wanton, The remark of Sir Julius Vogel, " that a swagger would burn down a forest to light his pipe," is perhaps somewhat of an exaggera- tion, though it must be confessed that some of the finest kauri forests have been destroyed by such acts of carelessness. Happily, most of the bush is too damp to be in danger of accidental burning. The bigger trees must first of all be felled, and the forest afterwards set fire to in the drier season of the year. However necessary this clearing may be, it can- not fail to leave with the lover of nature a feeling of sadness. The Hon. W. P. Beeves (High Commissioner of New Zealand in London) has well expressed this sentiment in a noble poem , He has kindly given his consent to its publication here. The. final stanza is, we believe, now for the first time printed. THE PASSING OF THE FOREST." All cannot fade that glorifies the hills, Their strength remains, their aspect of command, Their flush of colour when calm evening stills Day's clamour, and the sea-breeze cools the land. With shout of thunder and with voice of rills, Ancient of days in green old age they stand In grandeur that can never know decay, Though from their flanks men strip the woods away. PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND But thin their vesture now — the restless grass, Bending and dancing as the breeze goes by, Catching quick gleams and cloudy shades that pass, As shallow seas reflect a wind-stirred sky. Ah ! nobler far their forest raiment was From crown to feet that clothed them royally, Shielding their mysteries from the glare of day, Ere the dark woods were reft and torn away. Well may these plundered and insulted kings, Stripped of their robes, despoiled, uncloaked, discrowned, Draw down the clouds with white enfolding wings, And soft aerial fleece to wrap them round, To hide the scars that every season brings, The fire's black smirch, the landslip's gaping wound ; Well may they shroud their heads in mantle grey, Since from their brows the leaves were plucked away! Gone is the forest world, its wealth of life, Its jostling, crowding, thrusting, struggling race, Creeper with creeper, bush with bush at strife, Warring and wrestling for a breathing space ; Below, a realm with tangled rankness rife, Aloft, tree columns, shafts of stateliest grace. Gone is the forest nation. None might stay ; Giant and dwarf alike have passed away. Gone are the forest birds, arboreal things, Eaters of honey, honey-sweet of song, The tui, and the bell-bird, — he who sings That brief, rich music we would fain prolong. Gone the wood-pigeon's sudden whirr of wings ; The daring robin, all unused to wrong. Wild, harmless, hamadryad creatures, they Lived with their trees, and died, and passed away. And with the birds the flowers, too, are gone That bloomed aloft, ethereal, stars of light ; The clematis, the kowhai like ripe corn, Russet, though all the hills in green were dight ; The rata, draining from its tree forlorn Rich life-blood for its crimson blossoms bright, Red glory of the gorges — well-a-day ! Fled is that splendour, dead and passed away. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 15 Gone are the forest tracks, where oft we rode Under the silver fern-fronds climbing slow, In cool, green tunnels, though fierce noontide glowed And glittered on the tree-tops far below. There, mid the stillness of the mountain road, We just could hear the valley river flow, Whose voice through many a windless summer day Haunted the silent woods, now passed away. Drinking fresh odours, spicy wafts that blew, We watched the glassy, quivering air asleep, Midway between tall cliffs that taller grew Above the unseen torrent calling deep : Till, like a sword, cleaving the foliage through, The waterfall flashed foaming down the steep : White, living water, cooling with its spray Dense plumes of fragile fern, now scorched away. Keen is the axe, the forest fire streams bright, Clear, beautiful, and fierce, it speeds for man The Master, set to change and stern to smite, Bronzed pioneer of nations ! — Ay, but scan The ruined wonder wasted in a night, The ravaged beauty God alone could plan, And builds not twice ! A bitter price to pay Is this for progress, — beauty swept away ! TYPES OP FOREST. Though the bush is generally of mixed type, yet, in certain districts, particular species predominate to the more or less complete exclusion of others. The Oxford and Alford Forests consist almost entirely of Nothofagus Solandri. Nothofagus Cliffortioides often forms the sole species in mountain districts. In the North of Auckland the kauri is found in groves, and sometimes even in forests. There are large areas in the east- central portion of the North Island, in which the totara is the prevailing tree. Throughout the lowland forests of the South Island the rimu is plentiful, but the sub-alpine forests of the 16 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND western ranges consist almost entirely of the various species of Nothofagus. In many districts of the North, particularly in the south of Auckland Province, the tawa is found in immense quantities. In swamps in both Islands large masses of kahikatea (white pine) occur. In other places scattered through the islands the rata is the prevailing tree. The coastal forests usually produce a very great variety of trees. The beech, rata, and kauri forests will be described more fully when the trees themselves are dealt with. LIANES. " Exulting Nature so delights, So riots in profusion, she Twice over does her work for glee ! A tangled intricacy first she weaves, Under and upper growth of bush and tree In rampant wrestle for ascendancy, Then round it all a richer overflow Of reckless vegetation flings, That here close-moulding on the shrubs below A matted coat of delicate leaves, Mantles the muffled life whereon it clings, Into a solid mass of greenery. There mounting to the tree-tops, down again Comes wildly wantoning in a perfect rain Of trailers — self-encircling living strings Unravellable ; see how all about The hundred-stranded creeper cordage swings ! ' ' DOMETT. Plants which depend upon others for existence, and therefore cannot group themselves into associations, are said to form Guilds. * No description of the bush would be complete without some reference to the guilds it contains. The chief of these are the climbers or lianes, epiphytes, saprophytes and parasites. Of these, only the first two need be considered here. The climbing and creeping plants have had a special fascination *Ger., Genossenschaften. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 17 Fig. 4.— Lianes. 18 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND for many writers. The term liane, like the blessed word Mesopotamia, seems almost to have been sufficient to bring tears to the eyes of Kerner. In a rapturous passage he alludes to it as the "beautiful word liane" the "sweet word liane." It is difficult to see why the bush climbers should have aroused so much enthusiasm. Possibly, it is because they are comparatively rare in Europe, and have, therefore, been looked upon as symbolizing the luxuriance and strangeness of the tropical forest. In England there are no climbers that reach the tops of the trees except the ivy and honeysuckle. Lianes reach their highest development in the Tropics, but particularly in the West Indies and Brazil. In New Zealand, both they and the epiphytes are better represented than in any other extra-tropical country except Chili, whose forests show frequent resemblances to those of New Zealand. The advantage of a climbing stem to the bush plant is obvious. Little direct sunlight can penetrate into the cavernous depths of the forest. The interior of the New Zealand bush is immersed in a cathedral-like gloom. Few plants, therefore, can grow upon its floor. Only when some giant of the forest falls, is there room for another to develop. Such seeds as germinate must quickly struggle up to the light overhead or die. There is no time for them to grow into trees. Many, therefore, have developed a climbing habit, in order to be able to ascend rapidly to the surface of the ocean of green boughs, that toss above in the wind under the ' sweet flooding sunshine.' They are careless of the means by which they climb. Their one cry seems to be, " more light, more light ! "* Amongst our climbers many different methods are adopted for reaching the light. The kie-kie sprawls awkwardly over * It is easy to be guilty of the "pathetic fallacy," and to read into their upward struggles our human emotions, as Kingsley has done in a well-known passage in At Last', but such an interpretation will not help us towards a real understanding of plant nature. At the same time, in mere description, it is often difficult to avoid the use of words or phrases which may seem to imply in the plant a human motive. Where such may happen to occur in this book, they must be understood purely in the descriptive and not in the teleological sense. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 19 the ground until it falls across a tree. Then it fixes its roots into the crevices of the bark, and pulls itself up. It often ends in smothering its living ladder with immense masses of sword-like foliage, whose weight must be tremendous. Similarly, several of the rata vines ascend by ivy-like rootlets. The large rata-tree, however, strangles its support, putting out transverse finger-like roots that cannot fail to impress the ordinary observer with the apparent purposefulness of their grasp. The lawyer, on the other hand, cat-like, fixes its recurved claws into the bark of a tree, and thus drags itself up. The Clematis and Passiflora climb by tendrils. The Supple-jack, Miihlenbeckias, Convolvuli, Parsonsias, Ipomea, and Senecio sciadophilus twine. None of these are strong enough to support themselves, though some of them — particularly the lawyers and Miihlenbeckias — may occasionally be found in the open, where they form mounded heaps, often many feet in diameter, and several feet in height. Wanderers through the bush are often puzzled by observing cable-like stems that fall pendent from the roof of the forest to its floor, without support. It seems impossible that these climbers, with their flexible stems, could have got into such a position without some external help. Often it will be found that these rope-like lianes belong to a species of Rubus, (the bush-lawyer) . They have originally been endowed with hooks by which they have climbed up a tree. Their weight and upward growth have finally disengaged them from the trunk by which they have ascended, and in the course of years they may be removed by various processes to a considerable distance from it. If the liane is not a Rubus, then its position can only be explained by supposing that the tree up which it climbed has died, probably in an unavailing effort to push up to the light. Many young trees throughout the forest must perish in this way. The structure of the stem in lianes is of considerable interest, but for a description of this some text book of botany must be consulted. 20 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND EPIPHYTES. "What a load That sturdy giant lifts in air ! His mighty arms are strong and broad, But all with alien growths are furred, A shaggy hide of creepers rare ; Their forks are all blocked up and blurred With tufts of clogging parasites That crowd till not a spot left bare Might offer footing for a bird ! ' ' DOMETT. The epiphytes constitute another important plant guild. These are plants which grow upon others, yet receive no nourishment from them. They must be carefully distinguished from parasites, with which they are often confused. The parasite obtains its nourishment more or less completely from the plant on which it grows. Some of the epiphytes, perhaps, owe their existence to the same cause as the lianes. They are plants which have assumed a habitat in the forks, or on the branches of trees, in order to obtain more light ; but this explanation will scarcely account for the New Zealand species, as these, without exception, are occasionally found growing on rocks. It is obvious that a plant which grows upon the bark of a tree must often suffer from scarcity of water. Hence most of our epiphytes have contrivances to protect them from excessive transpiration. A plant, therefore, which can live epiphytically, is also adapted for living on such a dry situation as a rocky cliff. There, however, it may suffer from an excess of sunshine. The physiological adaptations demanded by the one situation are not necessarily quite the same as those required for the other. Hence, though most epiphytes are more or less commonly found growing on rocks, the converse is by no means true. Epiphytes, like lianes, are generally supposed to be the mark of a tropical climate. In Great Britain epiphytical GENERAL INTRODUCTION 21 shrubs and trees are unknown, and the chief plants found on trunks and limbs of trees are accidental epiphytes, such as mosses and ferns. The light spores of these are blown about by the wind, and thus are able to reach lofty situations on the face of a cliff, or in the forks of a tree. The seeds of some dicotyledonous epiphytes, such as those of the rata, may be carried about in the same way, but others are deposited in position by birds. In New Zealand the number of epiphytes is very large, considering the latitude of the country. We must again, as in the case of the lianes, go to Chili to find forests in a similar latitude with an equal abundance of epiphytic growths. Diels suggests that this characteristic is due to large rainfall in the forest regions of both countries. The following list includes the most important of the epiphytic species. amongst the flowering plants: — Astelia Cunning Jiamii, A. Solandri, A. spicata, Earina mucronata, E. autumnalis, Dendrobium Cunninghamii, Bolbophyllum pygmaeum, Sarcochilus adversus, Peperomia Urvilleana, Pittosporum cornifolium,Metrosideros robusta, M. Colensoi, Griselinia lucida. Diels includes in his list Elatostema rugosum and Gaultheria epiphyta, but is surely in error in doing so. E. rugosum is found only on the sides of creeks and rivers, and in very moist places. It is plentiful, for example, on the rocky walls of the Wanganui Kiver in some parts of its course. G. epiphyta is misnamed, and the error has apparently misled Diels. THE SCRUB. Perhaps some mention should be made here of the Scrub, as it is strange to the visitor from the Northern Hemisphere. The light underwood of the English copse or thicket is very different from the impenetrable shaggy scrub of New Zealand. In the wind-swept regions of the south, it is sometimes so 22 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND dense that progress through it is impossible. It must be either avoided altogether or walked over. Anyone who essays the latter method of advance, does so with the risk of falling through the uneven floor of rigid branch! ets which supports him. Should this accident happen, he may be much bruised or scratched, though he is not likely to be seriously hurt. The scrub consists chiefly of Coprosmas, but also contains species of Cassinia, Olearia, Myrtus, etc. The leaves of the typical scrub plant are small and sparse, the branches rigid, twiggy, and often pointed. The manuka is often termed a scrub plant, but its characteristics are rather those of the Heath, which will be described later. THE ALPINE VEGETATION. In the South Island, the mixed lowland forest is generally replaced at altitudes of from 1,000 feet to 2,000 feet, by the beech forest. Beyond 3,000 or 4,000 feet this passes into the the region of sub-alpine shrubs, which are mostly Veronicas and Compositae. These, again, gradually give way to the alpine herbs of the mountain meadows, moors, and shingle-slips. With the line of perpetual snow all vegetation ends. In the North Island there are only three peaks which rise over 7, 000 feet, the volcanic mountains, Buapehu, Egmont, and Ngauruhoe. The first of the three is the highest, being just over 9,000 feet. In the South Island, the Southern Alps, which culminate in Mount Cook, 12,349 feet high, have hundreds of peaks which are over 7, 000 feet. Hence the alpine vegetation flourishes best on that range. The perpetual snow-line ranges from about 7,000 feet in Otago, to 8,000 feet in Nelson. The Kaikoura range on the East Coast also has several peaks which are never free from snow. There, too, alpine herbage has been found, but this range has hitherto GENERAL INTRODUCTION 23 been explored very imperfectly by botanists. The vegetation of the Southern Alps, thanks to Buchanan, von Haast and Dr. Cockayne, is now comparatively well known, though there are doubtless a considerable number of mountain species yet to be discovered. It is to this range, then, that botanists must turn to find the best known New Zealand alpine plants. Nor need they be mountaineers, for many of the species that belong climatically to higher levels, come down to the lower passes, and sometimes descend the river beds almost to the plains. On the top of Arthur's Pass, on the Canter bury- Westland coach road, numerous alpine and sub-alpine species are to be found. Here, in January, the wild flowers blossom in the greatest profusion, forming a garden whose uncovenanted beauty might easily put to shame the stately flower ranks and geometrical foliage beds of many a prized parterre. True, white is the prevailing colour, broken occasionally by gleams of yellow, but though there is no gorgeousness, there is at least no disharmony of tone. Ranunculus Lyallii with its large white cups, and Celmisias of various species, with their large daisy-like flowers, are conspicuous in such an alpine meadow, by the size, beauty, and profusion of their blooms. Even when these plants are not flowering, there is still to be seen that wonderful variety of leafage so dear to every mountain climber's heart. Kuskin has well described it, though writing of European forms. " The leaves of the herbage at our feet take all kinds of strange shapes, as if to invite us to examine them. Star-shaped, heart-shaped, spear-shaped, arrow-shaped, fretted, fringed, cleft, furrowed, serrated, sinuated, in whorls, in tufts, in spires, in wreaths endlessly expressive, deceptive, fantastic, never the same from footstalk to blossom ; they seem perpetually to tempt our watchfulness, and take delight in outstripping our wonder." The alpine plants and foliage must always have a fascination for those who delight in beauty and variety of leaf-form. '24: PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Their flowers, too, are certainly the most attractive amongst those of the herbaceous plants of New Zealand. Town dwellers, in their untravelled and untrammelled ignorance, frequently say that New Zealand has no wild flowers. Certainly we have none in the neighbourhood of the cities, or on the plains, that can compare with those of the fields and hedgerows of England. One reason for this is obvious. Where not too dry, the land has, previous to the advent of the white man, been covered with forest. There have been no damp meadows or shady lanes to provide a home for annual or bulbous plants. But though we have no pale beauty of primrose or deep glow of violet, there is many a handsome plant and many a sweet-scented flower amidst the great lonelinesses of the Alps, for the pleasure of those who care to leave the cities, and live for a time in the fresh air and glorious scenes of the mountain heights. THE ORIGIN OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLORA. The discussion of the relationships of the fauna and flora of Southern regions has given rise to some of the most fascinating speculations of modern science. It has provided us with quite unexpected glimpses into the past history of the earth's surface, and of the climatic conditions then prevailing. We have learnt from it stories of sunken continents, and of warm seas full of life, where now there are only barren ice-sheets. However pleasant it might be to follow the by-paths of Science in the investigation of such questions, the limitations of our space prevent us from giving them any adequate treatment here. A consideration of the chief factors involved in the present distribution of animal and vegetable life in the South Temperate Zone, would require references to strati- graphical geology, ocean soundings, and to general geological and astronomical theories quite outside the scope of this work. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 25 At present we are concerned solely with the origin of our flora. It is clear, however, that such a question can only be very imperfectly treated, if confined to a discussion of the present distribution of plant life in southern lands. Any conclusions derived from the study of botanical relations alone, must be subjected to such modifications as may be demanded by evidence obtained from the study of the other sciences. For example, the plants of two widely separated districts often show closer relationships than the animals do. This apparent anomaly will be explained, if we remember that stretches of sea which may prove insuperable barriers to the passage of land animals, may be crossed by plants. We must, therefore, in our treatment of the subject give conclusions that have been based on a wider discussion than is possible here. Whilst doing this, we shall consider shortly the evidence of fossil botany, and of the present distribution of plant life throughout the Southern Hemisphere. The first problem that naturally arises in the discussion, is the connection existing between the New Zealand flora and the Australian. This is larger than can be accounted for by mere proximity. Another question of unusual interest, is the origin of the remarkable South American and Antarctic elements in our flora. Probably the most complete and ingenious theory, yet put forward to account for this connection, is that of the late *Capt. F. W. Hutton, F.E.S. Some of his views have been combated by Dr. A. K. Wallace and others ; but undoubtedly the New Zealand biologist had a much wider knowledge of the present and past conditions of distribution prevailing in the Southern Hemisphere, than any of his critics. We shall, therefore, adopt his views here. In one point all are agreed, and that is as to the past great extension of the Antarctic Continent into sub-temperate seas. The demonstration of this has been recently termed " one of the greatest triumphs of *In the recent death of this distinguished scientist, New Zealand has suffered a loss that can scarcely be too much deplored. 26 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND modern science." We are proud to say that this magnificent generalization is in considerable measure due to the work of New Zealand botanists. Before, however, considering the botanical evidence, we must treat shortly of the general characteristics of our fauna and flora. OCEANIC AND CONTINENTAL ISLANDS. For the purposes of the biologist, islands may be divided into two classes, continental and oceanic. A continental island is one which has at some period of its existence been united to an adjacent land-mass. Its fauna and flora contain few endemic species, and differ little, if at all, from that of the neighbouring continental area. Great Britain is an excellent example of a continental island. The British fauna and flora are simply parts of the European fauna and flora. In quite recent times the Straits of Dover have been dry land. An oceanic island, on the other hand, is one that has never been united to any continental area. Its fauna .and flora are often very fragmentary, and frequently contain a high percentage of endemic species. Its plants and animals are generally provided with good powers of distribution ; and have reached the island from across the sea. The Azores may be taken as an example of a group of Oceanic islands. To which of these two classes shall we assign the islands of New Zealand ? It has characteristics both of continental and oceanic islands, and it is, therefore, sometimes termed anomalous. However, there is much evidence to show that it was at one time attached to a land area probably much larger than that of Europe ; and that it is consequently entitled to rank, geographically speaking, as a continental island. Yet its fauna, unlike that of most large land areas, is very fragmentary. The flora, though more complete than the fauna, has also many gaps in it, and both fauna and flora contain GENERAL INTRODUCTION 27 a larger proportion of endemic species than a typical con- tinental island usually does. Nevertheless, there are many reasons for the belief that the ancestral stock from which New Zealand plant and animal life originated, was a continental one. Before attempting to answer more precisely the question : " Whence has our plant life come?" we must try to decide as far as possible how long the present flora has been in existence, and whether we must look for its ancestry here, or in some foreign land. THE AGE OF THE FLORA. There is a common but erroneous opinion, that the New Zealand flora shows marks of exceptional antiquity. There are perhaps several groups of facts which have led to this mistake. (1) Many of the New Zealand geological formations are of great age. New Zealand is an old land. (2) The almost complete absence of indigenous mammalia, and the presence of certain ancient forms of animal life, e.g. Peripatus Sphenodon, (the tuatara, etc.), prove the unusual age of the fauna. (3) The remarkable development of fern trees and of club-mosses, and the comparative absence of large and showy flowers seem almost to imply antiquity for the flora. But none of these facts are sufficient to justify the belief. The high age of part of the rocks and of the fauna is not a necessary proof of the antiquity of the flora. Plants can transport themselves over barriers insurmountable to animals. Few wingless land animals can cross five hundred miles of sea, yet we have evidence that this has been done by the seeds of many plants. Hence, a comparatively young flora may sometimes be found living in company with a much more ancient fauna. We must, therefore, rely entirely on the evi- dence of the plants themselves for determining their antiquity or otherwise. Hooker, it is true, states that the New Zea- land lycopods " are the largest of the order, and present nearer 28 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND affinities to the fossil Lycopodiaceae of the coal period, than any other existing plants* " ; but this opinion cannot justify the extraordinary statement seen at times in the books of popular writers, that the New Zealand flora is more like that of the Carboniferous than is any other existing flora. As a matter of fact, our species of ferns and lycopods do not show affinities that tend to prove them older than the ferns and lycopods of other lands. Further, the evidence of the flowering plants does not suggest that those of New Zealand are of any high degree of antiquity. Many ancient forms, that once existed in New Zea- land, and still exist in other lands, have been replaced here by plants of a more modern type. One of the oldest orders of the phanerogams is the Cycadeae. We have now no cycads in New Zealand, though fossils show that they formerly existed here. Changes of climate may have driven them out. At one time they formed a considerable portion of the vegetation of the globe, and they are still found in large numbers in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of both hemispheres. Turning to the Monocotyledons, we obtain somewhat similar evidence. These plants are generally supposed to be older than the Dicotyledons, though the testi- mony of the rocks on this point is by no means indisputable. They are, however, assuredly extremely old, and if our flora were exceptionally ancient, we might expect them to be well developed in New Zealand. The contrary, however, is the case. Throughout the southern hemisphere the monocoty- ledons are more poorly represented than in the northern. Again, the facts of fossil botany seem to show that the palms are one of the oldest orders of monocotyledons. In New Zealand we have only one species of palm-tree. This paucity of forms may perhaps be due to climatic or similar conditions. In the tropics they are plentiful. On the other hand, it is to be admitted that we have an ancient monocotyledon in the cabbage-tree (Cordyline) . *" Handbook of the New Zealand Flora," (p. 387). GENERAL INTRODUCTION 29 Amongst the dicotyledons, one of the oldest groups contains the willow, poplar, oak, hazel-nut, birch, beech, chestnut, and hornbeam. This group is highly characteristic of the Northern Hemisphere, but though once well developed in New Zealand, is now no longer represented here, except by the genus Nothofagus, in which are included the " birches " of the sub- alpine forests. The most highly developed family of plants, on the other hand, is the Compositae ; and this, though almost wanting in the bush, is well represented in the open country and in the alpine and sub-alpine scrub by more than 230 species. There is, indeed, little if anything in the distribution of the dicotyledons, to suggest that the New Zealand Flora is older than the European. Again, it may be suggested that the large number of green, inconspicuous flowers and the separation of the sexes in an unusual proportion of the species are marks of a primitive floral organization ; yet it is doubtful whether they can be so interpreted. The former characteristic is obviously to a large extent dependent on local conditions ; for the foreign representatives of New Zealand genera with small flowers have often large and showy blossoms. The New Zealand species of Viola, Passiflora, Myosotis, and of the various genera Orchidaceae have less conspicuous blooms than the corres- ponding species in other lands. This lack of brilliancy of the local forms, obviously cannot be due in all cases, to their greater antiquity, but is much more likely to be the result of the adjustment, or lack of adjustment, of the flowers to the insect life of the country. The unisexual condition of many of the flowers may be susceptible of a similar explanation. It is at any rate not a primitive but a secondary condition, for it can easily be shown that most of our dioecious plants were in quite recent times hermaphrodite. In a word, the long isolation of New Zealand has certainly resulted in the development therein of many unique forms, and also perhaps in the preservation of some antique types, yet it cannot be said there is a sufficient 30 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND mass of facts to justify the statement that the flora as a whole is of an exceptionally ancient type. One line of evidence that might help us largely is, unfor- tunately, not available at present to any large extent. Of the fossil botany of these islands we know very little. The chief paper on the subject is by the famous palaeo-botanist, Baron von Ettingshausen. A translation of this appears in volume xxiii. of the Transactions. If the data contained in it are reliable, it would seem (1) that the living flora has largely been derived from the tertiary flora ; (2) that the tertiary flora was part of the original universal flora from which are descended all plants of the present day; and (3) that only one part of the tertiary flora has been changed into the living flora, the rest having become extinct. It would appear also that at one time there existed in New Zealand, trees similar to the great redwoods of California, the Norfolk Island pine, the she-oaks and gum-trees of Australia, the alders, oaks, elms, and maples of the Northern Hemisphere, and the fig. With the exception of the gum-trees, and perhaps the fig, these are all old types, now extinct here, though existing elsewhere. These identifications have in most cases been made from fossil leaves only, and in the absence of flowers and fruit ; some of them, therefore, can only be regarded as tentative. THE AFFINITIES OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLOBA. The relationships of the New Zealand flora to those of other lands, have given rise to greater discussion than its affinities to those of the past. We have obviously much more material for the investigation of the present distribution of plant life, than for that of times long gone by. Still, many of the problems concerned are very difficult of solution. Amongst those who have dealt with these questions may be mentioned the late Captain Hutton, Dr. A. K. Wallace, Professor Engler, GENERAL INTRODUCTION 31 Mr. G. M. Thomson, and Mr. W. Botting Hemsley. It is impossible to deal fully with the results of their work, but an attempt will be made to give an intelligible, though necessarily brief account of it. Of the 1,400 flowering plants which New Zealand contains, about three-quarters are found nowhere else. A considerable proportion of the remainder is confined to New Zealand and Australia, or to New Zealand, Australia, and other southern districts. A section of the New Zealand flora shows a most striking South American affinity. There are a few cosmopolitan plants, and there is also an element usually termed Scandinavian, which shows a relationship to a certain portion of the flora of the Northern Hemisphere. As, however, the endemic species constitute by far the greater portion of the flora, the foreign affinities are best shown in the genera. Of these, 80 per cent, are found in New Zealand and Australia, 10 per cent, are endemic, and the remaining 10 per cent, are variously distrib- uted. It is clear, therefore, that the basis of the New Zealand flora has either been derived from Australia, or that the element common to both has come from the same source. As a matter of fact, the latter hypothesis is best supported by the evidence. Several lines of argument, as has already been stated, show that at one time New Zealand was more extensive than it is now. It then stretched to the northward, through Lord Howe and Norfolk Island, to New Caledonia, and perhaps even as far as the Solomons. Another continental arm connected Queensland with New Caledonia. Through these northern extensions there passed, though not necessarily at the same time, southward to New Zealand, and westward to Queensland, the ancestral forms of much of the vegetation common to the two countries. In this migra- tion we have an explanation of the sub-tropical fades of the New Zealand forests, and also of the fact that nearly ninety per cent, of our forest flora, has Melanesian affinities. It is probable that this northern extension existed in Eocene 32 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND times, but by the Miocene, much of it had disappeared. Thus far, the problem of the Australian relationships of our flora is comparatively simple, but on further examination we are soon confronted with the fact, that, although New Zealand plants show so many Australian affinities, yet most of the prevailing and characteristic Australian forms are entirely absent from our shores. An attempt to explain this anomaly will require a somewhat fuller comparison of the two floras. THE FLORAS OF NEW ZEALAND AND AUSTRALIA. Isolation, varied environments, and doubtless other facts, have been at work for a long time to give New Zealand a unique flora. A visiting botanist would find here only unknown plants around him. He would be puzzled, not only by the strange local species, but also by the large number of dissimilar plant associations to be met with in a small area. Perhaps there is no more difficult flora in temperate regions for the botanical tyro to classify. It seems to be a mixture of many incongruous elements. The visitor from Australia would be little better able to cope with its difficulties, than the traveller from England. In spite of the fact that so many of the New Zealand genera are also to be found on the neighbouring continent, no adjacent floras elsewhere are so unlike as those on either side of the Tasman Sea. Yet the distance between the two lands is little more than a thousand miles. This likeness with unlikeness constrained Sir Joseph Hooker to say : " Under whatever aspect I regard the flora of Australia and New Zealand, I find all attempts to theorize on the possible community of feature, frustrated by anomalies of distribution, such as I believe no two other similarly situated countries on the globe present." The New Zealand forest is varied and mixed. The Australian often varies little over immense areas of country. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 33 The New Zealand bush is generally an impenetrable jungle, while throughout a great part of Australia ' ' The land lies desolate and stripped ; Across its waste has thinly strayed A tattered host of eucalypt, From whose gaunt uniform is made, A ragged penury of shade." A mixed bush, somewhat similar to that of New Zealand, is however, found in the wetter regions of South-Eastern Australia. But the enigma which baffled the speculations of the earlier botanists, lies in the fact that the most important of the Australian genera are completely absent from New Zealand. Hence results the lack of superficial resemblance between the floras of the two countries. The gum trees, wattles, she-oaks, bottle-brushes, hakeas, &c., which are so abundant in Eastern Australia,' are without a single representative here. It might well have been expected that some of these would have found means of crossing the Tasman Sea. It is little to be wondered at, then, that Sir Joseph Hooker should have found it difficult to theorize concerning the relation- ships of the two floras. Yet he seems scarcely to have realized sufficiently that the differences of climate, surface, and geological conditions existing between the two countries, are such, that similar plant associations could not be expected to occur in each. It must, however, be admitted that these differences in themselves do not constitute a sufficient explanation of the absence from New Zealand of the characteristic Australian species and genera. The gum trees, wattles, hakeas, and she- oaks, flourish as well here as in their native land ; and some of these at least can and do maintain themselves without artificial aid in our islands. Of course they have been much assisted in gaining a foothold here by the presence of clearings effected by civilized man. Yet, their complete absence from New Zealand, before the arrival of the European, can be explained only on the assumption that they never before obtained an opportunity of establishing themselves here. As 4 34 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND we have no large deserts, we could scarcely expect to find in this country the mallee scrub, the myall, the salt-bush and the spinifex of the Australian " bad lands " ; but we might at least have anticipated that forms related to these should occur in New Zealand, modified only by the different conditions obtain- ing here, though their absence may perhaps be explained on the assumption that the specialized Australian forms did not reach the inter-continental bridge, which formerly connected New Zealand with the great northern land-area. This answer to the problem may prove to be sufficient, but there is at present no consensus of opinion amongst biologists upon the subject. Dr. Wallace, looking rather to an Aus- tralian than to a Melanesian origin of our flora, has put forward a highly ingenious theory to account for the anomalies observed by Sir J. Hooker. This theory, at one time received tentatively, has more recently been subjected to considerable criticism at the hands of Mr. C. Hedley and others.* On account, however, of its general interest, it will probably be worth while to outline it here, without attempting to form an exact estimate of its value. In Cretaceous times, Australia existed as two islands, an eastern and a western. A wide belt of sea, broken by islets, stretched from the Gulf of Carpentaria to the mouth of the Murray river. The western island, according to Wallace's hypothesis, was the more ancient, and already possessed many of the ancestral forms of the peculiar and character- istic flora of to-day. In eastern Australia, however, the flora consisted chiefly of Melanesian and Antarctic species,, with possibly a small proportion of the more typical Australian forms. About this time, or in the Eocene, the eastern island was united by way of a land-bridge to New Zealand, and by this connection the New Zealand flora obtained its Australian element. Subsequently the eastern and western islands became one, the connection with New Zealand was broken, and the Australian types overran the new *Natural Science, September, 1893, p. 187 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 35 continent. This theory seems to lay too much stress on the direct connection of Australia with New Zealand, whereas the facts of the case scarcely require any such connection. Indeed, we have in recent times received from Australia a few species of plants directly across the Tasman Sea. Species of Olearia, Senecio, Epacris, and of the Orchidaceae, have probably reached us in this way. All these plants, however, are provided with seeds that are either small, or furnished with a pappus, so that they may have readily been blown across the intervening ocean by a high wind. The fauna, however, shows that our connection has been with the islands to the north, rather than with Australia. There is evidence of a much more recent connection with New Guinea and Melanesia than with temperate Australia, which has perhaps not been united with New Zealand since the Triassic period. Other Foreign Elements. Other important elements in the New Zealand flora are the Antarctic and South American. It is difficult to measure their amounts statistically, as they depend not so much upon com- munity of species, as upon the similarity of representative forms in many genera. The American section is that part of the flora which shows resemblances to plants living in temperate or tropical South America. The Antarctic element consists of plants which are related to others found in one or all of the following places : Patagonia, Southern Chili, Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, Tristan d'Acunha, The Crozets, Kerguelen Land and the mountains of Victoria and Tasmania. The term "Antarctic" as applied to these plants has been objected to, as all the districts referred to, lie outside of the Antarctic Circle. Dr. Cockayne has suggested the word " Fuegian," in place of it ; but it is probable that the more correct term, " Sub- Antarctic," will be adopted. A few of the plants belonging to this section are also found in South Africa. 36 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND South American Element. The South American element is better developed in New Zealand than in Australia ; this may be due to our being somewhat nearer to Peru and Chili, than Australia is. The genera Fuchsia and Calceolaria are confined to New Zealand, and temperate or sub- tropical South America. Myosurus aristata, Sophora tetraptera (The Yellow Kowhai), Haloragis erecta, Hydrocotyle Americana, Veronica elliptica, and a few other species, are also confined to the same two districts. It may, however, be questioned whether the forms of these species, occurring on both sides of the Pacific, are exactly the same in every case. Further investigation is required on this point. Probably about a fourth of the New Zealand genera are also found in South America, though not confined to these two places. A connection of such a pronounced nature as this indicates that at some time the two stations must have been united by land, or at least by a chain of islands. The evidence of animal life shows that the former alternative is the more probable one, and that there has been direct land communication with South America, perhaps in sub-tropical regions. From these and other reasons, Captain Hutton assumed that in the Cretaceous, or Early Eocene, a Pacific Continent connected New Zealand and New Guinea with Chili.* Sub-Antarctic Element. But a much more striking phenomenon is the existence between latitudes 55° S. and 65° S. of groups of islands separated sometimes by thousands of miles of sea, yet often possessing native plants of the same species. This community of species shows that these islands must have been in comparatively close communication with each other in quite recent times. Some of the plants referred to are found in New Zealand, more particularly in the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island. A *" Nature" July 13th, 1905. (This letter is probably the last published scientific writing of the great biologist.) GENERAL INTRODUCTION 37 few of them are also found in the Alps of South Eastern Australia. The following plants may be taken as examples of these sub- Antarctic types. Acaena sanguisorbae is known from the Kermadecs to the Macquaries, and is also found in Australia and Tristan d'Acunha, while A. adscendens occurs from Marlborough to the Macquaries, and also in Chili, Fuegia, and the Falkland Islands. Tillaea moschata is found throughout New Zealand and the Southern Islands, and also in South Chili, Fuegia, the Falkland Islands, Kerguelen's Land, and Marion Island. Oxalis magellanica has been collected in Victoria, Tasmania, South Chili, and Fuegia as well as in New Zealand. Callitriche antarctica is found in the Snares, The Auckland Islands, Campbell Island, the Antipodes, Macquarie Islands, Kerguelen's Land, Falkland Islands, and South G-eorgia. Other similar examples might readily be given, but these will probably suffice for our present purposes. This remarkable connection becomes even more striking, when we examine the floras of the sub- Antarctic islands themselves. Thus Mr. Hemsley* states that of eighty-four genera found in the Falkland Islands, fifty-six are also represented in New Zealand. More recent research may have modified these numbers, but the proportion will probably not be largely altered. Though these sub- Antarctic islands show such marked resemblances in their plant life, there is no such similarity amongst them in the distribution of the higher types of land animals. Obviously, the connection, though a very recent one, has not been a close one. Hence Captain Hutton concluded that in Pliocene times " A number of islands existed in the Antarctic Ocean, which have since then disappeared." According to this theory, there has been no direct connection with the Antarctic continent since the Jurassic period. At that time, New Zealand, South America, and South Africa are believed to have been united by land. *Challenger Reports : Botany Vol. I., p. 57. 38 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Such a hypothesis as this is at best only tentative, and its chief value lies in the stimulus it gives to research, and the aid it affords in placing subsequent hypotheses on a more solid foundation. There are numerous other problems of considerable interest in connection with both the internal and external distribution of our indigenous plants, but these will not be dealt with here. BOTANICAL INTEODUCTION. PLANT LIFE. At one time people spoke as if the life of the plant were different from that of the animal. There are few so ignorant now as to think that a distinction can be drawn between plant and animal life. The plant responds to stimuli, reproduces its kind, and grows, just as the animal does. Moreover, every plant has the power of spontaneous motion as a whole, or in some of its parts. Amongst the higher plants, movements are confined to parts of the plant — the tendrils of the vine twine ; the stamens of the barberry respond to a touch with a jumping motion ; the leaves of many plants close at night ; others alter their position with the direction of the light that falls upon them. In all, there are movements in response to gravitation, and to the action of light, and in connection with the processes of growth. In recent times sensation has been claimed for many plants. All apparently have the power of " sensing " gravitation, and some have been recently declared by Haberlandt to possess " ocelli " for perceiv- ing light. However, the life of the plant is so remote from all that man knows of himself, that he can never hope to do more than realize its meaning very imperfectly, though it can scarcely be doubted that the more fully he can appreciate it, and the more fully he can enter into sympathy with it, the more fully will he understand himself. BOTANICAL INTBODUCTION 39 Eoot and Stem. For our present purposes, a plant may be considered as consisting of root, stem, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit. The root" is developed from the rootlet or radicle of the embryo, and serves two purposes. It fixes the plant in the soil, and absorbs water and salts in solution by means of minute thin- walled hairs on the rootlets. The stem supports the leaves and branches. The crude sap ascends through it to the foliage at the tips of the highest twigs by a process or processes, even now not well understood. Here the water is evaporated, and any salts that it still contains are left behind in the leaves and shoots. The stem and branches therefore, as well as supporting the plant, enable the sap to ascend and descend, and thus provide communication between different parts of the tree. THE LEAF. The leaf is the chief organ by which the plant nourishes itself. Air enters it by minute pores (stomata, singular stoma), and brings with it a small percentage of carbon dioxide. The leaf retains the carbon, giving up most of the oxygen. With the carbon, water, some oxygen and the salts obtained from the soil, the plant is built up by marvellous and little known chemical reactions. The leaf, like all other parts of the plant, consists of layers of very small cells. The first solid product to appear in certain highly specialized cells as a result of the absorption of carbon dioxide, is starch. This consists of the three elements, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and is produced only in the presence of the green colouring matter (chlorophyll) by the action of sunlight. The process by which starch is produced is termed assimilation. A description of the structure of a typical dicotyledonous leaf, will enable us to understand this function better. *(The root is considered rather more fully under Avicennia.) 40 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND The surface of the leaf is covered by a thin layer of waxy material, which is almost impervious to water. This is called the cuticle, and prevents the leaf from shrivelling up in drying winds. Immediately below the cuticle lies a layer of cells, which form the epidermis. In some cases they are specially modified for the purpose of providing storage for water, as a provision against drought. Below the epidermis of the upper surface of the leaf, lies a layer of elongated cylindrical cells, called the palisade cells. These are regularly arranged with their longitudinal axes at right angles to the surface of the leaf, and constitute the wonderful laboratories in which the process of assimilation is carried on. The sap from the roots reaches these cells by way of the midrib and veins. From the outer air they obtain carbon dioxide. They are also provided with a large number of microscopic grains stained with chlorophyll — the chloroplasts. In the chloroplasts, under the action of sunlight — bright or diffused — starch is formed. This is afterwards converted into sugar, and conveyed by means of the conducting tissues or leaf veins, to the parts of the plant where it is required. Below the palisade tissue lie a number of loosely arranged cells of rather irregular shape, with air spaces between them. These constitute the spongy tissue, and though they doubtless manufacture some food, yet they cannot receive as much light as the cells above them. Consequently they do little work in the process of assimilation. The epidermis of the leaf is broken in numberless places by minute openings, the stomata, which have been already mentioned. These are often confined to the lower surface of the leaf. Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of crescent-shaped guard cells, which by alterations in their form can open or close it, and thus check or increase the amount of evaporation or transpiration from the leaf. Now, although there are thousands of plants in which the leaf structure conforms comparatively closely to that already BOTANICAL INTKODUCTION 41 described, there are many others in which the leaf is more or less modified to suit its special environment. The anatomy and form of the leaf depend, to a very large extent, upon the reaction between the plant and its surroundings, as regards transpiration and assimilation. The object of the plant is to expose as large a leaf surface as possible to the action of the light ; while at the same time a balance must be maintained between the loss of water and its supply. If more water leaves the plant than enters it, the leaves must inevitably wither, and this is a danger that the plant has to guard against at all hazards. Plants living in dry situations have adopted most ingenious devices to reduce transpiration to a minimum, whilst obtaining a maximum of assimilatory surface. Some of these devices will be considered in connection with the various species exhibiting them. Plants living in wet situations require a different structure from those that grow on bare rocky cliffs or shingle-slips. Hence, recent writers have found it convenient and helpful to group plants together, according to the modifications of stem and leaf structure that they exhibit, in response to their special environments. As the water supply is the chief factor in moulding the form of the plant, this classification has reference chiefly to it. Dry soils, such as those of desert regions, soils at times subject to a low temperature, or bogs abounding in humic and other acids, are generally inhabited by plants which have contrivances to check transpiration. Such plants are termed Xerophytes. In New Zealand this group is exceptionally well developed. Indeed, Dr. Diels, no mean authority upon the subject, speaking of the shrubs of the open plains, states " Their xerophytic structure is of striking intensity, and difficult to understand in comparison with other floras." Again, in discussing the plants of the sub-alpine pastures, he tells us their xerophytism is so extreme that their physiognomy can be compared only with that of the almost rainless Persian steppes. (For a fuller discussion of this anomaly, see Discaria, Plagianthus betulinus, etc.) 42 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND Plants which have been evolved in soils containing more than a half per cent, of salts in solution, are termed halophytes. Such plants are found chiefly near the sea-shore, by river estuaries, or in salt marshes. They sometimes occur also in desert areas, particularly in the dried-up beds of salt lakes. They often bear resemblances to xerophytes. The water of salt-meadows is apparently not readily absorbed by plants, and consequently such situations may be physiologically dry. Probably the presence of salts in solution interferes with the passage of moisture by osmosis into the plant cells. A fuller consideration of the structure of halophytes will be found under the family Chenopodiaceae. Hydrophytes are plants which have been produced amidst abundance of water of moderate temperature, and in the absence of an excessive amount of dissolved salts. They will be further considered under Myriopliyllum. Mesophytes, on the other hand, are plants whose structure indicates that they have been developed in intermediate conditions, where there was neither saturation with moisture, nor was there drought. Mesophytes frequently lose their leaves at the end of the growing season, and often die back to the ground. Amongst them are a large number of annuals, bulbous, and tuberous plants. New Zealand has remarkably few mesophytes. Trees such as Entelea and Aristotelia racemosa are mesophytic, but dicotyledonous herbaceous mesophytes are almost com- pletely absent from New Zealand. We have scarcely any annuals, and very few bulbous plants. It is due to lack of them that our lowland pastures and hedgerows do not display in spring and early summer such brightness of colour as is to be seen in many other lands. BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 43 THE FLOWER. The function of the flower is to produce seed, and so to perpetuate the species. The essential parts are the stamens and pistil. The pistil is in the centre of the flower, and contains the female organs. At its base is the seed vessel, or ovary, containing the unfertilized seeds or ovules. At the tip is the stigma, which is the part of the flower specialized to receive the pollen or male element. The stigma is frequently supported by a stalk termed the style. In some flowers the pistil consists of a number of parts called carpels, each con- sisting of ovary, style, and stigma. These carpels may be separate from each other, or united to form a composite pistil. In some cases the union is so complete, that it is difficult to say of how many carpels the pistil is formed. Generally, however, the number of compartments or cells in the ovary, or the number of stigmas, affords a sufficient indication of the number of carpels present. Bound the pistil the stamens are usually arranged in one or more concentric circles. They consist of a stalk known as the filament, and an enlarged tip, usually yellow, the anther. Here the pollen is borne. It consists of very minute yellow grains which escape by the opening of the anther. Before seed can be developed, fertilization, or union, must take place between the male and female elements. The pollen grain is conveyed to the stigma. It there grows, and puts out a long tube, which penetrates through the loose tissues of the style into the ovary. In the ovary, it enters the egg-cell contained in one of the ovules, and^ there fertilization takes place. After fertilization the ovule commences to develop into the seed. The process by which pollen is conveyed to the stigma is called pollination or loosely, fertilization. (Throughout the book we shall use the more correct term in place of the more popular one). Just as the formation and structure of the leaf depend to a large extent upon its adaptations to its environ- ment, in respect of assimilation and transpiration, so the form 44 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND and structure of the flower depend to a large extent on the method of pollination adopted by it. These methods are very numerous, and often very different, and a great deal of complexity of contrivance, and apparent purposefulness of action, is manifested by flowers in their endeavours to secure effective pollination. If the pistil is pollinated from its own stamens, it is said to be self-pollinated. Darwin and others have shown, that, as a rule, seed obtained from cross-pollinated flowers is healthier and more productive than that from self -pollinated flowers. The result of continued inbreeding is harmful to flowers as well as to animals ; but there are probably more exceptions to this rule than was at first supposed ; and in many plants there are special adapta- tions for self-pollination. Cross-pollination may be brought about by the action of wind or insects, or, more rarely, by birds or other animals. The exact methods adopted will be discussed in connection with specific cases. If stamens and pistil are found in one flower, it is said to be hermaphrodite. If they are found on different flowers but on the same plant, the species is then said to be monoecious, but if on different plants, it is termed dioecious. THE FLOEAL ENVELOPES. Surrounding the stamens are usually two floral envelopes. The outer one is the calyx, and the inner is the corolla. The corolla is usually brightly coloured, and serves as an organ of attraction for insects and other animals. The individual leaves of which it is composed are termed petals. They may be free or united, regular or irregular in form, and, indeed, manifest an infinite variety of shape, colour, texture and arrangement. These characteristics depend almost entirely upon the adjustment of the flower to the function of pollination BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 45 The calyx is chiefly used as an organ of protection for the flower bud. Its individual parts are termed sepals. They are usually coloured green; but occasionally the calyx becomes brightly coloured, and usurps the functions of the corolla. Calyx and corolla together constitute the perianth. Sometimes there is only a single ring (whorl) of parts in the floral envelope, or both rings may be similar. In such cases the floral envelope is termed simply a perianth. Flowers without a perianth are said to be naked. If, however, it is clear that the perianth is either calyx or corolla, but not both, the more definite term may be employed. The missing whorl is thon described as suppressed or obsolete. Any leaf on a flower stalk not belonging to the perianth is termed a bract. THE DISPERSAL OF SEEDS. After the seed is ripe, it has to be scattered. Many curious devices are used by plants to accomplish this end. The seeds may be so light or so small as to be blown about by the wind. They may be provided with down (e.g., as in the dandelion), to assist them in travelling before a breeze. Sometimes they are set in mucilage (as in Pittosporum) . This may enable them to cling to passing animals, and so to be carried for longer or shorter distances ; or, again, they may be provided with hooks for the same purpose, (as in the sedge Unrinia), or with a grapnel-head, (as in Accend). Again, the whole fruit may become sweet and succulent, and thus birds are attracted to it, and eat it The seeds then pass through the digestive canals of the birds, and are distributed over the country by them. The elder, gooseberry, flowering-currant, etc., are thus being distributed by birds over New Zealand. Should the seed on the other hand fall to the ground immediately below the parent plant, it would very likely be choked in the struggle for existence, or might 46 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND not obtain a sufficient amount of light to enable it to flourish. Hence, it is to be expected that plants whose seeds are provided with good means for distribution, should be found widely spread over the country, and this is often, though by no means always, the case. The dandelion grows everywhere, but Senecio perdicioides, with similar means of distribution is confined to one locality. It is often difficult to say why one plant survives, and another becomes extinct, in the struggle for existence. However, new light is being thrown on plant mechanisms daily, and we are beginning to understand more fully the many adjustments of the plant to its environment. It is certain, too, that our outlook upon the vegetable world is gradually altering, and that the centre of gravity of our ideas concerning the principles that guide plant evolution is also shifting to some extent. CLASSIFICATION. The vegetable world may readily be separated into two great divisions, plants without flowers, and plants with flowers. The former division includes the bacteria, sea-weeds, pond- slimes, moulds, fungi, toadstools, lichens, liverworts, mosses, ferns, and club-mosses. They do not come within the scope of this work. The flowering plants may again be readily divided into two classes : (1) those in which the ovules are not enclosed in an ovary, Gymnosperms (pines, firs, etc.) ; (2) those with the ovules enclosed in an ovary (Angiosperms) . There are probably about 100,000 distinct kinds or species of angiosperms at present living on the face of the earth. They include the vast majority of all flowering plants. In order that they may be properly studied they have to be classified in a complete and complicated fashion. One of the chief objects BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 47 of this classification is to enable the investigator to identify with certainty the specimen under investigation. In some cases this can be done only after an elaborate study of the plant , but in the majority of instances, half-an-hour's work or less should be sufficient to enable the student to name it. To assist him in his work a key is here provided (v. p. 49). The Angiosperms are first sub-divided into two sub-classes, the Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The dicotyledons, on germination, produce two seed-leaves or cotyledons, the mono- cotyledons only one. The seed-leaves of the dicotyledons are generally entire, simple, rather fleshy leaves, unlike those subsequently produced by the plant. The solitary seed-leaf of the monocotyledons is usually long, narrow and similar to those subsequently produced. There are many other external differences between the two classes. In the monocotyledons, the chief veins of the leaves run more or less parallel to the length of the blade; in the dicotyledons the chief veins are not parallel to each other, and are connected by a net-work of smaller veinlets. Leaves of the former kind are said to be parallel-veined. The latter are termed reticulate, or netted- veined leaves. The parts of the flowers in a monocotyledon are usually in three, or in some multiple of three. In the dicotyledons there are usually four or five, or some multiple of either of these numbers. The monocotyledon produces a root consisting of a number of fibres, which sprout from the base of the young plant. The seedling dicotyledon produces a single root (tap-root], which is continuous with the stem. These differences may be tabulated thus :— MONOCOTYLEDONS. DICOTYLEDONS. 1. One seed-leaf. Two seed-leaves. 2. Fibrous roots. Tap-root. 3. Parallel-venation. Netted-venation. 4. Parts of flower in threes. Parts of flower in fours or fives. 48 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND For ordinary field purposes, the venation is the most readily available distinctive character, but the student will soon recognise the differences between a mono- and a di- cotyledon. The leaves of the monocotyledon are usually long and narrow, and often sword-shaped. They frequently have sheathing bases. The chief New Zealand monocotyledons are the grasses, rushes, cut-grasses, bulrushes, native flax (Plwr- mium), cabbage-tree, supple-jack, and Nikau-palm. The dicotyledons constitute the great majority of flowering plants. The classes are sub-divided into sub-classes. The sub- classes are split up into orders, the orders into families, the families into genera, and the genera into species. The species form the units on which the whole classification is built up. It is impossible to define a species further, than by saying that all plants of one kind^are included in it. All individuals within the species, are more like each other than they are like any plants outside of it. The species are built up into genera. The genus may contain any number of species. Thus, there is only one species of Entelea known, and it is confined to the Auckland province. On the other hand, there are some eighty species of Veronica in New Zealand, and many more in other parts of the world. Every plant has two names : (1) the name of the genus to which it belongs ; (2) the name of the species. Thus, there are two kinds of native flax, each with the same generic name (Phormium) but with different specific names, P. tenax and P. CooJcianum. To the scientific name of the plant, should be attached the name of the author of the species. This has not been done here, as the names given in Mr. Cheeseman's hand- book have been adopted, except in one or two specially mentioned instances. In endeavouring to identify a species, the student should remember that there is scarcely any rule in botany without exceptions. Many of our New Zealand plants do not completely exemplify the characters of the order, or genus, BOTANICAL INTKODUCTION 49 in which they are inserted. It must not be supposed that a plant cannot belong to a family, because in one or more points it does not completely agree with the characters of the family. On the other hand, it is also unsafe to suppose that because a plant has certain characters of a family or genus it must necessarily be put in that family or genus. The student cannot be too strongly warned against jumping at conclusions of this sort. It is better, moreover, in identifying a specimen to proceed by the method of "exhaustion" than by that of identification, that is to say, it is safer to exclude first all those families and genera to which the plant cannot belong, before determining that to which it does belong. An example will illustrate clearly the various classificatory divisions. The native flax belongs to the — SPECIES : tenax. GENUS : Phonmum. FAMILY : Liliaceae. ORDER : Liliiflorae. SUB- CLASS : Monocotyledons. CLASS : Angiosperms. KEY TO CLASSIFICATION." SUB-KINGDOM : Phanerogams or Flowering Plants. 1. Ovules not enclosed in an Ovary— Class 1. GYMNOSPERMAE, p. 46. 2. Ovules enclosed in an Ovary — Class 2. ANGIOSPERMAE , p. 46. (i) Seed with one seed-leaf, leaves generally parallel- veined. MONOCOTYLEDONS, p. 47. (ii) Seed with two seed-leaves, leaves generally netted-veined. DICOTYLEDONS, p. 47. ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE ANGIOSPERMAE. SUB-CLASS I. : Monocotyledons ^ , Perianth absent. 2. Perianth present. 3. , Climbing, shrubby plant. Leaves long, prickly. Freycinetia, p. 80. Erect water or marsh plants. \Typha. * N.B. — It is to be remembered that in many cases this key is true only for New ,land forms. +Not further described. 5 50 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 3. Perianth superior, of 6 leaflets in 2 rows. Perianth inferior, segments petaloid or fleshy. 4. Flowers very irregular. Anther 1, attached to the style. Flowers regular, stamens 3. 5. Perianth petaloid. Fruit a 1-3-celled, 3 or more seeded berry or capsule. Perianth fleshy. Fruit a 1-seeded drupe. 4. 5. ORCHIDACEAE, p. Libertia, p. 109. 109. LlLIACEAE, p. 88. Rhopalosfylis, p. 84. SUB-CLASS II. : Dicotyledons. 1. Flowers having both calyx and corolla. Flowers with a single perianth or 0, the calyx or corolla or both being absent. 2. Petals free. Petals more or less completely united. 3. Stamens more than 20. Stamens less than 20. 4. Ovary inferior. Leaves usually opposite. Ovary superior. 5. Leaves with translucent dots. Shrubs or trees Leaves fleshy. Creeping or trailing herbs. 6. Leaves stipulate. Leaves exstipulate. 7. Anthers 2-celled. Anthers 1-celled. Leaves simple. 8. Carpels free. Leaves compound. Carpels combined. Leaves simple. 9. Stamens hypogynous. Stamens perigynous, carpels free. 10. Carpels free. Carpels united. 11. Leaves with transparent dots. Leaves without dots. 12. Ovary inferior (or apparently so). Ovary superior. 13. Flowers umbelled or in heads. Flowers not in umbels or heads. 14. Herbs. Stamens 5. Fruit of 2 carpels separ- ating when ripe. Shrubs or trees (rarely herbs) ; fruit of two or more combined carpels. 15. Leaves stipulate. Leaves exstipulate. 16. Style 1 ; stigma simple. Styles or stigmas 2 or more, or stigma divided. 2. 80. 3. 50. 4. 12. 5. 6. MYETACEAE, p. 270. AIZOACEAE, p. 159. 7. 9. 8. MALVACEAE, p. 250. ROSACEAE, p. 195. TILIACEAE, p. 242. 10, ROSACEAE, p. 195. RANUNCULACEAE, p. 160. 11. •\Hypericum. TILIACEAE, p. 242. 13. 22. 14. 15. UMBELLIFERAE, p. 312. AEALIACEAE, p. 300. RHAMNACEAE, p. 235. 16. 17. 20. tNot further described. BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 51 17. Stamens epipetalous or alternate with the petals. Stamens perigynous. Petals overlapping in the bud. 18. Stamens epipetalous. Stamens alternate with the petals. 19. Cells of fruit 1-seeded. Cells of fruit many seeded. 20. Cells of fruit 1-seeded. Cells of fruit many seeded. 21. Shrubs. Herbs. 22. Leaves stipulate. Leaves exstipulate. 23. Carpels solitary or free. Carpels combined into a 1- or more-celled ovary. 24. Carpels solitary, 2 or more seeded. Flowers irregular. Carpels several , free , 1-seeded . Flowers regular 25. Ovary 1-celled. Ovary 2 or more celled. 26. Ovules on the walls of the ovary. Ovules fixed to the base of the ovary. 27. Climbing shrubs. Herbs or shrubs not climbing. 28. Viscid glandular herbs. Flowers regular. Herbs or shrubs, not glandular. Flowers regular or irregular. 29. Herbs. Stamens 3-5, attached to the petals. 30. Stamens hypogynous. Stamens perigynous. 31. Leaves opposite. Water herbs. Leaves alternate. Herbs. 32. Stamens opposite the petals. Ovules 1 in each cell. Shrubs. Stamens 5, alternate, or 10 opposite and alternate with the petals. Ovules many. 33. Carpels several, free, or one. Carpels combined into a 1 or more celled ovary. 34. Carpels several, free. Carpels solitary, 1-celled. 35. Leaves opposite. Leaves alternate. 36. Herbs. Carpels 5 or more. Tree. Leaves simple, aromatic. 18. ONAGRACEAE, p. 290. LORANTHACEAE, p. 138. 19. CORN ACE AE, p. 297. SAXIFRAGACEAE, p. 185. 21. SAXIFRAGACEAE, p. 185. Griselinia, p. 298. HALORAGIDACEAE, p. 295. 23. 33. 24. 25. LEGUMINOSAE, p. 203. ROSACEAE, p. 195. 26. 30. 27. 29. PASSIFLORACEAE, p. 268. 28. DROSERACEAE, p. 180. VIOLACEAE, p. 261. CARYOPHYLLACEAE, p. 156. 81. 32. \Elatine. GERANIACEAE, p. 215. RHAMNACEAE, p. 235. SAXIFRAGACEAE, p. 185. 34. 41. 35. 38. 37. 36. RANUNCULACEAE, p. 160. Drimys,p. 172. tNot further described. 52 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 37. Herbs. Fruit dry. Shrubs or herbs. Fruit enclosed by the fleshy carpels. 38. Stamens hypogynous or epipetalous. Stamens perigynous. 39. Stamens 5. Ovule 1. Stamens 10. Ovules 2 or more. 40. Stamens 4-5, epipetalous. Stamens 5. Ovule 1, pendulous. 41. Ovary 1-celled, many ovuled. Ovary 2 or more celled. 42. Glandular herbs. Herbs, not glandular. 43. Stamens hypogynous. Stamens perigynous or inserted at the base of Coriaria, p. 226. 40. 39. Corynocarpus, p. 233. LEGUMINOSAE, p. 203. MYRSINACEAE, p. 331. Pennantia, p. 230. 42. 43. Drosera, p. 180. CARYOPHYLLACEAE, p. 156 44. a tumid disk. Trees or shrubs. 47. 44. Herbs. Sepals 4. Stamens 6. Ovary 2-celled CRUCIFEEAE, p. 177. Stamens 5 or 10. 45. 45. Shrubs or trees. Stamens free. Ovary 2-5 celled. Pittosporum, p. 189. Herbs. Ovary 5-celled. 46. 46. Stamens 5. Linum, p. 218. Stamens 10, occasionally several sterile. GERANIACEAE, p. 215. (including OXALIDACEAE). 47. Leaves with transparent dots. RUTACEAE, p. 218. Leaves without dots. 48. 48. Leaves pinnate. Dysoxylum, p. 222. Leaves simple. 49. 49. Sepals free. Petals lobed or cut. TILIACEAE, p. 242. Calyx 5-lobed. Ixerba, p. 186. 50. Ovary inferior. 51. Ovary superior. 56. 51. Flowers minute, usually numerous, collected into involucrate heads. COMPOSITAE, p. 405. Flowers not collected into involucrate heads. 52. 52. Leaves opposite and stipulate, or whorled. BUBIACEAE, p. 389. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. 53. 53. Stamens 2, filaments cohering with the style. fSTYLIDIACEAE. Stamens 5. 54. 54. Stamens inserted on the corolla lobes. 55. Stamens epigynous, or inserted at the base of CAMPANULACEAE, p. 401 the corolla. (including LOBELIACEAE and GOODENIACEAE) 55. Stamens alternate with corolla lobes. Alseuosmia, p. 399. Stamens opposite the corolla lobes. Samolus, p. 333. 56. Corolla regular. 57. Corolla irregular, 2-lipped. 75. tNot further described. BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 53 57. Ovary and fruit very deeply 2-4 lobed ; lobes 1-celled, 1-seeded. Ovary not deeply lobed. 58. Leaves opposite. Ovary 4-lobed. Leaves alternate. 59. Ovary 4-lobed. Ovary 2-lobed. 60. Leaves alternate or radical (0 in Cuscuta of Convolvulaceae) . Leaves opposite. Stamens epipetalous. 61. Stamens epipetalous. Stamens 10, bypogynous. 62. Ovary 1-celled. Ovary 2 or more celled. 63. Herbs. Sepals 2. Herbs or shrubs. Sepals 4 or 5. 64. Sbrubs, leaves with glandular dots. Herbs, leaves not dotted. 65. Fertile stamens more than 6. Anthers 1-celled. Fertile stamens 6 or fewer. 66. Stamens 4, filaments long. Stamens alternating with scales or antherless filaments. Scales and sterile anthers absent. 67. Shrub or tree. Leaves alternate. Leafless climbing herb. 68. Anthers 1-celled. Shrubs or trees. Ovary 5-10-celled. Anthers 2-celled. 69. Climbing or trailing herbs. Erect shrubs. 70. Corolla-lobes overlapping in bud. Ovary 2-4- celled. Corolla-lobes plaited in bud. Ovary 2-celled. 71. Stamens 2 or 4. Stamens 5. 72. Climbing shrubs, anthers adhering to the stigma. Herbs or shrubs, erect or prostrate. 73. Herbs, sepals 2. Calyx 4 or 5-cleft. 74. Herbs, very bitter. Erect or prostrate shrubs. 75. Leaves opposite. Leaves alternate or 0. 76. Ovary 4-lobed to the base. Ovary not deeply 4-lobed. 58. 60. LABIATAE, p. 364. 59. BORAGINACEAE, p. DicJwndra, p. 344. 346. 61. 71. 62. ERICACEAE, p. 323. 63. 65. fPORTULACEAE. 64. Myrsine, p. 331. Samolus, p. 333. MALVACEAE, p. 250. 66. ^Plantago. 67. 68. ^Sapota. Cuscuta, p. 344. ERICACEAE, p. 323. 69. CONVOLVULACEAE, p. 342. 70. VERBENACEAE, p. 349. SOLAN ACE AE, p. 365. SCROPHULARIACEAE, p. 366. 72. Parsonsia, p. 340. 73. fPORTULACEAE. 74. GENTIAN ACEAE, p. 337. LOGANIACEAE, p. 335. 76. 79. 77. 78. tNot further described. 54 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 77. Herbs. Shrubs or trees. 78. Ovary 1-celled, nearly 2-celled from the 2 projecting placentae. Ovary 2-celled. 79. Small trees. Stamens 4. Leaves with pellucid dots. Herbs. Stamens 2. Leaves hair-like or 0. 80. Perianth single. Perianth wholly wanting. 81. Ovary inferior.! Ovary superior. 82. Trees or shrubs. Herbs. 83. Parasitic shrubs. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Trees or shrubs not obviously parasitic. 84 Flowers bisexual. Flowers unisexual. 85. Shrubs or small trees, leaves alternate with deciduous stipules. Leaves opposite or alternate, exstipulate. 86. Tree. Leaves alternate, with deciduous stipules. Tree . Leaves alternate , extipulate , very large . 87. Flowers bisexual. Flowers unisexual. 88. Stamens more than 20. Stamens less than 20. 89. Tuberous root parasite. Stems scaly. Non-parasitical leafy plants. 90. A plant climbing by tendrils. Not climbing by tendrils. 91. Aquatic plants. Leaves opposite or whorled. Scape bearing plants. Leaves radical. 92. Leaves stipulate. Leaves exstipulate. 93. A spiny shrub or small tree, often leafless, stipules small. Spineless herbs or shrubs. 94. Herbs and shrubs. Stipules membranous, sheathing the stem. Herbs and shrubs, stipules free. Flowers unisexual. 95. Carpels many, free. Carpels solitary or 1-celled, or ovary 2- or 3-celled. LABIATAE, p. 364. VEBBENACEAE, p. 349. Rhabdothamnus, p. 388. SCBOPHULARIACEAE,p. 366 Myoporum, p. 362. Utricularia, p. 388. 81. 118. 82. 92. 83. 87. "LORANTHACEAE, p. 338. 84. 85. 86. Pomaderris, p. SATALACEAE, 236. p. 148. Nothofagus, p. 128. Meryta, p. 313, Accena, p. 201. 88. t Accena glabra. 89 Dactylanthus, p. 150. 90. *Sicyos, p. 400. 91. HALORAGIDACEAE, p. 295. * Gunner a, p. 297. 93. 95. Discaria, p. 239. 94. POLYGONACEAE, p. 151. URTICACEAE, p. 136. 96. 97. Those marked * have really a double perianth, but the calyx is so obscure, that they are likely to be sought for in this division. tNot further described. BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 55 96. Stamens hypogynous. Stamens perigynous. 97. Carpels solitary or ovary 1-celled. Ovary 2- or 3-celled. 98. Leaves 0. Leaves opposite or alternate. 99. Twining, slender, parasitic plant. Plants not parasitic or twining. 100. Fleshy, jointed, maritime herb. Small shrub. Branches grooved. Fruit red. 101. Leaves opposite. Herbs. Leaves alternate. Shrubs or trees. 102 . Flowers unisexual , minute , green . Stamens 4 . Flowers hermaphrodite. 103. Flowers minute, white. Flowers minute, green. 104. Flowers in axillary fascicles. Flowers in pairs. Stamen 1. Seed 1. 105. Flowers in axillary spikelets. Ovule 1. Ovules many. 106. Stamens 6 or more. Stamens less than 6. 107. Flowers unisexual. Stamens 6-8. Leaves pinnate. Flowers hermaphrodite, leaves simple. 108. Leaves large. Stamens 6-10, hypogynous. Stamens 6-15, perigynous, opening by valves. 109. Flowers minute, green. Stamens 1-5, peri- gynous. Stamens 2-5, attached to the perianth lobes. 110. Stamens 2 or 4, on top of the perianth tube. Stamens 4 or 5. Leaves not imbricated. 111. Leaves with transparent dots. Stamens on the base of the perianth lobes. Leaves without transparent dots. 112. Stamens on base of deciduous perianth lobes. Stamens 4 on middle or top of deciduous perianth lobes. 113. Shrubs or trees. Herbs. 114. *Herb, juice milky. Leaves alternate. Herb, sepals 4, stamens 6. 115. Leaves opposite or 0. Leaves alternate. 116. A spinous shrub. Leaves opposite Stamens 4 or 5, perigynous. Shrubs or trees. Stamens 2. RANUNCULACEAE, p. 160. MONIMIACEAE, p. 174. 98. 113. 99. 101. Cassytha, p. 176. 100. Salicornia, p. 156. ^Exocarpus. 102. 106. Parietaria, p. 138. 103. 104. 105. t Alternant 'Jier a. ^Scleranthus. Chetwpodium, p. 155. CARYOPHYLLACEAE, p. 156. 107. 109. Alectryon, p. 225. 108. Pisonia, p. 159. LAURACEAE, p. 175. CHENOPODIACEAE, p. 154. 110. THYMELACEAE, p. 269. ill. MYRSINACEAE, p. 331. 112. Fusanus, p. 148. PROTEACEAE, p. 145. 115. 114. Euphorbia, p. 224. CRUCIFERAE, p. 177. 116. 117. 0. Discaria, p. 239. Olea, p. 335. *The apparent perianth is really a ring of bracts. tNot further described. 56 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 117. Tree. Flowers unisexual. Stamens on the perianth segments. PEOTEACEAE, p. 145. 118. Leaves reduced to scales. Root parasite. Dactylanthus, p. 150. Leaves present. 119. 119. Leaves opposite. 120. Leaves alternate. 121. 120. Leaves serrate, stipulate. ^Ascarina. Water-herb, leaves exstipulate. Stamen 1. \Callitriclie. 121. Herbs, leaves fleshy. Peperomia, p. 127. Shrub, leaves very aromatic. Macropiper, p. 128. An example or two of the method of using this key will probably be of assistance to the novice. He has found, — let us suppose, — an unknown plant which from its venation and general appearance he recognizes as a dicotyledon. It will be useless in most cases to try and identify it without the flower, and frequently specimens also of more or less mature fruit will be required. The first thing to notice is whether both calyx or corolla are present. This being determined in the affirmative, the student is directed to No. 2 in the Key. On ascertaining that the petals are free he passes to No. 3. In this flower the stamens are less than 20, this brings him to No. 12. At this point he decides the ovary is inferior and so passes on to No. 13. As the flowers are not in umbels or heads, he proceeds to No. 15. His plant has exstipulate leaves, and this brings him to No. 16. The simple style and stigma lead to No. 17, and the stamens alternating with the petals to No. 18, thence to No. 19 ; and as the cells of the ovary in his specimen are many seeded, he concludes that it belongs to the family Saxifragaceae. On looking this up, he finds a key to the genera. This he follows out in a similar manner, and arrives at the Genus Carpodetus. There is- only one species, C. serratus, and in all probability he will find his specimen coincide in detail with the description given of this. Let us take one more example. In this case the plant has the petals united. That leads us to No. 50, and as the ovary is superior, we come to No. 56. The corolla of our tNot further described. BOTANICAL INTRODUCTION 57 plant is regular, so we reach No. 57 ; and the ovary not being deeply lobed we proceed to No. 60. The leaves being alternate,, we reach No. 61, and the stamens being attached to the petals we arrive at No. 62. The one-celled ovary brings us to No.. 63, and the fact that there are five sepals to No. 64. Our plant is a herb, so that it must evidently belong to the genus Samolus, and as there is only one species it must be S. littoralis*. Of course, if there is a large number of species in the genus, it may be impossible to determine the specific name of the plant from the information in this volume. Recourse must then be had to one of the standard floras of New Zealand (e.g. Cheeseman's, Kirk's, or Hooker's). Coniferae. THE PINE FAMILY. Distribution. — The Coniferae form a widely distributed and ancient family, having been well represented in the Carboniferous Age. In the northern regions of the northern hemisphere they outnumber the ordinary broad-leaved trees by about ten to one, and are of great importance and utility. The order includes a number of large and valuable timber-trees, whose juices are almost invariably resinous, and are used in the manufacture of turpentine, pitch, and Canada balsam. " Some of the New Zealand genera, such as Agathis, Pliyllocladus and Dacrydium differ much from the true pines, but all possess the same straight, strong timber and resinous secretions. Outside New Zealand the best known species are the Scotch Fir, the Norway Pine, the Californian Redwood, the European Larch, the Norfolk Island Pine, the Deodar of the Himalayas, and the Cedar of Lebanon. The last named is one of the most majestic and imposing of trees. Sequoia gigantea of California (the Wellingtonia of our gardens), is the largest known Conifer, the finest specimen seen having reached the height of 329 feet ; while the tiny Dacrydium laxifolium, 2 inches in height, found in alpine districts in New Zealand, is the smallest. CHIEF CHARACTERS. The true Pine has a branching trunk and evergreen leaves, which are pointed and needle-like — sometimes set in little bundles of two, three, or five. The plants bear pistillate and staminate flowers upon the same stem. The staminate flower is composed of a floral axis, bearing a number of stamens, and the pistillate flowers form a catkin, each flower being composed of a scale-like bract" with ovules suspended on its inner surface. When the flowers ripen, these scales become hard and thickened at the top, thus forming the collective fruit called a cone. The cone of the fir-tree differs from that of the pine, being furnished with thin scales, rounded at the apex. Its leaves .also are more scattered. The leaves of the Larches spring from a bundle of scaly buds, and become scattered or solitary by the lengthening of the stem. The im- brications of the cone are very loose, and the leaves *The homologies of the various parts are still in dispute. 58 THE PINE FAMILY 59 Fig. 5. A giant Kauri (Agathis). 60 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND are deciduous. The Cedars, again, differ from the Larches in keeping their leaves for several years, and in bearing closely imbricated cones. The stamens of the Junipers and Cypresses bear spheroidal pollen, instead of oval, as do the Pines ; and the Yew is easily distinguished by its coral-like drupes or berries. The leaves of this tree are poisonous to animals, but the berries appear to be innocuous. The Yew attains to a great age, and has been reckoned to live for three or four hundred years. The woody tissue of the Conifers is noted for the absence of ducts or vessels, and the presence at the same time of bordered pits. This structure can be readily perceived even in silicified wood. There is a similar structure in some of the Magnoliaceae, such as Drimys, etc., but the character of this wood differs considerably in other ways. The New Zealand Coniferae include the Kauri, the Kahikatea, the Totara, the Bimu, the Matai, the Tanekaha, the Miro, etc. The Tanekaha (Phyllocladus} possesses only scale-leaves, the functions of the leaves being performed by leaf-like flattened branchlets (phylloclades) . The genus Agathis is an ancient one-, related to the Auracarias (Monkey Puzzle, etc.) Key to the Genera. 1. Fruit a cone. Fruit a nut or drupe. 3 2. Leaves oblong. Cone large, of many over- lapping scales. Agathis, p. 60. Leaves small. Cone of few, erect, woody scales. Libocedrus, p. 66. 3. Fruit a drupe, on fleshy, scarlet peduncle. Podocarpus, p. 68. Fruit a nut in a fleshy cup. 4 4. Stems flattened into fan-shaped phylloclades. Phyllocladus, p 76. Leaves linear or scale-like. Dacrydium, p. 74. Genus Agathis. This genus is found only in Australia, New Zealand, the Malayan and Fiji Islands, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia. Leaves flat, broad, parallel- veined ; ovule solitary. Seed winged. Agathis orientalis of the East Indies is remarkable for the quantity of valuable resin (Dammar) which it produces. (Name from the Greek meaning a ball of thread, in allusion to the nearly spherical cone). 1 sp.* *The number of species from New Zealand and the outlying islands recorded in Cheeseman's Handbook. THE PINE FAMILY 61 Fig. 6. Kauri Bush. 62 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Agathis australis. The Kauri Pine is one of the most magnificent timber trees known, but it is unfortunately fast disappearing under the onslaughts of bush fires and needy colonists. Nor are new plantations formed, as is the case with many other trees, for the kauri is of such slow growth, that no man thinks it worth his while to plant trees which take a thousand years- to mature. A kauri forest is a wonderful sight, with the clean, erect stems rising like grey columns to a height of from 80 to 100 feet, — sometimes 60 or 70 feet without throwing out a branch. The bark is thick and lead-coloured, and peels off in heavy flakes. " The ashy hue of the bark appears under certain atmospheric conditions to surround the trunks with an undefined haze."" Though from 80 to 100 feet is the usual height of the forest kauri, trees have been found 150 feet high. There is a specimen at Mercury Bay, which is 80 feet to the lowest branch, and 24 feet in diameter. A tree five feet in diameter has been calculated to be three centuries old. The undergrowth is usually not so thick in a kauri forest as in ordinary mixed bush. A small tree-fern, Nikau palms, a variety of Astelia, the fragrant crimson Alseuosmia, and the climbing fern (Lygodium articulatum) are, however, often found growing under the stately pines. The germinating kauri develops two seed leaves, narrow and flat, extremely unlike any of those produced by the pines of the Northern Hemisphere. The leaves in the young plants are often spotted, and are of a reddish brown colour. They have no foot-stalks. The older leaves are thick, leathery, and green. The branches are large and spreading, — leafy towards the top of the tree. The male and female flowers are produced in separate cones on the same tree ; the male catkins being one inch long, and the cones almost *Kirk's Forest Flora of New Zealand. THE PINE FAMILY 63* round, two to three inches in diameter, and borne near the tips of the branches. Each scale of the cone bears a single ovule. The seeds are wedge-shaped -and brown, bearing at the top on one side a thin, transparent wing,, which enables the wind to carry them readily. The kauri is noted for its sound timber — hollow and defective trees being rarely found. The price of the timber is usually ten shillings for one hundred feet. The wood takes a fine polish, and is generally wavy in grain, but a mottled variety is found which is especially valuable in cabinet work. This mottled variety is most frequent in rocky situations, and is sometimes caused by the excessive development of small branchlets, but in many cases the bark cannot keep pace in speed of growth with the woody tissue. Flakes of bark thereupon become enclosed in the sapwood, and under the tremendous pressure form dark patches on a light ground. Occasionally thin films of clear resin are also enclosed, which add to the colour and beauty of the markings. When the kauri trees are felled, it is a work of some difficulty to transport them, as the country north of Auckland,, the special home of the kauri, is exceedingly rough and broken. If the trees are growing on the banks of some stream, they are felled, cut into suitable lengths by means of cross-cut saws,, worked by two men, and the logs rolled into the water. Here they lie until a " fresh " drives them down to the creek or harbour where the " boom " lies waiting. This boom is formed of a circle of logs fastened together with chains. There may be as many as fifty logs forming the chain, which sometimes- encloses acres of water. The logs enter the boom, — are fastened together into a kind of raft, and towed to their destination. If, however, the felled trees are far from deep water, their carriage is much more difficult. A skidded road,, six to eight feet wide, is formed of greased logs. Thus a sort of rough wooden tramway is made. The logs are hoisted on to this road by means of " jacks," or dragged by a team of •64 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND bullocks, anyhow, over and through the bush, breaking down the thick undergrowth as they pass. The timber shrinks very' little if cut at the dormant season. It is used for general building purposes, — for houses, bridges, wharves, and for boats, masts, deck-planking, etc. The whole tree is extremely resinous. Even the leaves of fallen trees shew small white patches of gum when they begin to shrivel, while large masses often form in the forks of the branches. Climbing for gum is a difficult and dangerous task. The fact of the barrel of the tree being so huge, and rising so high without a branch, renders the usual kind of climbing impossible. A piece of weighted twine attached to a rope is flung over the lowest bough, and the rope is hauled up over the branch and down the other side. The climber then ascends the rope, gains a foot-hold, and cuts out the gum from the forks of the branches. A good tree-climber is said to make £3 or £4 per week, but men sometimes come to their death in this dangerous work. The resin of the highest value, however, is that which has been fossilized, and which is dug up on lands where kauri bush once stood. This is the kauri gum of commerce. Clear, transparent pieces command a high price, and are used in place of amber in the making of small ornaments. The scrapings and dust are used in the manufacture of fire kindlers ; the gum is used for varnish. Sometimes clear pieces of gurn are found in which are embedded cones, leaves, small insects, etc. These specimens are much admired. The colour of the gum varies from a pale lemon-yellow to a reddish-brown, or even black. When the children of the settlers desire a little pocket money, they will often ask permission to go gum-digging in some newly ploughed paddock, and are usually rewarded within a few hours by a find of gum which will fetch several shillings at the store. The price of the resin varies from £60 to £120 per ton. Gum digging is the great resource of those who cannot find work -elsewhere, as a merely nominal fee is charged for digging on THE PINE FAMILY 65 Pig. 7. Kauri Cones (I nat. size) 66 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Crown lands, and the work requires only a light iron rod and a spade. Those who are old hands at the work are quick to discover the best places to dig. When a large tree falls, its roots tear up the earth, and form a mound with a hollow beyond it. By the position of these mounds and hollows, an expert will quickly decide on the direction in which the tree fell. By the size of the mound, he judges the probable height of the tree, and by the height of the tree he guesses the position of the first branch. Then, stepping out this distance, he puts in his spear to find the gum which lay in the forks of the branches when the tree was alive and standing. One of the finest collections of kauri gum has been gathered by a Mr. Eentoul in the Kaipara. These valuable and beautiful specimens are worthy of a fine museum. The Maoris often use pieces of gum to light their fires, or as torches on a dark night. Such torches burn with a bright flame, but give off a dark, heavy smoke, with a strong resinous odour. Genus Libocedrus. Shrubs or trees. Branches in young plants much flattened ; four-sided when mature. The male flowers form small catkins of 6 or 7 stamens ; the female, small cones of four woody scales. Ovules 2 ; seed winged. A genus of eight species, two in Chili, two in New Zealand, and one each in New Caledonia, Japan, China, and California. (Name from the Greek, signifying the drooping- cedar). Libocedrus doniana (The Kawaka). A lofty pine, 60-100 feet high, believed at first to be a Dacrydium. Its foliage in the young stage somewhat resembles a fern. The leaves are of two kinds, and are arranged in four rows. This four-sided arrangement is most plainly seen in the mature branches. The male and female flowers occur on the same tree, and are borne on the tips of the branchlets. The cone is £ in. long, small and woody, containing either two or four seeds. The timber is finely marked, and of a deep red colour, much valued for ornamental work by the cabinet-maker. North Island only : as far south as Hawke's Bay. Native name Kawaka or Ngawaka, often termed New Zealand Arbor vita by the settlers. Libocedrus Bid wi I Mi (Bidwill's Libocedrus). This is a smaller and more common tree. Its timber is durable and useful , but not so beautiful as that of the Kawaka. It is found in mountain districts in both islands. The tree is often known to the bushmen as the Kaikawaka* THE PINE FAMILY 67 Fig. 8. Miro Berries (nat. size). 68 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND though Colenso states that its correct name is Pahautea. The polysyllabic name " Totarakirikotukutuku" has also been applied to it, but Colenso, with admirably unconscious humour, states that " no old Maori would have thought of such a thing." It and the previous species are sometimes also called the New Zealand Cedar, but must not be confused with Dysoxylum spectabile, to which this name is often applied. Genus Podocarpus. Shrubs or trees. Leaves very variable. Catkins variable. Fruit a drupe, often edible. A large genus found in tropical and sub-tropical countries. According to the theory of Celakowsky, the female flower consists of one carpel, and one ovule with two integuments. In most of the New Zealand species, as the ovule ripens, the integuments become crimson and fleshy, thus attracting birds. (Name from the Greek signifying foot- fruited, in allusion to the fleshy peduncle). 7 sp. Podocarpus ferruginea (The Busty Podocarpus or Miro). A large tree, covered with a grey or blackish bark, which peels off in large flakes. The leaves are narrow and pointed, and are set in two rows on the branches. Male and female flowers are on separate trees — both axillary. The fruit is of the size of a small plum. It is of a bright red colour, and is covered when first ripe with a waxy powder, which gives it a delicate bloom. Native pigeons are very fond of the miro berries, and become very fat and lazy when feeding on them. These fruits have the odour and the taste of turpentine. They ripen in July and August, and the flowers are produced in October and November. The timber is hard and tough. It is not easily worked, neither is it so durable as that of most of the other pines. The gum which oozes from this tree possesses healing properties. It is found in both islands The specific name alludes to the rusty colour of the leaves. Podocarpus nival is (The Mountain Totar n). A much smaller tree than the preceding, often only a low shrub, densely branched. The branches grow outwards rather than upwards, and send out roots from their lower surfaces, thus forming a matted growth over the surface of the ground. These matted roots serve to hold together the loose soil and shingle of the alpine slopes, thus preventing landslips. The leaves are thick and leathery, with a stout midrib. The integuments of the ovule become very PINE FAMILY 69 swollen and form an attractive fruit, pleasantly sweet to the taste. Podocarpus nivalis grows at an altitude of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. The specific name has reference to its sub-alpine habitat. Podocarpus totara (The Totara). A lofty timber tree, one of the most valuable in the colony. The wood is of a reddish colour, and is equalled only by the kauri for lightness, soundness, and durability. It is used for telegraph posts, wharf piles, and sleepers — in fact, for anything where durability is required. The Maoris hollowed out their war canoes, sometimes seventy feet in length, from single totara logs. Its timber was so highly prized by the natives that fine, healthy trees became heirlooms, and disputes for possession of these trees often led to bloodshed. Its chief defect is- in its brittle nature, as, when loaded to its full strength, it may break suddenly without warning. It is very durable in water, and resists the boring of the teredo or ship- worm (a marine boring mollusc) more successfully than any other timber. This tree is peculiar to New Zealand, and attains its greatest height on low levels. The stiff, narrow leaves culminate in a sharp, needle-like point. The bark of the tree is often horizontally ringed near the base, and hangs in thin, papery strips. The foliage is of a brownish hue, especially in the young state. Podocarpus spicatus (The Spiked Podocarpus or Black Pine}. This pine, known to the natives as the Matai, is a lofty tree, but never of very great diameter. In its young state the branches are drooping, and bear scattered leaves of a deep coppery tint. When mature, however, the branches are upright and spiky like those of an ordinary pine. Both male and female flowers are borne in spikes ; hence the name spicatus. The young and the old trees are so extraordinarily different in appearance, that they were for some time believed to be separate species. Specimens have, however, been observed 70 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND with the weeping, copper-tinted branches below, and ordinary upright ones above. These are generally young trees of from ten to twenty years old. At a certain time of the year the matai trunks present a" brilliant appearance. Where the bark peels off, bright scarlet or crimson patches appear below, and a tree thus scaled is a beautiful object. The wood of this tree is of great value, but is very slow in growth. It is often used for the floors of ballrooms, skating rinks, etc., as it takes an excellent polish, and can be made to reflect almost like a looking-glass. One curious fact in connection with this timber is, that it will lie prostrate in the bush for years without decaying. Mr. Buchanan tells of a prostrate matai over which three broadleaf trees (Griselinia littoralis) had grown, enfolding it with their roots. These trees were calculated to be over 300 years old, yet the matai was perfectly sound, and was split up for fencing posts. Another was discovered with a fuchsia stem nine inches in diameter growing across it. One would not at first sight, imagine the matai to be one of the Coniferae, as its leaves are flat rather than needle-shaped, and its fruit is like a small black plum, containing only one seed. The cotyledons, also, are two in number, as in any broad-leaved tree. The shape of the mature tree is not conical like that of a pine, but spreading, after the fashion of an ordinary dicotyledon. Podocarpus dacrydioides (The Dacrydium-Uke Podocarpus or WUte Pine.) Native name, Kahikatea. The following, probably fanciful, derivation has been given of this name : tea, whitish, from the colour of the wood, and kahika, an ancient chief. The Nga-potiki Maoris tell a pretty story concerning the origin of this stately tree. It is said that a chief named Pou-ranga-hua was once blown out to sea in his canoe and cast ashore upon a strange island. The name of this island Fig. 9. The Totara (Podocarpus totara). 8 '"'"" M" »/"•«•», i>tu>to. 72 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND was Hawaiki. Here Pou-ranga-hua abode for some time, and was kindly treated by the inhabitants, but longed to return to his home and his wife. His canoe, however, was destroyed, and he had no means of reaching the mainland. At last his yearnings for home could be stifled no longer, and he begged a huge bird, of the name of Tawhaitari, to fly with him to Aotea-roa (New Zealand). On approaching the mainland, Pou reached out his hand, and stretching under the wings of the great bird, pulled out some of its finest and downiest plumes, which he threw into the ocean. From these plumes arose a lofty tree, which still bears fruit in the midst of the waters. A branch of this was broken off by the wind and cast ashore, and from this branch came all the kahikatea forests of New Zealand. It is said that Pou carried with him upon his aerial journey two baskets of seed kumaras, which were unknown in New Zealand until that time. The trunk of this tree is often branchless for seventy or eighty feet. The young leaves are flat and bronze-coloured, but those of the mature tree are green and scale-like. The catkins are very small, and are borne on the tips of the branchlets. The fruit is set upon a curious red berry, eaten by the Maoris. This berry or drupe is not the actual fruit, but is formed from the scales which bear the fruit. In their earliest stages these scales are white, and each one carries an ovule. As a rule, only one of these ovules comes to perfection. When this has occurred, the scales unite, become fleshy, and of a rich crimson colour, forming an oval receptacle with the shining blue-black nut embedded at its point. The undeveloped ovules are still seen as little white points at the base of the receptacle. The timber of the kahikatea is light in colour, and the green logs, having nearly the same specific gravity as water, will not float until fully immersed. Some of these logs, however, will not float at all, and are known to the bushmen as " sinkers." THE PINE FAMILY 73 Fig. 10. The White Pine or Kahikatea. 74 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND The wood is very suitable for the manufacture of paper and can be used for that purpose. The tree grows chiefly in swampy districts and in both islands. Genus Dacrydium. Shrubs or trees, found only in New Zealand, Tasmania, the Malay Archipelago, and the islands of the Pacific. Leaves narrow and scale-like. Male and female flowers on separate trees. Fruit, a small nut enclosed in a fleshy cup. (Name from the Greek for a tear, in allusion to the weeping habit of some of the species). 7 sp. Dacrydium cupressinum (The Eimu or Bed Pine.) This pine is one of the most beautiful objects in the New Zealand bush. Its pale-green, drooping branches differ from those of any other forest tree. " The leaves are only small prickles, running up a long stem, from which branch out other small stems whose united weight causes the main stem to hang like the branches of the weeping willow." The whole tree, when young, has the appearance of a lycopodium. Spruce- beer was made from the young branches by Captain Cook, and proved an excellent remedy for the scurvy. The seed is curious, consisting of a nut placed in a cup like that of an acorn. This fruit is tiny, but beautiful, the nut being of a blue-black and the cup red The male flowers are produced in inconspicuous green catkins at the end of erect branchlets. The female are solitary, at the tip of curved branchlets, and the nut is about one-eighth of an inch long. Prickles such as those on the leaves run spirally round the trunk. The timber is of a red or yellow colour, and beautifully marked. It is used to great advantage in dadoes, panels, and for ceilings. The Taranaki rimu is especially straight in the grain and very resinous. It is much used for bridge-building in that district. The heart- wood is extremely resinous, and was made into torches by the natives. It was split into shreds and tied into bundles, and only needed the ashes to be occasionally knocked off to burn with a bright, steady blaze. The rimu THE PINE FAMILY 75 Fig. llj Kahikatea Berries (nat. size). 76 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND bark is said to be healing, but must be taken, so say the natives, from the side of the tree toward the sunrise. Abundant in both islands. Dacpydium laxifolium (The Loose-leaved Dacrydium}. This is the smallest conifer known. Trees of only two inches in height may sometimes be found in fruit. The largest specimens are from ^ to 3 feet high, but these have weak, straggling stems, and are compelled to support themselves by the bush amongst which they grow. The flowers and fruit are similar to those of the ordinary rimu. Both islands. Genus Phyllocladus. A small genus, confined to New Zealand, Tasmania and Borneo. Leaves of two kinds, some linear, others small and scale-like. True leaves are found only upon young plants. As the tree grows these leaves disappear and their place is taken by fan-shaped phylloclades. Male and female flowers upon the same tree. Fruit, a small nutc (Name from the Greek signifying twig-leaf, in reference to the fact that the leaves are replaced by shoots) . 3 sp. Phyllocladus trichomanoides (The Celery-leaved Pine}. The native name of this tree — Tanekaha — is said to signify virile, or strong in growth. It is chiefly remarkable for the beauty of its leaf stalks, which are so enlarged and flattened out as to present the appearance of true leaves. In shape they are fan-like, and closely resemble the fronds of a maiden- hair fern. This curious metamorphosis of the leaf-stalks usually takes place in those plants which inhabit hot and arid regions. The female flower of this pine is borne upon the edges of the phylloclades, and the male flowers upon catkins at the tips of the branches. The seedling tanekaha bears long, narrow leaves, brownish-red above and green below, but these soon fall away, and the true leaves are seen only as small scales on the ends of the branches. The fruit is a small, inconspicuous nut. The tree will grow to a height of sixty or seventy feet, and the timber is much valued for its strength and durability. The bark contains a large quantity of tannin, and a red dye is obtained from it which is sometimes used in the preparation of. kid for gloves. The tannic acid of the bark is a valuable THE PINE FAMILY 77 Fig. 12. A Spray of Kiinu (nat. <ize). 78 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND astringent. The young saplings make excellent walking sticks. If the stem, while growing, is bruised by some blunt instrument, at regular intervals, the red dye contained in the bark stains the white wood, giving to the stick a beautiful mottled appearance. North Island, and South Island to Westport. Phyllocladus alpinus (The Mountain Celery Pine or Toa-toa.) This tree, like Phyllocladus trichomanoides, produces no true leaves, but only flattened twigs, which exercise all the functions of leaves. These, however, are very differently shaped from those of the lowland tanekaha. They are clustered heavily together at the ends of the branches, and are thick and fleshy, rather irregular in outline, and usually finely- toothed. The male catkins are found in clusters of from three to seven at the tips of the branches. The female are in cones, the ovules in fleshy cups of a bright crimson colour. The growth of this tree is rather curious. The lower branches bend down in a sweeping curve, rooting where they touch the ground. The tips of these branches, however, rise again, and form the stem of a new tree. This, in its turn, when its own branches are sufficiently grown, will repeat the process and so form another new generation. An old tree will in this way form a series of rings, with the parent still growing in the centre. The tree thus performs for itself the process of layering carried out by nursery gardeners with many herbaceous plants. (There must be, one would think, some difficulty in the ripening or dispersion of its seeds, which has caused the tree to adopt a different method of reproduction. It is found in both islands. THE PINE FAMILY 79 Fig. 13. Freycinetia:Banksii (the Kie-kie)— Flower (3 nat. size). .80 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND Pandanaceae. THE SCREW-PINE FAMILY. Distribution. — Chiefly a tropical family. Some of the species form large trees, but the majority are thick bushes. The name Screw-pine was given on account of the remarkable twisting of the stem in some species. The various species of Pandanus are noted for the large aerial roots, which, like flying buttresses, prop the stem. Their leaves contain a strong fibre, which is used in the making of sugar-sacks and fish-bags. Freycinetia Banksii (The Kie-kiej. A lofty, climbing shrub. Leaves 2ft. in length, finely-toothed, concave, sheathing at the base, with prickly margins. Flowers in terminal spikes, 3in.-4in. long, surrounded by white, fleshy bracts. Male flowers consisting of bundles of stamens, female of several ovaries, surrounded by infertile stamens. Fruit an oblong green spadix, with numerous, closely compressed carpels, • each Jin. long ; the lower part soft and hollow, filled with pendulous seeds ; the upper part hard and solid. Seeds small, numerous, oblong. The fleshy white bracts and young spikes of fruit are eaten by the natives and by children. The long fibrous leaves are used in the manufacture of baskets. North Island; and west coast of the South Island to Milford Sound. Fl. Sept. -Oct. Maori name Kie-kie. The flower is usually called Taivhara. 1 sp. Palmaceae. THE PALM FAMILY. Trees or shrubs, rarely climbers. Leaves large, divided, fan-like, with sheathing petioles. Flowers on a branched axis, enclosed in a spathe. Perianth of 6 segments ; stamens 6. Fruit a berry or drupe. Distribution. — This family of plants, which is said to be more valuable than any other, is represented on the mainland of New Zealand by a single species — the Nikau Palm — EJiopalostylis sapida. This tree is closely related to the Betel- nut of the East (Areca Catechu). Palm-trees are chiefly found in tropical regions, where they are often of wonderful utility, in bestowing upon the inhabitants of those lands shelter, food, light, heat, and clothing. The Coco-nut Palm, the Date Palm, the Sago Palm, THE SCREW-PINE FAMILY 81 Fig. 14. Freycinetia Banksii-Fruit (ureure), (H nat. size). 82 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND and the Oil Palm together furnish sugar, starch, oil, resin, cordage, writing materials, material for building and thatching, edible fruits, pleasant beverages, vinegar, soap, etc. The palms reach their southernmost limit in New Zealand. The stem of the palm differs greatly in structure from that of other trees. The ordinary forest tree grows in thickness by depositing fresh layers of tissue between the wood and the bark. If a felled trunk be observed, it will be seen at once that there is or has been a central pith, and around this, concentric shells of wood have been deposited. In young plants, the pith occupies a considerable portion of the stem, in old trees it becomes obsolete. The stem of the mature tree is, in fact, made up of a series of hollow cylinders of woody tissue tapering to the top, and placed one inside the other. The growth of such a stem is due to the presence of a generating tissue immediately below the bark, which annually gives rise to a layer of wood. Each woody sheath is in reality made up of a number of longitudinal strands or bundles (the fibro- vascular bundles) . Between the bundles, lines may be seen radiating out from the centre to the outer edge of the wood. These are the medullary or pith rays. The bundles comprising such a trunk are said to be open, because the generative tissue does not become exhausted, but the stem continues to grow in thickness from year to year. Such a structure is typical of the stem of a pine or dicotyledon. On the other hand, in a monocotyledonous tree, such as a palm, the pith always constitutes a considerable portion of the stem, and the woody bundles are scattered through it, not arranged in a circle round it as in the dicotyledons. Such bundles are no longer capable of growth in thickness, as the generating tissue is exhausted in their production. They are therefore said to be closed. The stem of a palm-tree therefore tapers but little, and cannot go on increasing in thickness. This is typical of a monocotyledon.* * The stem of the cabbage-tree, Cordyline, is exceptional. THE PALM FAMILY 83 Fig. 15. A Nikau Grove (Rhopalostylifi 84 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND The fan-like appearance of the beautiful leaves is due to the splitting up of the large, entire leaf, caused by the shrinkage of certain tissues. The flowers are sometimes borne on the axils of the leaves, but in other cases are terminal. They are, however, always enclosed while in bud, in a large spathe or sheath. Genus Hhopalostylis. Trees with pinnate leaves, and ringed trunks. Flowers in large axillary panicles. Flower-buds enclosed in a spathe. Stamens 6. Fruit a drupe. 2 sp. Rhopalostylis sapida (The Nikau Palm). A tree, sometimes 30 ft. in height. Stem ringed, green. Leaves 14 ft. in length. Spathes 2 or 3, 12in. long. Flowering axis white ; flowers white. Drupe Jin. long. Both islands : as far south as Akaroa on the east coast and Dusky Bay on the west. This elegant and graceful palm is found usually in thick bush. Any specimen standing alone will have its leaves bruised or broken. The Maoris used the nikau leaves in the construction of their whares, or native huts. A frame-work was made of manuka sticks, and the roof and walls composed of palm leaves, which formed a covering as water-tight as if built of iron. These leaves keep out the wet in a marvellous manner, even when the thatching is so open that one can see the clouds and stars through the interstices. Every separate leaf division is a little channel, which conducts the rain-drops to the ground outside. Nikau whares are extremely pretty and picturesque, but are now rarely seen, owing to the unfortunate cheapness of corrugated iron. Bushmen, how- ever, still make them occasionally for temporary residences. The top of the stem is fleshy and juicy, and is sometimes eaten. The nikau palm will stand fire almost as well as the cabbage-tree. After a big bush fire most of the trees are killed, except the nikaus, the cabbage-trees, and the fern- trees. The flowers are sessile upon a thick, fleshy axis, the whole inflorescence being enclosed when young in a large spathe. THE PALM FAMILY 85 86 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND The fruit is of a vivid red when ripe, appearing like a huge "bunch of coral. The berries are about the size of a large pea, and are extremely hard. They have been used by settlers for bird-shooting when ammunition was scarce. Though so hard, however, they are much relished by the kakas or wild parrots. These birds, unable to find foothold upon the smooth stem of the palm, hang upside down, with one claw fixed on the base of a leaf, and thus enjoy their meal. Fig, 17. Flower of the Nikau. Bhopalostylis sapida. (J nat size). The leaf-strips are much used by the Maoris for weaving into baskets and kits of every description. The bark is ringed with cicatrices formed by the falling off of the dead leaves. The base of a fallen leaf, with the fan-like part torn off, makes an excellent basket for carrying flowers. A curious six-headed specimen of the nikau, about forty feet high, was discovered not long ago in the Kaipara. (Fig. 19). THE PALM FAMILY 87 Fig. 18. Flower of Nikau (nat. size. 88 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND A species of Polypodium is sometimes found climbing up the nikau stem, but as a rule the trunk is too smooth and polished to allow creepers to gain any hold upon it. Liliaceae. THE LILY FAMILY. Distribution. — An extensive family, occurring in all climates. The greater number of these beautiful plants are herbaceous, with bulbous roots, but in tropical countries they sometimes attain to the size of large trees. Two of the most notable plants of this family, found in New Zealand, are the Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis) and the Flax (Phormium tenax). The lilies, tulips, and hyacinths are well-known garden flowers, while the onion, leek, and asparagus are useful vegetables. The Butcher's broom is the only shrubby British species. The calyx of all liliaceous plants is petaloid, that is, the sepals have the appearance of petals. The herbaceous species usually produce large and showy flowers. Key to the Genera. (a) Leaves net-veined. Fruit a berry. Climbing shrubs. Rhipogonum, p. 90. Creeping herbs. Luzuriaga, p. 92. (b) Leaves parallel- veined. Fruit a berry, Glabrous terrestrial herbs. Berries blue. Dianella, p. 98. Tufted silky herbs, usually epiphytic. Astelia, p. 98. Trees, or rarely herbs. Flowers white. Cordyline, p. 92. (c) Leaves parallel-veined. Fruit a capsule. 1. Flowers racemed, yellow, with spreading perianth. Bulbinella, p. 10-2. Flowers panicled. 2 2. Flowers white, perianth spreading. Pedicels jointed. Arthropodium, p. 100. . Flowers red and yellow, tubular. Phormium, p 102. Flowers, solitary, in spathes (sheathing bracts), when in bud. Herpolirion, p. 108. Genus Rhipogonum. A genus of three species, one New Zealand and two Australian. Rope-like climbers with opposite leaves, and racemes of greenish flowers. Perianth of 6 leaflets. Stamens, 6; longer than the petals. Fruit, a berry, scarlet. (Name from the Greek, meaning jointed twig). 1. sp. THE PALM FAMILY 89^ Fig. 19. Abnormally branched Nikau (Rlwpalosttjlis szpida). 90 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Rhipogonum scandens (The Climbing Rhipogonum). This is one of the most curious plants of the order. No one who saw for the first time the black, snaky liane-like stems of the supple-jack, would dream of relegating this plant to the lily tribe. The flower is green and inconspicuous, and is borne in long spikes or racemes, at the end of the shoots. It is only by noting the number and arrangement of petals and stamens, that one can realize that the Rhipogonum is a lilyc This strangling creeper forms one of the chief obstacles in getting through the bush ; and occasionally renders progress impossible. The brown and black ropes hang and twist everywhere, binding one tree to another, and forming loops and nooses above and below. The leaves, which are seen in any number only near the ends of the shoots, are opposite, oval, and entire, thick and leathery, with a metallic sheen upon them, The berries are oval, pointed at the end, and of a brilliant scarlet. The wiry stems are so strong, that they may be used as cords without fear of breaking, Rope-ladders have been made from them, for the purpose of climbing the steep cliffs which shut in the Wanganui River. They are used also in basket-work. In the Chatham Islands, we hear of native huts built of fern-posts, lashed together with supple- jacks, and thatched with toe grass ; also of rafts formed of the flower stalks of Phormium tenax, spliced with supple- jacks. The roots of the Rhipogonum are used by bushmen as a medicine, and the plant is sometimes called " Bush Sarsa- parilla." The native name is Kare-ao, which is plausibly interpreted to mean a twisting rope. Both islands, abundant. Fl. Dec.-Feb. Genus Luzuriaga. Small, creeping, glabrous herbs, with stems knotted at the joints. Leaves with netted venation, alternate. Flowers regular. Perianth of 6 leaflets. Fruit a berry. A genus of two species, one in South America and one in New Zealand. THE PALM FAMILY 91 Fig. 20. Spray of Supple-jack (i nat. size). 92 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Luzuriaga marginata* (The Marginate Luzuriaga). A pretty little plant, found chiefly in hilly districts. Leaves shining, fin. in length. Petioles twisted. Flower terminal, white, fin. long. Berry round. Both islands. Fl. Dec. and Jan. (The plant appears under the synonym Callixene parviflora in Hooker's Handbook and as Enargea marginata in Cheeseman) . Genus Cordyline. A genus found in New Zealand, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. The five New Zealand species arc all endemic. Herbs or trees. Leaves crowded, and sword-like. Flowers regular, bell-shaped, white. Stamens inserted on the petals. Berry whitish, containing angular, black seeds. (Name from the Greek signifying a club). 5. sp. Cordyline belongs to the sub-family Draccsnoideae, and is therefore related to the dragon-trees. Dragon's blood is the resin which exudes from the bark of Draccena Draco. A very famous specimen of this tree existed on the island of Teneriffe. It was supposed to be about 6000 years old, but was unfortunately blown down in 1868. It was then 70 feet high, and nearly 45 feet in girth. A peculiar secondary thickening of the stem takes place in this sub-family. The primary arrangement of the bundles of the stem is the same as in one of the palm-trees (v, p. 82) ; but after all the woody cylinders have been originated and are in course of development, a generating tissue appears in certain regions of the stem round the bundles, and grows radially, thus giving rise to secondary wood. For a fuller description of the processes of division and extension of the growing tissue, some text-book of anatomy should be con- sulted. The anatomy of the stem in the New Zealand species of Cordyline does not appear to be known at all fully, and would probably afford a profitable subject of investigation. Diels makes a curious mistake with regard to C. australis. He is surprised to find that it has a xerophytic structure, *This name is given on the authority of Engler and Prantl's Pjianzenfamilien. THE LILY FAMILY 93 though it grows, according to him, in dense shade. As a matter of fact, the cabbage tree, though often found in swamps, is characteristic of open dry lands and bare grassy hill sides. (See fig 21). It is, therefore, not a matter for wonder that the leaves should have devices protecting them against excessive transpiration. The stomata are placed in the grooves of the leaves, and are covered by cuticular projections, and thus the passage of gases from and into the leaf is checked. Fig. 21. Cabbage Tree Bush. A similar arrangement is to be found in DracopJiyllum latifolium. Cordyline australis. (Ti-kouka. The Cabbage Tree, or Palm Lily). This is allied to the celebrated Ti (Cordyline terminalis) of the South Sea Islands, which formed an important part of the food of the Polynesians. The prepared roots were eaten, and 94 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND from them an intoxicating drink was also obtained. The leaves are eaten by cattle. They are also used in thatching, and a rough kind of cloth is woven from the fibres. The genus is found over the greater part of the tropical old world, but chiefly in New Zealand, Australia, and the islands of the Pacific. There are several interesting species found in New Zealand — some tall and palm-like, — others stemless, sending Fig. 22. Luzuriaga marginata (3 nat. size). up their long, narrow leaves straight from the crown of the plant just above the soil. The cabbage-tree forms one of the most striking objects of the New Zealand bush scenery. Its inappropriate name is said to have been given by the early settlers, who used the young and tender heads in place of cabbage. Palm Lily, however, is a better term. The long bare stems, with their bushy heads of grass-like leaves, cannot be confounded with those of any other tree, and give to the landscape a THE LILY FAMILY 95 strangely tropical appearance. It is one of the largest of the liliaceous plants. Colenso states that he once saw a specimen, Fig. 23. Cordyline australis (flower and leaf) i nat. size. the trunk of which was sufficiently large to be used as a store- room. A Maori had fitted a door into the trunk, and kept his tools and baskets within it, though the tree was still living. 96 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND These plants appear to be wonderfully tenacious of life, — indeed it seems to be almost impossible to kill them. A number of trees were once cut down and thrown over a fence on to the shingly beach of a creek. For eight months they lay there, one fortnight rolling up and down in the salt tide, the next baking high and dry in the sun. At last an exceptionally high tide lifted them back again over the fence into the paddock. As soon as they found themselves upon soil once more, they sent out rootlets, and shortly afterwards were seen to be budding vigorously. A gum-digger in the north made his chimney of cabbage- tree stems, digging a trench, and setting in the trunks side by side. These were then nailed together, and for some months a fire was kept alight continuously, — until the stems were burned through, and only parts of the outside bark left. The man then left the place, and within a short time, that which had been a blackened chimney, became a mass of living green, Even a dry chip, flying from the axe, will, if it falls into a damp place, root and bud. The fibre of the leaves is perhaps stronger than that of the flax (Phormium) , and is much used by the settlers in place of twine. The leaves are well adapted for the making of paper. The flowers of the various kinds are all white or cream- coloured, and give out a strong, sweet scent. They are much visited by bees. The fruit is not capsular, as is usual among the Liliaceae, but succulent, and contains a number of angular black seeds. The cabbage-tree resembles most of its tribe in bearing a huge rhizome in place of a tap- or fibrous root. This rhizome, when the plant is dead, rots away in the ground and leaves a narrow, round hole, sometimes eight feet in depth. Ferns and small plants grow over the hole, and an unwary rider may be easily thrown if the horse catch his foot in it. The decaying leaves of the cabbage-tree are often phos- phorescent at night. Pigeons feed upon the milky- white THE LILY FAMILY 97 Fig. 24- Astelia Cunningharnii (fa nat. size.) 98 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND berries. It is found in both islands, and flowers in November and December. Cordyline Bariksii is distinguished from Cordyline australis by its much longer leaves, 5 ft. to 6 ft. in length, and its drooping panicle of flowers. Cordyliiw indivisa is a smaller tree, not often more than 10 ft. in height. Its leaves are very thick and leathery, with yellowish midribs. This plant has also a drooping flower-panicle. The fibre of its leaves was used by the Maoris in the making of garments, and is said to be stronger than the fibre of the Pliormium. Cordyline pumilio is a small grass-like herb, with leaves not exceeding 2 ft. in length, and a loose spreading panicle of white flowers. It is found only in the northern parts of the North Island, and is easily distinguished from the other species. Genus Dianella. A small genus, chiefly Australian. Rigid, shining herbs, with large panicles of white or blue flowers. Leaves long, narrow. Perianth of 6 leaflets. Stamens 6. Filaments incurved. Berry round or oblong. Seed, round. Root a rhizome. (Name from the Latin " Diana," the Goddess of the woods). 1 sp. Dianella intermedia (The Intermediate Dianella). This plant is found in woods or open fern lands. The leaves are from 1 ft. to 5ft. in length, and the flower panicles 10 in. to 18 in. long. Flowers Jin. across, white or pale blue. Berry £in. long, blue. Both islands, also Norfolk Island. Fl. Nov.-Dec. Genus Astelia. Large herbs, with heads of sword-like leaves, usually epiphytic. (Name from the Greek, meaning wanting a stem or trunk}. A very noticeable genus, forming immense tufts high up on the branches of the loftiest forest trees. The flowers are produced in large spreading panicles, like those of the Cabbage-tree (Cordyline}. The male and female flowers are found upon separate plants, and owing to the height at which they grow, there has been some difficulty in matching the sexes. Now and again, in traversing the bush, one will find a mass which has been torn from its support by its own weight, and has fallen to the ground. In such a case it is possible to examine at leisure the long, silky, chaffy leaves, with their sharply defined nerves, and — if it happens to be the flowering or fruiting time — the great silky THE LILY FAMILY 99 panicle of sweet, creamy or purplish blossoms, or close-set, transparent, wine-coloured berries. In the European forests, the trees invariably shed their leaves during winter, thus giving to the smaller plants which grow beneath them a possibility of obtaining air and sunshine, which is never available in the New Zealand bush. The dark-green gloom of the latter is never lightened, and few rays of sunshine can ever filter through its leafy roof. The smaller plants are thus Fig. 25. Astelia nervosa (k nat. size) threatened with death by suffocation, and their only chance of life is to raise themselves to the level of the forest trees, and so share with them the upper, sunnier air. Some, starting on the ground, wreathe themselves around a sturdy tree-trunk and climb steadily, leaving behind them leafless rope-like stems, until they reach a place where they may open out into leaves and flowers, with some surety of bringing them to perfection. Others, like the Astelias, rest securely in the 100 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND forks of the highest branches, eighty or one hundred feet above the ground, appearing to the beholder from below like huge birds' nests. The flowers of Astelia are sometimes tinged with purple ; and the long sprays of berries, with intermingled colours of red, yellow, and green, are very pretty. The latter have a sweet taste, and are eaten by the Maoris There are two species of New Zealand Astelias which grow in the open, instead of in the bush, and are consequently not epiphytic. These are linearis and nervosa, both of which are found in sub-alpine districts in the North, but at lower levels in the South Island- The Astelias, like many other epiphytic plants, provide against a long drought, by storing up water in the thick, curved bases of their circle of leaves. In the hottest and driest summer, when even the great forest trees are beginning to show signs of drought, the climber can rarely pull down a tuft of Astelia without a sprinkle of water-drops. These plants are natives of Australia, Tasmania, the Pacific Islands, and New Zealand. We have six species, which are all endemic. The berry is 1-celled in A. linearis and A. Cunninghamii ; it is 3-celled in the other species. A. Cunninghamii. — Leaves 2 ft. -5 ft. long, £ in. to 1 in. broad, silky. Flower scape 1 ft.-l£ ft., much branched. Perianth ^ in. A. Solandri is distinguished from A. Cunninghamii by its broader leaves (3 in. across), and its larger flowers (£ in. in diameter). A. linearis is a small alpine species, with leaves rarely more than 6 in. in length, and long, red berries. Genus Arthropodium. Herbs, with long grass-like leaves, and large, showy panicles of white flowers. Perianth of 6 leaflets ; stamens 6. Fruit a capsule ; seeds angular, black. Roots fibrous, fleshy. A small genus, found in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. (Name from the Greek signifying jointed foot or pedicel.) 2 sp. A rthro podium cirrhatum (The Curled Arthropodium). A handsome plant, 2ft. -3ft. high, with shining leaves and conspicuous white flowers. Bracts leafy ; leaves 1ft. long, l£in. broad. Flowers fin.-lin. across. The stamens of this plant are exceedingly beautiful. Seen under a magnifying THE LILY FAMILY 101 Fig. -26. Astelia Banksii Fruit (i nat. size ) 102 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND glass they resemble small bottle-brushes, covered with orange or pink bristles. Northern Island and Nelson, growing profusely upon rocky cliffs. PL Nov. -Dec. (Name in allusion to the brush-like filaments.) Usually known as the Rock Lily. Arthropod ium candidum (The White Arthropodium) . A much smaller plant, usually Tin. or Sin. in height, with soft, grass-like leaves. Flower-stem very slender; flowers white, Jin. across, with recurved petals. Open ground, both islands. Fl. Jan. -Feb. Genus Bulbinella. Herbs, with fibrous or bulbous roots. A large genus, found in all temperate climates. Leaves from the root, long and narrow. Flowers in racemes. Perianth of 6 leaflets ; stamens 6 ; filaments of stamens bearded. Fruit a capsule ; seeds black. 2 sp. Bulbinella Rossi i (Ross's Bulbinella.) A tall, sturdy plant, sometimes reaching 4ft. in height. Stem very thick ; leaves 8 in. -16 in. long, recurved. Flowers yellow, asphodel-like, £ in. across. This plant is abundant in the Auckland and Campbell Islands, while the smaller species, Bulbinella Hookeri, is found in lowland and sub-alpine pastures in both the Northern and Southern Islands of New Zealand. The flowers are as large as in the former species, but the leaves and the whole plant are smaller. It is frequently — at least in the Southern part of New Zealand — known as the Maori Onion. In some places a whole mountain side may be seen covered with a blaze of yellow from the presence of myriads of racemes of this plant. Fl. Oct. -Dec. Genus Phormium. Large, tufted, perennial herbs, with fibrous roots, and long, radical, linear leaves. Flowers in large panicles. Perianth of 6 leaflets, tubular, red, or yellow. Stamens 6, longer than the petals. Fruit a long capsule, many seeded. A genus of two species, both endemic. (Name from the Greek for a basket, in allusion to the use of the leaves by the Maoris in basket-making). Maori name, Harakeke. Phormium tenax (The New Zealand Flax, or Flax-Lily). This is a remarkable species, peculiar to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. Like the cabbage- tree, it forms a distinct and unmistakeable feature of the New Zealand landscape. It is totally unlike the flax-plant known to Europeans, though the two may be compared in the strength and usefulness of their fibres. The Linaceae (Flax Tribe) constitute a family in THE LILY FAMILY 103 Fig. 27. Arthropodinm cirrhatum (The Rock Lily). (4 nat. size.) 104 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND themselves, and are all small, herbaceous plants, with delicate, pale-blue petals. But the flax of the New Zealand swamps and hillsides is an entirely different plant. The coarse, dark- green leaves are often six feet or more in length, while its flower-stem occasionally rises to a height of fifteen feet. The finest variety is found by running water, while the plant of the stagnant swamp remains comparatively small. The settler is never in want of a piece of twine with a flax bush growing near his home. He has merely to take one of the long leaves, and tear a strip from it, and he holds in his hand a piece of string that it is almost impossible to break. The Phormium fibre is stronger than that of any other flax, but it is also more brittle when twisted. As to the treatment of it by the natives in the early days, we read in " Nicholas's Voyage," (1814), that " the natives, after having cut it down and brought it home green in bundles, scrape it with a large mussel-shell, and take the heart out of it, splitting it with their thumb-nails. The outside they throw away, and spread the rest out in the sun to dry, which makes it as white as snow. They spin it in a double thread, with the hand on the thigh, and then work it into mats, also by hand. Three women may work on one mat at a time." This plant was known in England in the early part of the nineteenth century. In the Annual Register of 1819, it was stated that ropes made from the Phormium had been experimented with in the Portsmouth dockyards, and found to stand the test. The ropes were said to be strong, pliable, and very silky. A Maori named Tupai visited England in the time of George III., and was amused to see a plant of flax growing in a pot under glass. It is said to have been cultivated in the open by a Frenchman of the name of Freycinet, in 1813, when it grew to a height of six feet, and bore a large spike of flowers. It seems also to have been, a little later, successfully cultivated in the British Isles, and to have ripened seeds as THE LILY FAMILY 105- far north as the Orkneys. It can bear uninjured a temperature of 15° Fahrenheit, and it is only at 9° that the tops of the leaves become frost-bitten. It appears to be a plant suitable for wide naturalization, on account of the varying temperature it will bear unhurt, and the fact that sheep and cattle do not usually eat it. Fig. 28. Phormiuin tenax. (The New Zealand Flax.) The root of the Phormium is a thick, creeping rhizome.. The leaves have no footstalks, but ascend straight from the crown of the plant. The flowers are more curious than beautiful, and are of a dull, dingy red, or sometimes yellow colour. The dark stamens hang out far below the petals, and are tipped with bright yellow anthers. These blossoms secrete a great quantity of nectar, which is very attractive to birds.. 106 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND They are visited constantly by the tuis and parrots, which thus cross-pollinate them. The seeds are black, shining, flat, and packed closely in a capsule. This plant has often been used medicinally, A pulp made from the roasted and macerated roots is sometimes applied as a poultice for abscesses, while a decoction of the same is said to act like a charm upon unbroken chilblains. The soft part at the base of the leaf is placed over wounds to stop bleeding, though some bushmen have an idea that the juice of the leaf acts as a poison to a cut, and aver that cuts obtained in the handling of the leaves in a flax-mill usually fester, A great quantity of the flax-fibre is now exported annually, and is at present valued at £24 per ton. The Maoris used this fibre for various purposes, such as making fishing-nets, cloth, and many ornamental articles. Love-tokens are said to have been made by the Maoris in the early days from strips of flax-leaves.* A double slip-knot was formed, which, if tightly pulled, ran into one large single knot. The double loop was presented by the young Maori to his sweetheart, who signified her consent to his silent proposal, by drawing the two knots into one. A flax-stick, or dried flower stem, is known to colonists as a korari, koradi, or kaladi. The first name is of course, the correct one (v. Accena, p. 202). It is very light and full of a brown pith. By the Maoris of old time these stems were put to many uses. THE LEAP OF PHOEMIUM. The leaf of the flax is one of the strongest and most remarkable known. When fully grown it attains a length of from three to ten feet, with a breadth of from Sin. to 4in. The colour varies from light yellow-green to a deep blue-green, with a yellow or red margin. There are, however, many varieties. The Maoris recognized more than fifty. Some of the cultivated * John White's "Te Bou, or The Maori at Home." THE LILY FAMILY 107 forms are much more richly tinted than the ordinary wild varieties. The bronze-leaved flax is perhaps the finest of those usually found in gardens. A variety, said to come from the Chatham Islands, has, along with a tinge of bronze in the leaves, beautiful crimson, almost translucent margins, and is much more pendulous and graceful than the ordinary stiff bayonet-like form. Variegated sports are common. One of them at least appears to have originated in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. The leaf is linear-lanceolate in shape with an acute point, and is folded longitudinally from tip to base, so that at about a third of its length from the point, the two upper and inner surfaces of the blade come together, and throughout half the length of the leaf are in close contact. At the butt of the leaf, the two halves are again separated by the younger leaves, which are ensheathed by the older ones. Large quantities of gum, which have been a source of great difficulty to rope-makers, are secreted between the halves of the blade. The leaves are arranged in fans. In a year or two, after the fan has produced its flower, it has withered away. The minute structure of the foliage is no less remarkable, than its form and general appearance. There is perhaps no leaf on the face of the earth, that has greater powers of withstanding tension than this one. The blade is intersected longitudinally, by large numbers of plates of strong-walled fibres, placed transversely to the breadth of the leaf. Between each pair of plates there are strands of similar fibres, running along the surface immediately below the cuticle (skin). Thus a considerable amount of rigidity, accompanied by most unusual strength, is developed in the leaves. The rigidity enables them, in spite of their length, to stand vertically ; and their great strength prevents them from being whipped to pieces by the wind. The tenacity of the fibres arises chiefly from the fact that the cells of which they are composed are dry, hard, filled only with air, and have very much thickened cell- walls. Schwendener has calculated that the sustaining 108 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND power of such cells is equal to that of the best wrought iron or hammered steel, while their ductility is from ten to fifteen times as great as that of iron. Moreover, such mechanical tissues are generally sc arranged as to withstand the maximum amount of strain, though occupying the minimum amount of space in the leaf. Habitat : Both islands, and Norfolk Island. Fl. Nov.-Jan. P. Cookianum, a small species, is found in both islands on dry hill sides. It is occasionally epiphytic. Fig. 29. Herpolirion novae-Zelandiae. Genus Herpolirion. Creeping, wiry herbs, with narrow, sheathing leaves. Flower-bud enclosed in one or more spathes. Perianth 6-parted, tubular. Stamens 6. Fruit a. capsule. A' small alpine genus of two species, one found in New Zealand, and one in Australia and Tasmania. (Name from the Greek, signifying a creeping lily.) 1 sp. Herpolirion novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand Herpolirion). This little plant is found in elevated swamps in Nelson and Canterbury, on the Taupo plains, and in lowland swamps in Otago and Stewart Island. The leaves are narrow and glaucous, lin.-2in. long ; the flowers |in.-£in. across,, white, or pale blue, almost sessile ; the bud is enclosed in a single spathe. FL. Dec.-Feb. THE IKIS FAMILY 109 Iridaceae. THE IBIS FAMILY. Distribution. — A large family, chiefly natives of warm and temperate regions. Saffron is obtained from Crocus sativus, and orris root is the fragrant rhizome of Iris florentina. The Flag, the Gladiolus, the Ixia, and the Crocus are well-known garden plants. This family is represented in New Zealand by the one genus Liber tia. Genus Libertia. Herbs, with umbellate panicles of white flowers. Stamens with united filaments. Capsule rounded, leathery or membranous. Seeds angular, deeply pitted in the New Zealand species. (Named after Madame Libert, a French botanist). 3 sp. Libertia ixioides. (The Ixia-like Libertia). Stem Gin. -2ft. in height. Leaves narrow, hard, pointed, ^in.-^in. broad. Flower-stalk panicled. Branches enclosed in spathes, bearing umbels of from 2-10 white flowers. Perianth fin.-lin. across ; petals larger than the sepals. Capsule brown or yellow, ^in.-Jin. long. Both Islands : common. Fl. Oct.-Jan. Libertia grandiflora. (The Large-flowered Libertia). Stem 2ft. -3ft. high. Leaves £in. broad. Capsule £in.-§in. long, turgid, obovoid. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. Orchidaceae. THE ORCHID FAMILY. Perennial herbs, terrestrial or epiphytic, with remarkably irregular flowers. Leaves entire, usually sheathing at the base. Perianth of 6 parts ; sepals 3 ; petals 3, the lower of these called the labellum or lip, usually large, spurred, and differing in form from the other two. Stamens united with the style to form a column, containing from 2-8 masses of pollen. Fruit a capsule ; seeds numerous. Distribution. — One of the largest orders of plants, consisting of nearly 5,000 species, and represented in almost every part of the globe, except where the climate is excessively cold. The beauty and strange irregular shape of the flowers of this order are due to the variation in size, shape, and colour of the six parts of the perianth. 110 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Its Fantastic Flower Forms. 11 There is no order of plants," says Dr. Findlay, in his paper on Orchidaceae in the " English Cyclopaedia," " the structure of whose flowers is so anomalous as regards the relation borne to each other by the parts of reproduction, or so singular in respect to the form of the floral envelope. By an excessive development and singular conformation of one of the petals called the labellum or lip, and by irregularities, either of form, size, or direction of the other sepals and petals, by the peculiar adhesion of these parts to each other, and by an occasional suppression of a portion of them, flowers are produced so grotesque in form that it is no longer with the vegetable kingdom that they can compare, but their resemblance must be sought in the animal world." This is no fanciful, far-fetched resemblance, as might be imagined by those who have no large acquaintance with these strange flowers. Anyone, observing for the first time the Bee Orchis (Grphrys apifera) of the English downs, would find it hard to believe that he did not see before him the real insect, so exactly does the flower reproduce the brownish- velvety body, streaked with gold bands, and the pollen-covered legs. The Fly, the Lizard, and the Monkey Orchis are likewise natives of Great Britain. In tropical countries the flowers of orchids, or parts of them, show many curious resemblances to various animals. Grass- hoppers', mosquitoes, dragon-flies, butterflies, swans, pelicans, the skin of the tiger and of the leopard, the eyes and teeth of the lynx, the face of the bull, the grin of the monkey, the head of the serpent, the tail of the rattlesnake, frogs, lizards, even the head of the extinct Dinotherium, are all mimicked by them. The New Zealand species are not so curious in this respect as those of most countries, though the little Silverback (Corysanthes macrantha), with its lurid purple flowers, and long antennae, has somewhat the appearance of a purple beetle or cockroach (Fig. 35). Pterostylis graminea and P. THE ORCHID FAMILY 111 Banksii have large, hooded, greenish flowers. Dendrobium Cunninghamii, with its many flowered racemes of pale rose and white, is perhaps our most beautiful orchid, though the sweet-scented Earina mucronata and E. suaveolens are hardly less beautiful. The commonest one is Micro tis porrifolia, which has a single, cylindrical, tubular, onion-like leaf, bearing a flower-spike with numerous small green flowers. The family Orchidaceae is found in almost all parts of the world, but reaches its highest development in tropical regions. In the temperate zone, these plants are chiefly terrestrial, but in tropical countries they are usually epiphytic. The Neottia nidus-avis of the British woods, like our Gastrodia, is a brown, leafless saprophyte, deriving its nourishment from the decay- ing organic matter of the soil in which it grows. The finest forms come from the Malay Archipelago, and from South America. Collectors go to these districts to hunt for new and rare plants, and often risk their lives for the sake of getting a fresh variety. Though the New Zealand forms are none of them large and showy, yet they are full of interest to the flower-lover and the naturalist. STRUCTURE OF THE ORCHID FLOWER. Darwin has shown that the orchid is probably a much modified, highly specialized lily. Both orchid and lily have three outer, and three inner perianth leaves, though these are probably not completely homologous, and in the case of the orchid they are generally very irregular and varied in shape. In the lily they are usually regular and similar. The stamens are reduced in number, generally either one or two anthers only being present. The filaments and style are fused together to form the " column," in the centre of the flower. The anthers are superior to the stigma, but are usually separated from it by an intervening platform, termed the rostellum, that assists in preventing self-pollination. The 112 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND pollen grains are collected together into a few club-shaped masses termed pollinia. These are often provided with a small glutinous pedicel, by which they may be strongly cemented to any object with which they come in contact. The ovary is inferior, : (and in this respect therefore unlike that of the lilies), and produces numerous minute seeds. Pollination of Orchids. Though most of the orchids require cross-pollination, and many have elaborate devices to secure it, yet if these fail, some of the species can be pollinated from their own anthers. Many Orchid flowers remain open for a long time. Thus the flower of one species of Cypripedium is said to last forty days, and of another, seventy days. This would seem to suggest that insect visits to these species are few and far between. Mr. G. M. Thomson also remarks on the infrequency of insect visits to those New Zealand orchids which he examined, though he attributes this,* in part at any rate, to the general cold- ness of the previous season. In spite of all their lures, therefore, even the orchids at times are compelled to resort to self-pollination. It is impossible to do more than mention one or two of the more extraordinary devices, by means -of which cross-pollination is secured amongst foreign orchids. We will then give a short account of the methods adopted by New Zealand forms. Perhaps the mode of pollination adopted by Coryanthes, as described by Dr. Criiger, is one of the most extraordinary.! " This orchid has part of its labellum or lower lip hollowed out into a great bucket, into which drops of almost pure water fall from two secreting horns which stand above it, and when the bucket is half -full, the water overflows by a spout on one ;side. The basal part of the labellum stands over the bucket, "Trans. Vol. XI. 11, p. 418 fDarwin, Origin of Species, Sixth Edition, pp. 154-155. THE ORCHID FAMILY 113 Fig. 30. Thelymitra longifolia and Microtis porrifolia (% nat. size.) 114 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND and is itself hollowed out into a sort of chamber with two lateral entrances ; within this chamber there are curious fleshy ridges." The most ingenious man, if he had not witnessed what takes place, could never have imagined what purpose all these parts serve. But Dr. Criiger saw crowds of huge humble bees visiting the gigantic flowers of this orchid, not in order to suck nectar, but to gnaw off the ridges within the chamber above the bucket , in doing this they frequently pushed each other into the buckets, and their wings being thus wetted, they could not fly away, but were compelled to crawl out by the passage forming the spout or overflow. Dr. Criiger saw ' a continual procession ' of bees, thus crawling out of their involuntary bath. The passage is narrow, and is roofed over by the column, so that a bee, in forcing its way out, first rubs its back against the viscid stigma, and then against the viscid glands of the pollen masses. The pollen masses are thus glued to the back of the bee which first happens to crawl out through the passage of a lately expanded flower, and are thus carried away When the bee thus provided flies to another flower, or to the same flower a second time, and is pushed by its comrades into the bucket and then crawls out by the passage, the pollen mass necessarily comes first into contact with the viscid stigma, and adheres to it, and the flower is fertilized. Now at last we see the full use of every part of the flower , of the water secreting horns, and of the bucket half full of water, which prevents the bees from flying away, and forces them to crawl out through the spout and rub against the properly placed viscid pollen masses and stigma." In Catasetum, an allied orchid, the method of cross-pollination is simpler, but none the less remarkable and effective. The bees come to gnaw the ridges of the labellum, and in so doing must touch a long sensitive " antenna/' This apparently transmits a sensation to another part of the flower, — a spring is set free, THE ORCHID FAMILY 115 and the pollen mass is shot out like an arrow against the back of the entering bee, which carries it off to the female flower. Pollination of some New Zealand Species. The methods of pollination of some of the New Zealand forms, have been described by Mr. G. M. Thomson and by Mr. Cheeseman.* It would appear from Mr. Thomson's investigations, that several at least of our native orchids are self-pollinated. Mr. Fitzgerald has shown in his " Australian Orchids" that in the genus TJielymitra all forms may be found between plants which are regularly self -fertile and are never cleistogamic, and those which are completely dependent upon insects for pollination. The New Zealand Thelymitra longifolia is a very puzzling case. It is one of the commonest of New Zealand orchids. In the North Island it is almost everywhere abundant except in the dense bush. In the South Island it is hardly less common. According to Mr. Cheesemant " the flowers usually open about nine o'clock in the morning, neatly reclosing about four or five in the afternoon. There is, however, considerable irregularity as to this, somo varieties only opening for a short time in the middle of the day, others remaining expanded for a much longer period." On the other hand, in the South Island, it is rare to find an open flower. Even in fine weather not more than a few per cent, of the flowers open properly. The chief reason why flowers do not open in wet weather is that rain destroys their pollen ; many of them therefore close in rain or adopt ingenious con- trivances for keeping their pollen dry. Now, Mr. Cheeseman has observed, (loc. cit.), that rain reduces the pollen of this plant to a pulpy mass. This is perhaps the primary reason for its closing. One would consequently expect to find it more frequently opened in the drier climate of Australia, than in New Zealand. However, observations seem to show the * Trans. Vol. V. p. 352, and Vol. XIII., p. 291. t Trans. Vol. XIII. , p. 293. 116 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND reverse to be true. Though the plant is well adapted for cross-pollination, insects rarely visit it. Mr. Cheeseman states, " For the last seven years I have made it a practice to watch beds of this orchid, and, save on two occasions, I have never seen winged insects enter the flower, and in both these cases the pollinia were not removed." Out of 218 flowers examined, only seven had lost their pollinia. Thus, it would appear, that the plant is occasionally, though very rarely, cross-pollinated. On the other hand, as the species is a predominant one, it must obviously be largely self-fertilized and often cleistogamic, thus apparently forming an exception to the general rule that it is a disadvantage to a flower to be self-pollinated. Earina, Dendrobium, and Corysanthes, on the other hand, are apparently completely dependent upon insects to secure pollination. The following description is abstracted from Mr. G-. M. Thomson's account of the pollination of Earina suaveolens : " The flowers are only about one-third of an inch in diameter, white in colour, with a yellow centre, and with an almost overpoweringly sweet perfume. The labellum is 3-lobed, and stands nearly erect in front of the column. There is no nectary, but the tissue at the base of the labellum is easily punctured, and exudes beads of moisture. The column is short and erect, the stigmatic surface very concave, with the viscid rostellum projecting prominently forward above it. The anther is terminal and deciduous, and encloses four pollinia attached in pairs to a short stem, and resting on the rostellum. From the position of the parts it appears to be impossible that self-pollination could take place. The pollinia are very coherent, and lie closely ensconced in the anther case. For pollination by insects, however, the parts are very simply fitted. An insect, visiting the flower, would insert its head or proboscis into the small square aperture between the labellum and the column, and in withdrawing it would inevitably touch the viscid surface of the rostellum, and bring away the pollinia. Were these to THE ORCHID FAMILY 117 Fig. 31. Earina suaveolens (nat. size.) 118 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND be withdrawn just as they lie on the summit of the column, they would hardly be in a position to strike the stigmatic surface of another flower in the hollow below the rostellum, but in being withdrawn, the cap of the anther pulls them slightly downward and depresses them considerably, so that they are easily placed on the stigma of a second flower." Pollination in the genus Pterostylis has been well described by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman." The lip is sensitive, and, when touched, closes up against the column. An insect landing upon it is thus entrapped, and the only means by which it can escape is by the narrow channel left between the column and the lip. In passing along this channel, it must strike first the viscid stigma below the rostellum, and afterwards the anthers above the rostellum. The back of the insect will now be sticky, so that it will carry off with it the pollinia, or portions of them, to the next flower which it visits, and place them upon its stigma. As each plant bears only a solitary flower, it is clear that cross-pollination must be effected not only between different flowers, but between different plants. The flowers of this genus are pollinated by certain species of flies. This method of entrapping insects seems to be unique in the order. The large green hooded flowers of this genus are, in spite of their size, not very conspicuous, and it is not always easy to determine what attraction they possess for the insects. The Absorption of Moisture. Orchids are not only remarkable for the structure of the flower, and for their methods of pollination, but in many other ways. Thus, they have often highly specialized methods of absorbing moisture. There is in New Zealand, a minute species of Bolbophyllum, B. Pygmceum. It is not uncommon, but is frequently overlooked, as it is so inconspicuous. The genus has received its generic name, because, at the base of each leaflet, is a small bulb, in which are concealed the *Trans. Vol. V., p. 352. THE ORCHID FAMILY 119 Fig. 32. Pterostylis Banksii ($ nat. size.) 120 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND stomata by which the plant transpires. The object of this arrangement is two-fold. It enables free transpiration to go on in the wet season, when the plant is surrounded by moisture that would otherwise choke the pores ; and, in the dry season, the concealment of the pores checks excessive transpiration. Again, Dendrobium and Earina very frequently grow upon trees, or in the clefts of rocks. In such situations, of course, no moisture can be received from the soil ; and if the leaves were thin and broad, there would be excessive transpiration, and the plant would wither. Consequently, they are narrowed, and have become rather thick and leathery. The dimensions given in Hooker's Handbook for the breadth of the leaves in these genera are : E< mucronata J to i in., E. suaveolens $ in., D. Cunninghamii J in. Contrast these leaves with those of a shade-growing plant like Corysanthes macrantha. The latter has round flaccid leaves full of moisture, which would soon wither if exposed to strong sunlight. In Micro tis, the leaf has been rolled up into a cylinder, no doubt with the object of conserving its moisture, In Bolbophyllum, the leaf has been reduced to a scale-like process, But Earina and Dendrobium, have not only endeavoured to check transpiration through the leaves, they have also increased the root surface, and specialized it for the absorption of moisture, After clamping themselves to the rock, or to the bark of a tree, by their roots, they produce numerous other white, membranous, papery, filamentous roots. The outer surface of these roots is composed of a spongy tissue, that cannot fail to> absorb any moisture in the vicinity. Key to the Genera. 1. Perennial epiphytes or rock plants. 2 Roots terrestrial, stems annual. 6 2 Pollen granular. 3 Pollen waxy. 4 3. Stem slender, leafy. Sepals free, Disk of lip naked. Earina p. 122, 4. Leaves not on pseudobulbs . 5 Leaves on pseudobulbs. Bolbophyllum p. 124.. THE OKCHID FAMILY 121 Fig. 33. Earina suaveolens on tree bark. 122 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND 5. Stem, slender, leafy. Lateral sepals attached to column. Lip with crests on its face. Stems very short, leafy. Lip concave, middle lobe solid. 6. Plants with 1 or more leaves. Plants leafless. Flowers numerous, brown. 7. Leaf solitary (2 in Caladenia bifolia). Leaves 2 or more. 8. Leaf solitary, broad, membranous. Leaf solitary, slender, flat or terete (2 broad in Caladenia bifolia). 9. Flower 1. Flowers few. 10. Flower sessile, purple, large. Sepals long, filiform. Flower with a long stalk. Sepals broad, upper concave. 11. Sepals and petals acuminate or awned. Sepals and petals linear, obtuse. 12. Leaf tubular. Flowers many, minute, lip below. Leaf rounded, linear or flat, but not tubular. 13. Flowers many, minute, with lip uppermost. Flowers few, pink, blue or yellow. 14. Leaf flat. Flowers 1-4, pink. Lip glandular. Leaf, rounded, thick. Flowers 1 or more, yellowish or blue. Lip, sepals, and petals all similar. 15. Flowers solitary. Flowers more than one. 16. Flower large, green, helmeted. Lip narrow. Upper sepal arched. Lip with large purple gland. 17. Flowers numerous. Upper sepal oblong. Flowers several. Upper sepal helmeted. 18. Lip with 5 ridges. Lip 3-lobed. *Not further described. Dendrobium, p. 124. "Sarcochilus. 7 Gastrodia, p. 124 8 15 12 10 11 Corysanthes, p. 125 *Adenochilus. Acianthus, p. 124. Cyrtostylis, p. 125. Microtis, p. 125. 13 *Prasophyllum . 14 Caladenia, p. 125. Thelymitra, p. 126. 16 Pterostylis, p. 126. *Chiloglottis. *Spiranthes. 18 *Lyperanthus. Orthoceras, p. 127. Genus Earina. Epiphytic herbs. Leaves, narrow, leathery, numerous. Flowers in terminal •spikes, white, lip touched with yellow. Sepals and petals almost equal in shape; lip 3-lobed. Pollen masses 4. Fruit a capsule. (Name from the Greek signifying Spring-flowering). Earina mucronata (The Sharp-pointed Earina). Leaves strap-shaped, 4in.-6in. long, £in. broad, marked with whitish longitudinal lines. Flowers in slender panicles, white, £in. broad, lips spotted. Fragrant. Eoot fibrous, fleshy. Both islands. Fl. Oct. -Dec. 2 sp. Earina suaveolens (The Fragrant Earina). Leaves linear, alternate, 2in.-3in. long, Jin. broad, rigid. Flowers in short, stiff racemes, larger than in mucronata. Sepals oblong. Petals ovate. Lip broad, 3-lobed, with two orange spots. Peduncle twisted, spotted with .black dots, as are the backs of the sepals. Both islands. Fl. April-June. THE ORCHID FAMILY 123 Fig 34. Dendrobium Cunningham!! (i nat. size.) 124 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Genus Dendrobium. Epiphytic herbs, rigid in habit. Leaves, narrow, numerous. Flowers large, usually racemed, rarely solitary. Petals smaller than the sepals. Lip large, 3-lobed. Pollen-masses, 4. A large genus, many of whose plants are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. (Name from the Greek, signifying tree-life, in allusion to the epiphytic habit). 1 sp. Dendrobium Cunningham ii (Cunninghams Dendrobium). Stems shining, branched, pendulous, 1ft. -2ft. in length. Leaves lin.-l£in. long, ^in. broad, pale green, striped. Flowers in short racemes, fin. across, pale rose-coloured. Petals as long as the sepals. Lip with a small claw. Both islands. Fl. Nov. -Feb. Genus Boibopliyllum. Minute, leathery, epiphytic herbs. Stem matted, bearing small tubers or bulbs, each carrying one or two leaves. Flower solitary or spiked, very similar to Dendrobium. (Name from the Greek, signifying leaf-bulb}. 2 sp. Bolbophyllum pygmseum (The Pygmy Bolbophyllum). A very minute species. Bulbs no larger than a pea. Leaf solitary, sessile. Flower solitary, minute. Both islands. Genus Gasirodia. Terrestrial, leafless herbs, with twisted fleshy roots. Stem clothed with brown scales. Flowers drooping, in racemes, brownish white. Petals smaller than the sepals. Pollen-masses, 4. Found only in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, and the Indian Islands. (Name from the Greek, signifying pot- bellied}. Gastrodia Cunninghamii (Cunninghams Gastrodia). A curious plant, 2ft. in height, with a thick, starchy root-stock, which was sometimes used as food by the natives. Flowers, 10-20 upon a spike, dirty-green, spotted with white, aromatic but unpleasant. Not uncommon in damp bush in both islands. Fl. Dec. -Feb. 3 sp. Genus Acianthus. Slender herbs, with tuberous roots, and one single heart-shaped leaf. Flowers large for the size of the plant, green or brown. Pollen-masses 8. (Name from the Greek signifying pointed-flower) . 1 sp. Acianthus Sinclair!! (Sinclair's Acianthus). A tiny, transparent-looking plant, with small greenish-white flowers, two to six in a raceme. Leaf deeply two-lobed at the base. Both islands. Fl. Aug. THE ORCHID FAMILY 125 Genus Cyrtostylis. These are similar plants to Acianthus, differing only in the winged column, and un-awned perianth. (Name from the Greek, signifying a curved column) . Cyrtostylis oblonga has an oblong leaf, and C. rotundifolia, a round one. The former may be found in both islands ; the latter on the east coast of the Northern Island only. Genus Corysantlies. Small fleshy herbs, with broad leaves, and solitary purple flowers. Petals smaller than the sepals. Pollen-masses four. Found in Australia, New Zealand, and the Malay Archipelago. The species are usually distinguished by the varying shape of the leaves, e.g. C. triloba, C. oblonga, C. rotundifolia. (Name from the Greek, signifying helmet-flowered). 7 sp. Corysanthes macrantha (The Large-flowered Corysanthes) . This is the largest of all the species. Leaf lin.-l^in. broad, very thick, silvery on the under-side. Flowers ^in.-lin. across, deep purple, with long- tailed slender sepals and petals. Lip broad, spotted, recurved. Both islands : damp bush. Also in Auckland Islands. Fl. Oct. -Dec. Genus Microtis. Erect slender herbs, with sheathing leaves. Flowers in a thick spike, green, minute. Pollen-masses four. A small genus, chiefly Australian. (Name de- rived from the Greek, meaning a little ear). 1 sp. Microtis porrifolia (The Onion-leaved Microtis). A variable plant, from 6in.-24iii. high. Leaf solitary, tubular. Flower- spike 20-80-flowered. Flowers ^in. long, green. Abundant in both islands. Fl. Oct.-Jan. Genus Caladenia. Slender, tuberous-rooted herbs. Leaf solitary (rarely 2). Scape 1-4-flowered. Column winged. Pollen-masses four. (Name from the Greek, signifying a beautiful gland). 8 sp. Caladenia minor (The Lesser Caladenia). A slender, hairy plant, 2in.-8in. high. Leaf solitary, narrow. Flower solitary, pink or purple, Jin.-£in. across. Lip 3-lobed. Abundant on dry hills in the Northern Island. Found also in Otago. Fl. Oct.-Jan. C. Lyallii is a larger plant, with 1-2 flowers, ^in.-lin. broad. C. bifolia is a distinct plant, with two radical, oblong leaves, and a solitary flower, fin.-lin. broad. Lip broad, entire, with two lines of glands. Found on grassy hills in both islands. 126 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Genus Pterostylis. Slender, leafy, shining herbs, with tuberous roots, and solitary green flowers. Leaves radical or cauline. Column broadly winged. Pollen-masses 4. A genus confined to Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. (Name from the Greek, signifying a winged column] . 11 sp. Fig. 35. Corysanthes macrantha (§ nat. size). Pterostylis Banksii (Banks' Pterostylis). A talh, slender herb, with numerous alternate leaves, and solitary, hood- shaped green flowers, striped with white. Stem 6in.-18in. high ; flower 2in. -Sin. long. P. graminea is very similar to P. Banksii. Both islands. Fl. Oct. -Jan. Genus Thelymitra. Erect, tuberous-rooted herbs. Leaves 1 or 2, narrow, with a membranous sheath below. Flowers in a short spike, blue, purple, or yellow. Column hooded. Pollen masses 4. A large genus, found only in Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and the mountains of Java. (Name from the Greek, in allusion to the hooded column capping the anther). 8 sp. THE ORCHID FAMILY 127 Thelymitra longifolia (The Long-leaved Thelymitra). A variable plant. Leaves £in.-lin. broad, leathery. Spike 2-10 flowered. Flowers ^ in.-| in. broad, blue or purple. Both islands abundant. Thelymitra pulchella (The Pretty Thelymitra) is a large-flowered species ; T. Colensoi (Colenso's Thelymifcra) and T. imberbis (The Beardless Thelymitra) have yellow flowers. Genus OrtJwceras. Erect, glabrous herbs, 10in.-12in. high, with tuberous roots, and radical, grassy leaves. Upper sepal hooded ; lateral sepals lengthened into long tails, erect. Pollen masses 2. (Name from the Greek, signifying a straight horn). 1 sp. Orthoceras So I and ri (Solander's Orthoceras). Leaves very narrow, with sheathing bases. Flower-spike 2in.-6in. long. Bracts large, boat-shaped, greenish-brown. Flower Jin. long, livid purple. Lateral sepals ^m.-ljin. long. Lip drooping, with yellow stripe. Abundant on clay hills in the North Island. Also found in Nelson. Piperaceae. THE PEPPER FAMILY. Distribution. — The pepper plants are mostly natives of tropical or sub- tropical regions. The structure of the wood is anomalous, but it is too complicated for description here. The Piperaceae are noted for their pungent leaves. Piper nigrum, the pepper-vine, produces our table pepper. This plant bears spikes of red fruits, which, when dried by heat, become black and shrivelled. These are known as peppercorns, and are ground into powder, forming Black Pepper. White Pepper is obtained from the same fruit macerated in water. The Kawa of the South Sea Islands is a member of this family, and is closely related to the New Zealand Piper excelsum. Genus Peperomia. A large genus of 400 species, with two representatives in New Zealand. Stems and leaves fleshy, bright green. Flowers in erect catkins. Stamens 2. Ovary sessile ; stigma sessile ; berry sessile. (Name from its affinity to the Pepper). 128 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Peperomia Urvilleana (D'Urville's Peperomia). A juicy creeping herb, 4in.-10in. high. Leaves alternate, ^in.-lin. long, broadly oblong, obtuse. Catkin with a footstalk, pale-green, erect, lin.-l^in. long. North Island : wet rocks, mossy stumps, etc. Kermadec Island, Norfolk Island. Fl. March-April. Genus Piper. A large tropical genus of climbing shrubs or small trees. Leaves alternate. Flowers in erect, solitary, or twin catkins, axillary, green. Stamens 2. Ovary sessile ; stigmas 2-5. Macro pi per excelsum (The Lofty Pepper). A small tree, sometimes 20ft. in height, shining, aromatic. Leaves heart- shaped, 3in.-5in. long, pointed at the tip, 5-7 nerved at the base. Leaf-stalks winged at the base. Catkins slender, lin.-4in. long. Fruit a yellow berry. Both islands as far south as Banks Peninsula. Kermadec Islands. Fl. Oct.- Nov. Maori name Kawakawa. A decoction of the leaves is used by the natives to allay toothache, to cure rheumatic pains, and also to reduce swellings or inflammation of any kind. The wet leaves and twigs slowly burned produce a bitter smoke, said to be fatal to insect life. Fagaceae. THE CHIEF FEATURES OF THE FAMILY. The flowers of the order are small and inconspicuous, and as they are adapted to wind pollination, have no special devices for attracting insects. Stamens and pistil are found on the same plant, but in different flowers. The male flowers are generally borne in catkins. Distribution.- -No older family of dicotyledonous trees than this is known. It includes the birch, alder, hazel, hornbeam, beech, oak, and chestnut. Closely allied to these are the willow, poplar, and walnut. The earliest oaks come from the Cretaceous, and were coeval with the first undoubted dicotyledons. The method by which the pollen tube reaches the embryo sac in some plants of the order is of a highly archaic type, known elsewhere only among the primitive Casuariniae (she-oaks, etc.) of Australia. If antiquity, then, were a claim to representation in the New Zealand forests, this family should be conspicuous by the number of its species. It is, however, represented here only by some THE PEPPER FAMILY 129 Fig. 86. Macropiper excelsum (§ nat. size). 10 130 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND half-dozen species belonging to the southern genus Nothofagus, which is found also in South America and Australia. In the northern hemisphere on the other hand, the family is very largely developed, and includes most of the important deciduous trees of North America and the Eurasian Continent. The forests, therefore, of the north temperate zone are really of older type than those of south temperate regions. In South America, however, Nothofagus in many places forms as large a component of the flora as in New Zealand. Darwin's description, in "The Voyage of a Naturalist," of the forests of Tierra del Fuego, might well have been written of some bush creek in south-western Otago. Replace Fagus betuloides by a local species, and the Winter's Bark by the closely allied Drimys axillaris, and the picture becomes completely true for New Zealand. Probably nowhere else in the southern hemisphere could one find two such similar forests, sundered by an ocean one-third of the circumference of the earth in width. THE BEECH FOREST. The beech is a most attractive tree, whether growing in countless hosts, or in solitary state. When scattered over a plain, such as the valley of the Upper Hutt, it gives the landscape a spacious and park-like aspect. It is equally as handsome, when it covers the folds of some giant alp with a garment of uniform thickness and changeless hue. Perhaps the beech forest is most beautiful when its depths are illuminated by the rays of sunset. It often happens in Canterbury, during a north-west gale, that just before nightfall the sun drops below the heavy curtain of clouds into the clear arch of sky below, and " at evening it is light." As the level beams are thrown into the recesses of some sombre bush-clad ravine in the foot-hills, the sight is one to be remembered for a lifetime. Though quite natural, it seems, from the vividness of its spectacular effects, unnatural. The giant limbs of the trees push forth on all sides with lance-like thrust, and the inter-spaces between their wide-spreading horizontal branches, form pathways, by which the shafted light can penetrate far into the bush. The great halls of greenery are revealed in vista after vista, and in the background are seen the brown, dead leaves, that "lag the forest brook along," for in these drier districts there is little. THE BEECH TREE 131 In the Beech Forest. 132 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND undergrowth. Over the countless green mosaics of the living tranches, with their two-ranked twigs and leaves, the evening sunshine passes, and stirs into activity all the life within, at the same time throwing into relief the infinite detail of tracery and arabesque in bough and bole, The bearded lichens trailing from the branches are almost motionless, though the wind thunders overhead. One side of the valley is in the dimmest twilight, whilst on the other every shoot flares out in almost garish distinctness. The contrast is a violent one ; but it is soon gone, and only the rosy colours of the clouds above remain to break the darkness. With sunset the north-wester always lulls for a short time, and then its roar gives place to the coo-ee of the weka and the melancholy cry of the owl. DISTRIBUTION OF THE NEW ZEALAND SPECIES. The genus Nothofagus has some half-dozen representatives in New Zealand, all forest trees known to bushmen as "birch," but more correctly termed beech. It is now futile to hope that the more exact name will become popular ; but we might at least expect some consistent nomenclature to be adopted through the islands. At present the various species are designated almost indifferently, white, red, black, silver birch, etc. What is the white birch in one part of the country may be the black in another. Mr. T. Kirk proposed a set of names, which might well replace the confused series now in use. Indeed, the same authority tells us that "it is not too much to say that the blundering use of common names in connection with the New Zealand beeches, when the timber has been employed in bridges and constructive works, has caused waste and loss to the value of thousands of pounds." The use of the name birch in place of beech is, perhaps, somewhat excusable, as both N. Menziesii of New Zealand and N. betuloides of South America show some external resemblance to the English birch. THE BEECH FAMILY 133 Unlike most of the other New Zealand trees, the beeches form great forests in which few other plants are to be found. Ordinarily, the bush is extremely varied. Sometimes as many as forty or fifty species of trees and shrubs can be found in an acre of ground, — a greater variety than exists in the whole of the British Isles'. In Europe, on the contrary, one or two species of trees generally constitute the greater part of the forest. Amongst these, the beech may be mentioned as a dominant form. Fossil evidence seems to show that the oak in many places has given way to it. We know too little of the past history of New Zealand, to enable us to determine if the beech forests are on the increase or decrease here. Dr. Cockayne considers that their distribution tends to show that they are decreasing. This may be so, but beech forests that have been cut out, if left undisturbed by man and animals, will soon replace themselves. Other forest-forming trees do not do this. The kauri, at least, is decadent, and the white pine forests are largely confined to swamps, which often dry up on the felling of the bush. Whereas the beeches are found both in wet and dry lands; though they seem to prefer the drier slopes of the mountains. N. cliffortioides is a sub-alpine species only coming down to sea-level in south-western Otago. N. Menziesii is found at similar levels from Hauraki Gulf southward. N. Solandri is perhaps the most abundant of our beeches, and forms immense forests, particularly in drier situations, throughout the islands as far north as the East Cape. On the dry eastern slopes of the Canterbury ranges there is little else to be found in the forests. N. fusca is more sparsely distributed throughout the islands, being found in wetter situations. It is rarer in Canterbury Province than in any other, though found in small quantity on Banks Peninsula. One remarkable feature in connection with the distribution of the beeches, is their total absence from Stewart Island. This is quite inexplicable 134 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND at present. It can scarcely be thought that they have never existed there. Possibly they have been displaced. Genus NotJiofagus. Shrubs or trees. Leaves leathery, stipules deciduous. Male flowers several Perianth bell-shaped, 5-6-lobed. Stamens, 8-12, inserted round a central disk. Female catkins usually erect; flowers, 2-4, sessile, with an involucre formed of small scales. Ovary, 3 -celled ; cells, 1-ovuled. Fruit consisting of from 2-4 angular nuts enclosed in a prickly 4-valved involucre. (Name, signifying the Southern Beech). N. Menziesii (Menzies9 Beech). A large tree, 80ft. -100ft. in height, with silvery bark. Young shoots clothed with brown hairs. Leaves shining, dark green, £in. long, ovate or rounded, obtuse, crenate. Fruiting involucre downy, Jin.-^in. long, with soft spines, glandular at the tips. Nuts downy, 2-3-winged ; wings sharp, pointed. North Island : Euahine Mountains and Waikare Lake ; South Island : fiom Nelson to Dusky Bay. The *Silver Birch or Bed Birch. Fl. Nov.-March. N. fusca (The Dusky Beech). Trunk 80ft. -100ft. in height, sometimes 12ft. in diameter. Branches downy. Leaves lin.-l^in. long, oblong-ovate, serrate. Male flowers 1-3 ; perianth 5-toothed. Fruiting involucre ovate. Nuts winged ; wings toothed. North Island : mountainous districts ; South Island : abundant. The * Black Birch or Bed Birch. N. Solandri (Solander's Beech). Trunk 100ft. in height, 4ft. -5ft. in diameter. Bark white in young trees, black in old. Young shoots very downy. Leaves fin. -fin. long, oblong, obtuse, entire, oblique at the base, white below. Male flowers solitary ; perianth broad Fruiting involucre, hairy or shining, ^in. long ; segments with scales entire or toothed. North Island : mountain forests ; South Island : alt. 3, 000ft. -6, 000ft. The * White Birch. Fl. Nov.-Jan. N. cliffoptioides (The Cliffortia-like Beech). A small tree, with leaves rounded or cordate at the base, in other respects resembling N. Solandri. North Island : Euahine Mountains ; South Island : Sub-alpine forests. (Cliffortia is a genus of the Eosaceae). The ""Mountain Birch. *These names are common but unreliable. THE BEECH FAMILY 135 Fig. 38. Xothofagus Menziesii. Flower and leaf (3 nat. size). 136 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND Urticaceae. THE NETTLE FAMILY. Distribution. — A family of under 500 species found in almost every part of the globe. The Nettles are the best-known plants belonging to it. The stamens are bent down in the bud and often explode when ripe. Some of the species yield remarkably tenacious fibres, which are used in cordage. (Name from the Latin, signifying to burn, from the burning, stinging sensation caused by the hairs of the nettles.) Key to the Genera. 1. Tree, juice milky. Male flowers spiked. Paratrophis, p. 136. Shrubs or herbs, juice watery. 2. Leaves with stinging hairs. Flowers in spikes or racemes. Urtica, p. 136. Leaves without stinging hairs. Flowers in cymes or clusters. 3 3. Shrubs. Leaves entire. Stamens, 4 Parietaria, p. 138 Herbs. 4 4. Herbs, leaves crenate. Stamen 1. tAustralina. Herbs, with red brown leaves. Flowers in a fleshy receptacle. Elatostema, p. 138. tNot further described. Genus Paratrophis. Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, hard, evergreen. Flowers in spikes ot catkins, dioecious. Perianth of 4 leaflets. Ovary, ovoid ; styles, 2. Fruit a nut or drupe, 1-seeded. A small genus, chiefly tropical. 3 sp. Paratrophis heterophylla (The Milk-tree). Tree, sometimes 30-40 ft. in height. If a slit be cut in the bark of this tree, a thick, sweet, milky juice will flow from it. Leaves £ in. -2 in. long, oblong, toothed. Male flowers in catkins, £ in. -fin. long; female in short spikes or clusters, whitish green. Drupe, red. Both islands. The Milk-tree of the settlers. Fl. Oct.-Nov. Genus Urtica. Herbs or shrubs, with stinging hairs. Leaves, opposite ; flowers in axillary clusters or spikes. Calyx of male flowers 4-partite, stamens 4. Calyx of female flowers 2 or unequally 4-partite ; stigma tufted. Ovary, ovoid. Ovule, erect. Fruit a small dry nut. About 30 species, natives of tropical and temperate regions. 4 sp. Urtica ferox (The Fierce Nettle). A tall shrub ; stem woody ; stinging hairs rigid, £ in.-J in. long. Leaves 2 in. - 5 in. long, variable in shape, coarsely serrate teeth ending in a hard bristle. Leaf-stalks also covered with stinging hairs. Flowers in racemes. Both islands. Fl. Jan.-March. Maori name Onga-onga. THE NETTLE FAMILY 137 Fij,'. 39. Paratrophis heterophylla (about nat. si/d. 138 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND The stinging sensation produced by this plant will sometimes last for three or four days. Genus Parietaria. Weak herbs, rarely small shrubs. Leaves entire, opposite, often downy. Flowers in axillary cymes. Male flowers with 4-partite perianth. Stamens, 4. Female flowers tubular ; perianth, 4-partite. Ovary ovoid ; ovule erect. Nut minute. A small but widely distributed genus ; found in waste places. The Pellitory is a well-known English plant of the genus. (Ancient Latin name referring to the growth of some species on walls). 1 sp. Papietaria debilis. (The Weak-stemmed Parietaria). Slender annual. Stem, 6 in. -24 in. long. Leaves, £ in. -2 in. long, ovate, acute. Female flowers in dense clusters. Both islands, common. Fl. Nov. -Dec. Genus Elatostema. Succulent herbs, rarely shrubs. Leaves unequal-sided, bronzed, or brown-red. Flowers often inconspicuous, surrounded by fleshy involucres. Male flower with a perianth of 2 or 4 pointed leaflets. Female flowers with a small, imperfect perianth. Fruit a small compressed nut. A large tropical genus. 1 sp. Elatostema rugosa. (The Wrinkled Elatostema.) A robust herb, shining or downy. Stem, 1 ft. -2 ft. in height. Leaves, 4 in. -10. in. long, alternate, sessile, acute, toothed, auricled at the base. Flowers, dioecious. Male flowers, with fleshy receptacles Jin. across, surrounded by bracts. Female flowers with smaller, more hairy receptacles. North Island : damp bush, or by the sides of creeks. Loranthaceae. THE MISTLETOE FAMILY. Distribution. — The plants of the Mistletoe Family belong chiefly to the hotter parts of Asia and America, though a few are found in Europe, Africa, and New Zealand. In the genus Loranthus, a cup-like expansion of the flower-stalk just below the perianth is considered by some botanists to be a calyx, and the 4-8 lobes of the perianth are regarded as petals. The members of this family are all partially parasitic, and grow on trees and shrubs. A plant, which can get the whole or part of its carbonaceous food by robbing another, will require either no THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 139 leaves, or leaves considerably reduced in size. Hence it is that many parasitic plants have a very much reduced stem structure and leaf area. In some of them little more than a flower is developed, cf. Cuscuta, Cassytha, Dactylanthus. Since parasites do not grow like other plants in the soil, but send out processes which penetrate into the woody tissues of their hosts, their method of germination is often quite abnormal. Very frequently also the seed leaves are poorly developed or altogether wanting, and the parts of the embryo are but little differentiated. (Contrast Avicennia.} New Zealand is very rich as compared with Great Britain in woody parasites. In England there is only one such plant, the Mistletoe (Viscum album}. It grows commonly on soft- wooded trees such as the poplar, silver fir, and apple. It rarely attacks the oak, and when it did so it was an object of worship to the Druids of early Britain. Key to the Genera. 1. Leaves 0., branches jointed, flattened. Viscum, p. 144. Leaves present. 2 2. Leaves opposite. Flowers hermaphrodite. Loranthus, p. 139. Leaves opposite and alternate, flowers dioecious. Tupeia, p. 144. Genus Loranthus. An extremely interesting genus of about 200 species, all the members of which are semi-parasitic shrubs. Flowers solitary or in racemes. Calyx cup- shaped, more or less toothed. Corolla tubular, petals 4, free or united below. Stamens 4, inserted on the petals. Style slender, deciduous. 6 sp. The genus Loranthus is widely distributed throughout tropical and sub-tropical regions, and some of the species produce handsome and brilliant flowers in great abundance. The finest of the New Zealand forms is L. tetrapetalus. It is found most frequently upon Nothofagus Solandri. No finer floral display can be seen in New Zealand than a gloomy forest of Fagus trees lit up by immense masses of scarlet Loranthus flowers, glowing like jewels among the dark green leaves of the beech. It is seen, perhaps, at its best when one rows up 140 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND some sluggish lowland stream such as the Turakino, through beech forest, whose boughs, brilliant with Loranthus blossom, meet overhead. Tourists are very apt to mistake this plant for the rata. L. Fieldii* is perhaps as fine, but it is little known. It grows in the beech forests to the south and west of Kuapehu. Mr. Field says of it, " The Loranthus forms large bushes in the tops of the trees, and the blossoms are so abundant as almost to hide the foliage, so that each bush, when in flower, looks like a flame. I believe the largest bushes are quite ten feet in diameter, and those of six feet are common. As the blossoms fall, the whole ground is sprinkled with petals. They are yellow at their bases, but shade gradually, through orange and scarlet, to crimson, and even carmine at the tips." The flowers of this species open in a curious fashion, for which at present no explanation is forthcoming. A few open outwards from the apex in a normal way ; but in most of them the petals become detached at their bases, and roll upwards and outwards (cf. Kniglitia excelsa, p. 146). Their weight drags the stamens downwards, and these finally break off and fall to the ground, with the petals still attached to them. We have probably here some curious and unexplained device to secure cross-pollination ; but the description given by Mr. Field is obscure at one or two points, and, as in a conjuror's trick, the facts which have not been observed, are probably the facts necessary for a solution of the problem. L. micranthus is the species that is most abundant in the lowland forests. It is almost everywhere common in any piece of " bush " on the East Coast, from the Bay of Islands southwards. It has many different hosts, and is sometimes found in unexpected places. It has been obtained upon totara, Carmichaelia, Coprosma, and even upon Eubus (the bush lawyer). It also flourishes upon many introduced plants. Mr. Potts noticed it upon the plum, pear, Abutilon, *Trans. XVII., p. 288. THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 141 white-thorn, pink-thorn, peach, and laburnum, at Ohinitahi (Lyttelton). At Akaroa it grows abundantly, and nourishes upon the false-acacia (Eobinia). The great variety of its habitats probably shows that the plant is not very dependent on its hosts for nourishment. Indeed, its mass of green, glabrous, glossy leaves look as if they could easily sustain it. Obviously, when growing on the Eobinia, it must, like the English Mistletoe, sustain itself during the winter, as the false acacia is deciduous. The means by which the New Zealand species obtain their nourishment, and their methods of germination, have not been closely observed. Mr. Potts (" Out in the Open" p. 136) has however, described with some detail the early stages in the growth of L. micranthus. The berries of all loranths are extremely attractive to birds. In the case of L. micranthus, as they ripen they become whitish, or slightly roseate, and finally assume a rich golden-yellow hue. As soon as they are ripe they are greedily eaten. Before the introduction of foreign birds, they were probably eaten by the tui and the bell-bird ; now it is the blackbird and thrush that feed upon them. The seeds pass through the digestive canal of the bird, and are glued by its slimy excrement to the branches of trees. In some cases, doubtless, the viscid pulp of the berries themselves enables the seeds to adhere to the branches of the tree, so that it is not absolutely necessary that they should be eaten. " In the first stage towards development," says Mr. Potts, " the adherent seed may be seen lying on the fostering spray, quite firmly fixed, covered over with a strong coating of transparent varnish ; the indication of the future growth, a smooth green speck at the large end of the seed." For some time no feeding stems are put forth. Long branches some- what resembling rhizomes of a polypodium are then produced, and follow the course of the branch of the host, sometimes even descending the trunk of the main tree. Where these stems cross each other they inosculate. At different places 142 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND they send out suckers into the tree, and at these points, rounded woody lumps are formed, invested with dark-brown membranous scales. The earlier leaves of the plant are strongly tinged with reddish purple, some are of a pale bronze margined with claret, and the branches are of a rich warm brown. Some years elapse before the plants assume the darker shades of green. L. Fieldii often puts out short rootlets which clasp the branch, and frequently grows on branches smaller than itself. " Thus," Field (loc. cit.), " one with roots from one to one and a half inches thick will grow on a branch no thicker than a man's little finger, which, of course, bends down with its weight, so that the Loranthus swings about with every breath of air." Yet it is evident that the plant is nourished by the beech tree, for, if the beech is killed, the Loranthus invariably dies with it. There are many points of interest known with regard fco the development of European species of Loranthus, and a closer investigation of New Zealand forms will undoubtedly well repay the labour spent upon it. Loranthus Colensoi (Colenso's Mistletoe). A. large glabrous shrub. Leaves 1£ in. -2 in. long, broadly oblong or obovate, with a short stout petiole. Flowers 1^ in. -2 in. long, scarlet, in pairs, on a short, stout, 3-9-nowered peduncle. Both islands. Fl. Dec. -Jan. L. Fieldii is a little-known somewhat similar species from the centre of the North Island. Loranthus tetrapetalus (The Four-petaled Mistletoe). A much branched rigid shrub. Leaves decussate, £ in.-f in. long, ovate or elliptic. Flowers axillary, in opposite 2-4-flowered racemes. Petals free, scarlet, recurved at the tips. Both islands. Common on Nothofagus Solandri. FL Jan.-Feb. Loranthus flavidus (The Yellow Mistletoe}. Leaves 1 in.-2 in. long. Racemes drooping, 10-12 flowered. Flower yellow, J in. long. Both islands. THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 143 Fig. 40. Tupeia antarctica (pistillate flowers and berries) (% nat. size). 144 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Loranthus micranthus (The Small-flowered Mistletoe}. Leaves 1£ in.-3 in. long, obovate or oblong. Flowers minute, green, J in. long. Abundant throughout the islands. Fl. Oct. -Nov. Genus Viscum. Parasitical shrubs. The New Zealand species are leafless, small, with flattened, jointed branches, much constricted at the joints. Flowers very minute, unisexual, in spikes, or solitary, or whorled at the joints of the branches. Male flower : perianth 3- or 4-leaved, anthers sessile on the perianth lobes ; female flower : perianth 3- or 4-lobed. Style 0 or short, stigma obtuse. Name from the Greek. 3 sp. To this genus belongs the Mistletoe. Bound it clings many a myth from old Keltic and Teutonic times. The New Zealand species, however, are insignificant, and seem to have been unnoticed by the Maoris. Their mode of attachment to the host is quite unknown. The European mistletoe puts out a radicle which terminates in an attachment disk, that becomes cemented to the host. From the centre of this disk is pushed out a " sinker " into the tissues of the branch below. No further development takes place in the first year. Subsequently, there is developed an extremely complicated series of suckers, which may be compared to a rake in shape. The process is very intricate, but highly interesting. Viscum salicornioides (The Salicornia-like Mistletoe). A small plant, much branched, 3 in. -4 in. high. Joints ^ in.-£ in. long, rounded. Flowers very minute, solitary or few together. Perianth 3-lobed. Both islands, parasitic on various shrubs. Fl. Nov. -Jan. Viscum Lindsayi (Lindsay's Mistletoe). A small plant, 4 in. -6 in. high, branching, succulent. Joints of stem flat, rather longer than broad, ^ in- broad. Flowers in spikes, J in. long, very minute. Perianth 3-lobed. Parasitic on Coprosma, Metrosideros, Melicope, etc. Both islands. Fl. Nov.- Jan. G-enus Tupeia. Distribution. — An endemic genus of one species. It does not, like Loranthus, send out rhizomes which fasten themselves at many points to the host, but has only one root. It is found parasitic on many different plants ; in the south, perhaps, most frequently upon Nothopanax. In the north of Auckland, THE MISTLETOE FAMILY 145 however, it is the tarata (Pittosporum eugenioides) which is attacked almost exclusively. Cases of double parasitism have been frequently observed in connection with Tupeia. Thus, in Eiccarton Bush, Mr. J. B. Armstrong discovered Loranthus micranthus growing upon it. At Broken Biver, Mr. T. Kirk found Loranthus tetrapetalus growing on Nothofagus Solandri, and itself bearing T. antarctica. The staminate flowers of Tupeia are found in panicles, in which the individual blossoms are not only more numerous, but larger in size than those on the pistillate panicles. Both forms are of a greenish yellow hue. The berries are beautiful and very varied in colour, ranging from white and pink to deep purple on the same branch. The flowers and leaves droop immediately the parasite is cut away from its host. Tupeia antarctica (The Antarctic Tupeia). Leaves \ in.-l^ in. long, obovate, with short petioles, pale-green. Panicles 6-10 flowered. Flowers & in. in diameter, greenish-yellow. Both islands. Fl. Oct.-Dec. Proteaceae. Distribution. — A remarkable family, found chiefly in Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. Many species are grown for their curious or brilliant flowers. The Australian Bottle-Brush (Banksia) is one of the most remarkable species. Leucodendron argenteum is the Silver-Tree of the Cape. Key to the Genera. A small tree. Leaves entire. Fruit a drupe. Persoonia. A lofty tree. Leaves serrate. Fruit dry. Knightia. Genus Knightia. Slender, lofty trees. Leaves leathery, shining, serrate. Flowers in dense cone-shaped racemes. Perianth a club-shaped tube, the 4 segments finally separating and becoming revolute. Ovules 4. Follicle 1-celled. Seeds winged at the tip. A genus of two species, one of which is found in New Caledonia. (Named after Knight, a writer on vegetable physiology). 11 146 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Knightia excelsa. (The Honey -suckle). A tree, sometimes reaching to the height of 100ft. Leaves 4in. - Sin. long, stiff, roughly notched or toothed, obtuse, linear -oblong. Flowers in racemes, sessile, red, velvety, 2 in. - Sin. long, 2 in. in diameter. Perianth lin. - l£in. long before expansion ; ^ in. diameter in the middle. Follicle woody. North Island and Pelorus sound. Fl. Nov.-Dec.. Maori name Eewa-rewa. It is sometimes called the Bucket-of -water-tree, because it is so slow of com- bustion. This plant is related to the Australian bottle-brushes. It is found only in the North Island and Marlborough, and, from a distance, bears a considerable resemblance to the Lombardy poplar. Several points in the growth and development of the long tubular flowers are worthy of notice. The buds are set round a long floral axis, and the whole cluster has a strange appearance, like a bottle brush composed of red velvet. The gradual opening of these buds is very curious, and well worth watching. The top of the tube opens first, very slightly, so as to expose the tip of the style. It then splits open, for a short distance, into four separate segments at the base of the perianth, leaving the tube still for the most part closed. Finally, it bursts suddenly, and the four elastic segments thus set free, roll themselves downwards, and coil into spiral bands at the base of the perianth. The flower, now fully open, presents a strange, tangled appearance, very different from that of the bud. The anthers, which are attached to the top of the perianth, and in contact with the style, mature their pollen, while the tube is still closed, and deposit it upon the swollen portion of the style. This would suggest a device for self-pollination, but a closer examination shows that it is, after all, an ingenious contrivance to provide for cross-pollination. The stigmatic surface is minute, and depressed in a small cup at the top of the stigma. The flower is much visited by the tuis and bell-birds. These birds, pushing their beaks into a bunch of newly-opened flowers, receive the pollen upon the front of the head, and probably smear it over the stigmas of THE BOTTLE-BRUSH FAMILY 147 Fig. 41. Kuightia excelsa (Bud and flower) (i nat. size). 148 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND more fully developed clusters. The stigmas ripen later than the anthers, and there is consequently little likelihood of self- pollination. The opening of the flower, and its subsequent pollination, would afford excellent subjects of observation for a nature study class. The wood of this tree is much used for ornamental cabinet-work. Genus Persoonia. Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate, leathery, variable. Flowers axillary, in short spikes or racemes. Perianth a club-shaped tube, opening by 4 segments. Ovules 1 or 2. Drupe with a 1 or 2-celled nut. A large Australian genus. (Name after Persoon, a botanist of Cape Colony). 1 sp. Persoonia toru. (The Torn or Toro). A small tree. Leaves narrow, 3 in. - 8 in. long, leathery, entire, polished on both surfaces. Flowers in axillary 6-10 flowered racemes, 1 in. long. Perianth ^ in. long. Ovary sessile, shining. North Island : Auckland only. Fl. Oct. -Nov. Santalaceae. THE SANDAL- WOOD FAMILY. Distribution. — A widely distributed family. The species found in Europe and North America are herbaceous, while those inhabiting India, Australia, and New Zealand, are shrubby or arborescent. Santalum album, (The Sandal- wood), an Indian species, is much prized for the fragrance of its wood. The family is represented in New Zealand by two genera, each consisting of one species only. Genus Fusanus. Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate or opposite. Flowers racemose, axillary, green. Perianth bell-shaped, composed of 4 - 5 leaflets, hairy at the base. Stamens, 4-5. Disk, 4-5-lobed. Ovules, 2-4. Drupe, round, or shaped like a top, 1-seeded. An Australasian genus. Fusanus Cunninghamii (Cunningham's Sandal-wood). A small tree, with variable leaves, opposite in young plants, alternate in mature trees, 2 in. -4 in. long, dotted, veined. Flowers, £ in.-J in. long, 4-5 lobed. Drupe, Jin. long. North Island : northwards from the east coast. Fl. Sept.- Oct. (v. p. 335). BOOT PARASITES 149 Balanophoraceae. A FAMILY OF KOOT PARASITES. Distribution. — A small family, chiefly tropical, of which Balanophora and Cynomorium are the principal genera. The latter was the Fungus Melitensis of the Crusaders. The New Zealand species is endemic. LIFE HISTORY. There is perhaps no more remarkable family of flowering plants than this. Its members are all root-parasites, and like all parasites, have become very much reduced in structure. The life history of one of the Balanophoraceae is shortly as follows. The seed, which is very rudimentary, falls to the ground, and reaches a suitable root buried under the vegetable mould of the forest. It adheres to the root, and forms a little tubercle. The bark of the host is broken open, and an extraordinary series of developments takes place, that has as yet received no adequate explanation. The wood fibres of the host separate into a fan-like mass, and being diverted from their original course, pass up towards the parasite. This in its turn sends out cells and vessels, which penetrate between the ascending vascular bundles of the host ; and, by the coalescence of the tissues of the two plants, an intermediate zone is formed, composed partly of the cells of each, though, in some still stranger cases, there are also developed cells whose origin cannot be definitely referred to either plant. This phenomenon somewhat resembles a natural grafting, but it is a grafting between plants of completely different types. The tubercle now grows to the size of a fist, or larger, and short, thick, fleshy shoots are sent out from it. These do not develop true leaves, but in many cases produce scales, which surround the flower-heads. The flowers are either terminal or in spikes. The colouring of these flower shoots is often most remarkable. They are frequently fungoid in appearance. Indeed, early writers of the nineteenth century were so 150 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND puzzled by their resemblance to fungi, that they considered them to be in some fashion crosses between a fungus and a flowering plant. Such an idea, of course, appears ridiculous in the light of modern knowledge. Crosses or hybrids only occur between closely allied forms. The Balanophoraceae are true flowering plants, that have become highly specialized in order to maintain their existence. Although they mimic fungoid growths, they are no more closely related to the fungi than penguins are to fishes. Fig. 42. Dactylanthus, from Taylor's New Zealand. Dactylanthus Taylori (Taylor's Dactylanthus). There is only one representative of the order in New Zealand, Dactylanthus. This solitary species forms a distinct tribe by itself. It was originally discovered in New Zealand by the Eev. K. Taylor in 1857, growing on roots of Pittosporum, and Nothofagus, somewhere near the head waters of the Wanganui. Since then it has been met with on several occasions, in widely different parts of the North Island ; but it is evidently not common. Mr. Taylor describes it as having an earthy and BOOT PAEASITES 151 rather unpleasant smell". On the other hand Mr. Hill, who found it in the East Cape district, states that it was " the delicious daphne-like fragrance which it emitted," that first drew his attention to it. Our plant, indeed, is not one of the foul-smelling or fungoid forms, although the flowering stems are inconspicuous and of a dull-brown colour, and are clothed with overlapping fleshy scales. According to Taylor, the " petals of the flowers are slightly tinged with pink in the centre, but in general they are. of a dirty white and brown colour." By the Maoris the plant is called Pua-o-te-reinga (The flower of Hades). Why this term was applied to it, is not clear, but it seems not inappropriate. It has been found on the roots of Schefflera digitata and Coprosma grandifolia, as well as on the roots of the plants already mentioned. Fusanus Cunningliamii and Euphrasia cuneata are also, it is believed, partly root parasites. (The name Dactylanthus is from the Greek, meaning Finger-flowered, in allusion to the finger-like spike) . Polygonaceae. THE BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. Distribution. — A widely distributed family of plants, occurring both in arctic and tropical regions. The leaves and stems are usually acid or astringent, and frequently contain oxalic or malic acid. The Ehubarb, Sorrel, Dock, and Buckwheat are well-known members of this family. Key to tlw Genera. 1. Flowers, unisexual. Mtihlenbeckia, p. 152. Flowers, hermaphrodite. 2 2. Stigmas, tufted. Rumex, p. 152. Stigmas capitate. Polygonum, p. 152. *Kev. B. Taylor. New Zealand, and its Inhabitants, p. 697. 152 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Genus Polygonum. Very variable herbs, rarely shrubs, sometimes aquatic. Stipules often fringed. Flowers white or red, usually in spikes or racemes, sometimes axillary and solitary. Perianth 5-lobed ; stamens usually 6-8. Ovary triangular. A large genus, of which tho British species are known as knot-grass, bistort, etc. (Name from the Greek, meaning many knots, in allusion to the knotted stems). 3 sp. Polygonum aviculare. (The Common Knot-grass). Stem woody at the base. Branches hard, grooved, often prostrate, Gin. - 24in. long. Leaves Jin. - IJin. long, leathery, linear oblong ; stipules silvery, ragged. Flowers small, axillary, 1-3. Nut triangular. Very common on waste ground, perhaps introduced. Fl. Dec. -March. Genus Muhlenbeckia. Shrubs, often climbing. Flowers usually spiked or panicled, sometimes axillary and solitary. Perianth 5-lobed, becoming fleshy in fruit, white. Stamens, 8. Ovary triangular in shape. Nut ovoid, black, enclosed in the white, fleshy perianth. A small genus found in South America, New Zealand and Australia. 4 sp. Muhlenbeckia adpressa. (The Close-fitting Muhlenbeckia). A large rambling climber. Stem, twining, grooved. Leaves J-in. - 2in. long, oblong or heart-shaped, 3-lobed in young plants. Flowers in spiked panicles, green, small. Stigmas, plumose. Nut black, enclosed in the white fleshy perianth. Both islands : common. Also in Norfolk Island, Australia and Tasmania. Fl. Nov. Muhlenbeckia complexa. (The Clasping Muhlenbeckia). Stems slender, creeping or climbing, interlacing, wiry, grooved. Leaves shining, £-inch -£inch long, rounded or heart-shaped. Flowers in spikes or panicles, few. Nut black, enclosed in the white fleshy perianth. Both islands. Fl. Nov. Muhlenbeckia axil lapis. (The Axillary -Flowered Muhlenbeckia), A small, variable species, with slender, tufted branches. Leaves small, shining, t^m- - Jin. long, oblong, obtuse. Flowers axillary, solitary. Perianth fleshy in fruit. Both islands: chiefly in mountainous districts. Fl. Oct. -Nov. Genus Humex. Herbs, rarely shrubby. Stipules ragged. Flowers in racemes or panicles, inconspicuous, green or reddish. Sepals, 6, the 3 inner enlarged. Styles 3. Fruit a triangular nut, covered by the three enlarged inner sepals. A large and. widely distributed genus, to which belong the Docks and the Sorrels. 2 sp. THE BUCKWHEAT FAMILY 158, Fig. 43. Muhlenbeckia cotnplexa (i nat. size). 154 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Rumex flexuosus. (The Tortuous Dock). A much branched herb, 1ft. - 2ft. long, prostrate, shining. Leaves 4-in. - Sin. long, linear- oblong, sometimes waved at the margins. Flowers in distinct whorls. Lobes of perianth in fruit ^in. long, veined, sometimes with 1 - 4 spines, keeled. Keel sometimes spiny. Both islands : common. Fl. Nov.- March. Fig. 44. Muhlenbeckia axillaris. Fruit (life size). Chenopodiaceae. THE BEET FAMILY. Distribution.— A large family, distributed all over the world. Soda was ai> •one time obtained from the ashes of those species which grow in salt marshes. Spinach (Spinacia) and beet (Beta) are used as table vegetables. Sand-dunes, sea-marshes, deserts, and old lake bottoms are more or less impregnated with salts of sodium, calcium, imagnesium, and potassium. Plants growing in such situations THE BEET FAMILY 155 are termed halophytes, and it is in these localities that most of the chenopods are found. Wherever the ground, on drying, rapidly becomes encrusted with salt, there only halophytes can grow. Plants usually halophytic may, however, sometimes be found in soils that do not contain any specially large amount of alkaline constituents ; but in such positions they often lose many of their chief characteristics. Key to tlie Genera. 1. Stem leafless, cylindrical, jointed. Salicornia, p. 156. Stem leafy, not jointed. 2 2. Perianth without bracts. Chenopodium, p. 155. Perianth with bracts, in the female flowers at least. 3 3. Perianth of male flowers without bracts. tAtriplex. Perianth of male flowers bracteate. 4 4. Perianth fleshy in the fruit. tSuaeda. Perianth winged or keeled in the fruit. Salsola, p. 155. tNot further described. Genus Chenopodium. Herbs, often covered with a mealy dust, composed of the bladder-like, readily separable cells of the hairs which cover the stems and leaves. Flowers 2-sexual, small, greenish. Perianth 3-5 partite. A large genus of way-side weeds, the fat-hens and goose-foots. (Name from the Greek signifying goose-foot). 7 sp. Chenopodium triandrum (The Triandrous Chenopodium.) Stems 6 in. -12 in. high, much branched. Leaves £ in.-§ in. long, entire. Flowers minute, fascicled at the ends of the branches. Stamens 2-4. Both islands, Auckland to Otago. Fl. Nov. -Mar. This species appears to be endemic in New Zealand. The specific name " triandrum " implies that there are three free stamens. G-enus Salsola. Herbs or shrubs, with fleshy, often prickly leaves, extremely saline. Flowers minute, axillary, 2-sexual. (Name from the Latin, signifying salt). Isp. Salsola australis (The Southern Salsola). A low woody shrub, 1 ft. -2 ft. high. Leaves hard, sharp-pointed, ovate, & in.-Jt in. long. Flowers inconspicuous. Sepals and stamens usually 5. This is, perhaps, the same as the northern Salsola kali, which, as its name implies, was at one time one of the chief sources of alkali. Both islands. 156 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Genus 8alicornia. Succulent, jointed, leafless herbs. Flowers minute, 2-sexual, sunk in the joints of the stem. (Name from the Latin, signifying salt-horn). 1 sp. Salicornia indica (The Indian Salicornia). Stems prostrate. Branches ascending 6 in. -12 in. long. Joints variable in size, sometimes bright pink in colour. Branches terminating in cylindrical cones. Calyx fleshy. Stamens, 1 or 2. Fruit membranous. Both islands : stony or muddy beaches. Fl. Dec. -Feb. Caryophyllaceae. THE FAMILY OF PINKS. Distribution. — A large family, distributed over cold and temperate regions. With the exception of the Pinks and Carnations, the flowers of the order are of little general interest. Many of them are British weeds, and a number of them have been introduced into the Colony. The juices possess no active properties except in the case of Saponaria, which contains the poisonous principle saponine. Key to the Genera. 1. Sepals 4 or 5, united or free. 1 Sepals 2. Hectorella, p. 158. 2. Sepals free or united only at the base. 3 Calyx 5 toothed and nerved. tGypsophila. 3. Petals 0. t Colobanthus. Petals present. 4 4. Stipules 0. Stellaria, p. 156. Stipules present, membranous. tSpergularia. (f Not further described) Genus Stellaria. Usually weak, straggling herbs, with small white flowers, found in temperate and cold regions. Petals and sepals 4-5. Stamens 8-10. Of 80 species, 6 are endemic in New Zealand. Many others have become naturalized. The chick- weeds, stitchworts, etc., belong to this genus. (Name from the Latin, in allusion to the star-like appearance of the flower.) Stellaria Rough ii (Bough's Chickweed). This is a very distinct species, found only in the alpine districts of the South Island. It is an erect, succulent herb, not more than four inches in height. Leaves £ in.-& in. long. Flowers J in.-f in. across, terminal-, solitary, green. Petals smaller than the sepals. Seeds large, brown, hairy. THE FAMILY OF PINKS 157 FLOKA OF THE SHINGLE FANS. The range of mountains known as the Southern Alps is a very ancient one, and comparatively dry on its eastern slopes. Consequently, there is not a sufficient amount of denudation to carry off to lower levels, the broken rock formed by the winter's frosts. Immense masses of detritus collect on the eastern flanks, forming in many places great shingle fans, which are thousands of feet in height. In these localities have been developed certain highly specialized plants not to be found elsewhere. One of these, Notothlaspi rosulatum, is elsewhere described at some length, others are Stellaria Roiighii, Cotula atrata, Ligusticum carnosulum, Craspedia alpina, Lobelia Eoughii. It is the first of these that we have now to deal with. 'It grows at an altitude of from 4,000ft. to 6,500ft., on the shingle slips in various parts of Canterbury and Nelson. It is obvious that the ordinary chickweed of the garden could not exist for long at such an altitude. Such a flaccid, weak, prostrate plant would soon be broken and bruised by the rain of shingle from above, or destroyed by the heat of summer and the frosts of winter. For few, if any, plant habitats are so subject to extremes of climate and the violence of storms, as the shingle slip. In summer, the surface layers are dry, and burning hot. In winter, they are wet, and even when not covered by snow, icy cold. At a considerable depth below the surface is a stream of water, often derived from melting snow. At all seasons of the year, furious gales blow over the unsheltered surfaces of the fans. In winter, the south-west winds drive over them, laden with snow and sleet, and in summer, they are swept by the no less furious, and sometimes parching nor'-westers. Only a plant ,with a constitution of surpassing hardiness and vigour can live under such rigorous conditions. One of the strangest features in connection with them, is that they endure all these hardships with little or no soil to feed upon. 158 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Let us consider, shortly, how this alpine chickweed has endeavoured to adapt itself to its remarkable habitat. Like nearly all the other shingle plants, it has adopted as its colour the dusky grey of its surroundings. Further, it is the only erect native chickweeed, and thus, by its habit, it is to some extent protected from moving shingle. Dr. Cockayne has grown it from seed, and studied its changes of form.* Seeds collected on Mount Torlesse, and grown at New Brighton (Canterbury) , took more than a year to germinate, and some of them a year and ten months. The first pair of leaves after the cotyledons, were spathulate, and of rather a glaucous green, with long petioles. In the adult plant the leaves are sessile and linear, and thus well protected from excessive trans- piration. This reduction of leaf surface may also be regarded as a protection against excessive insolation. Even in the earlier stages of the plant both surfaces of the leaf are protected by a thick cuticle, and on the under-surface there is in addition a two-layered epidermis. Thus the colour, habit, leaf-form, and leaf-structures are all doubtless adaptations to environment. Genus Hectorella. A genus of one species, which is a small, tufted, fleshy plant, with leathery, imbricating leaves. The flowers are white, nearly sessile ; stems 1 iii.-lj in. in height. Flowers ^ in. long. Capsule membranous. Named in honour of Dr. Hector who discovered it in the alpine districts of Otago. Hectorella caespitosa (The Tufted Hectorella). This is a curious alpine patch plant of somewhat uncertain position. It is generally included in the Portulaceae, but as Diels has shown, it should almost cettainly be regarded as one of the Caryophyllaceae. It was originally discovered by Sir James Hector in 1862. The flowers are arranged in circles, on the flattened tops of the branches. It is probable that the structures which Hooker considered to be two sepals, are really sepaloid bracts, and that what he termed the corolla is a petaloid calyx. If these interpretations are correct, then the plant is closely allied to such a Caryophyllaceous plant as Lyallia of Kerguelen's Land. *Trans. XXXIII p. 267. THE MESEMBRYANTHEMUM FAMILY 159' Nyctaginaceae. THE MARVEL OF PERU FAMILY. Distribution. — A small family of plants, principally natives of warm countries. Mirabilis dichotoma is the garden plant known as the Marvel of Peru, or the Four O'clock Plant, from its habit of opening its flowers at that hour of the afternoon. Bougainvillea spectabilis is remarkable for its large rose-coloured bracts. Pisonia is the only New Zealand genus. The prickly seeds of P. Brunoniana exude a glutinous substance which adheres to the wings of small birds, and makes them easy of capture. Another West Indian species has strong hooked spines on its branches, which render it an annoyance to travellers. Genus Pisonia. Shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, alternate or whorled. Flowers small, green or reddish, in terminal cymes. Perianth 5-lobed. Stamens 6-10, unequal. 1 sp. Pisonia Brunoniana (The Parapara). A small tree, 12 ft. -20 ft. in height. Leaves opposite or whorled, 4 in. -12 in. long, oblong, weak, entire. Flowers in compound cymes, hairy, 2 in. -4 in. across. Perianth & in. long. Stamens 7. Perianth of the fruit sticky, ribbed, 1 in.-l£ in- long. Maori name para-para, sometimes called by the settlers the Bird-catching plant. North Island : Auckland province chiefly. Fl. nearly all the year round. Aizoaceae. THE MESEMBRYANTHEMUM FAMILY. Distribution. — A family of nearly 500 species, found chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical regions, notably in South Africa. Key to the Genera. Leaves angular. Petals many. Mesembryanthemum. Leaves flat, petioled. Petals absent. Tetragonia. Genus Mesembryantliemum. Xerophytic herbs, usually creeping, often succulent. Leaves opposite, without stipules. Flowers axillary or terminal. Calyx 5-lobed. Petals and stamens numerous. Ovary with 5 or more cells. Fruit a capsule opening in moist air only ; seeds minute. (Name from the Greek, in allusion to the time at which the flower expands.) 2 sp. 160 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND Mesembryanthemum australe (The Southern Mesembryanthemum) . Stems 1 ft. -2 ft. in length, prostrate, rooting at the nodes. Leaves united at the base, 1 in. -3 in. long, thick, fleshy, shining. Flower-stems short, thick. Flowers with spreading petals, § in.-l in. across, white or pink. Petals 50-60. Styles 5-8. Ovary 5-8 celled. Both islands : abundant on the sea-shore. Fl. Nov.-March. Called by colonists, pigs' faces or ice-plant. Genus Tetragonia. Herbs, erect or trailing. Leaves succulent, alternate. Flowers axillary. Calyx 3-5 lobed. Petals 0. Stamens few or many. Styles 2-8. Ovary 2-8- celled. Cells 1-ovuled. Fruit round or angular, fleshy, sometimes homed. (Name from the Greek, in reference to the angular calyx-tube.) 2 sp. Tetragonia expansa. An erect, branched, fleshy herb. Leaves 1 in. -3 in. long, glistening with papillae. Flowers solitary or in pairs, sessile or with very short stalks. Calyx 4-lobed. Stamens 12-16. Styles 3-8. Ovary 3-8-ceUed. Fruit angular, usually with 2-4 horns. - - .New Zealand Spinach. Kermadecs to Stewart Island : on the seashore. Fl. Dec. to Feb. Ranunculaceae. BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY. Distribution. — A family of about 700 species, found chiefly in temperate and colder regions. It includes about 50 New Zealand species. Most plants of the order contain an acrid juice which is almost invariably poisonous. Some furnish valuable drugs, e.g., Hellebore and Aconite. Others are cultivated on account of their beauty, such as Ranunculus, Anemone, Christmas Rose, Columbine, Larkspur, and Clematis. Key to the Genera. 1. Climbing shrubs Clematis. Herbs. 2 2. Petals none. Caltha- Petals present, Ranunculus. BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 161 Fig. 45. Seed of Clematis indivisa (J nat. size). Clematis, so lovely in decline, Whose star flowers, when they cease to shine, Fade into feathery wreaths, silk-bright, And silvery-curled." DOMETT. 12 162 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Genus Clematis. Shrubs climbing by twining petioles, witb opposite compound leaves.. Flowers dioecious. Corolla wanting, sepals petaloid. (Name from the Greek, signifying a vine-shoot}. 9 sp. Two peculiarities of New Zealand plants are well illustrated by this genus. (1) A large number of our flowers are green and inconspicuous, or at least not brightly coloured ; (2) an unusually large proportion of the species have stamens and. pistils on different individuals. The genus Clematis in other lands contains many species,, which are blue, purple, or yellow. New Zealand has nine species. Two of these have white flowers ; in the remainder the flowers are greenish-yellow or yellowish. In none are they brightly coloured, and this lack of colour one finda throughout the flora. The New Zealand violets are white, the gentians are nearly all white, the flax proper (Linum monogynum) is white. The corresponding species in other countries are blue, or brightly coloured. Examples might be multiplied indefinitely (e.g., most of our Compositae, Veronicas r Pimeleas, etc., are white). There is no doubt that the prevalence of white in the Flora is in some way connected with the paucity of insects in New Zealand. It has been said, that not only are our insect species few in numbers, but there are few individuals of each species. Such a broad statement as this, is, however, unwarranted. It is true that we have only fifteen kinds of butterfly, and that several of these are rare, so that these insects play a smaller part in the work of pollination here than elsewhere. However, we have a considerable number of forms of night-flying moths, several of the families being well represented, and it is generally supposed that they pollinate white flowers, which are more conspicuous in the gloom than coloured ones. It also seems probable that flies play a larger part in the work of pollination here than they do elsewhere. Too little, however, is known at present about the indigenous. BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 163 Fig. 46. Clematis indivisa— Staminate flowers (§ nat. size). Meek clematis, tree dweller, child of dew, Nursling of light and air ! Slow trailing stars, or showers of misty suns, Whence is the hand thou readiest wistfully Feeling, on earth, for something not of earth? JOHANNES ANDERSEN. 164 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND species in the lower orders of insects, to enable one to speak definitely about them and their relationships to flowers. Unisexual Flowers. Perhaps in no other part of the world is there such a large percentage of unisexual flowers to be found as in New Zealand. Genera which are hermaphrodite elsewhere, are often unisexual here. Out of 433 species examined, Mr. G. M. Thompson found 46 per cent. — a remarkably high proportion — more or less unisexual.* Of the remaining 54 per cent., probably only a few are self-pollinated, although the flowers are hermaphrodite. There is reason to believe that in some few cases (e.g., the willow and the oak), the unisexual condition is the primitive one ; but, in many of the New Zealand plants, the presence of rudimentary organs, and the hermaphroditism of closely allied forms elsewhere, prove that suppression has taken place, and that we have here to do with a secondary and not a primitive condition. Clematis indivisa (The Entire-leaved Clematis.) This is one of the best-known of the bush flowers. The leaves are thick and glossy, and the flowers have no petals, the sepals acting both as protective and attractive organs. Both islands. Fl. Sept. -Oct. Maori names Pua-wananga, Pikiarero. Plants of C. indivisa, with their festoons of starry white flowers, looped from tree to tree, light up with delicate beauty the edges of the dark bush in the early spring. It is not to be wondered at that the northern Maoris gave to this species the name of Pua-wananga, i.e., the sacred or sanctified flower. Its feathery wreaths of seed are almost as beautiful as the flowers, each seed in the cluster bearing a long silky, silvery plume, which enables the wind to carry it to a distance. Pairs of rudimentary leaves are found beneath each flower-stalk, and these are believed to remain undeveloped, so that the flower *Trans. XIII., p. 248. BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 165 Flu. 47. Clematis indivisa— Pistillate flowers (nat. size). Fancy could almost declare That great Ophiucus, down-hurled From his throne in the skiey star- world, Had been caught with his glittering gems, 'Mid those giant entangling stems. DOMETT. 166 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND may not be shaded, or hidden from the sight of the insects upon which it depends for pollination. The leaf-stems coil themselves spirally round the branches of other trees, and so drag the plant up to the sunshine, which is needed for the expansion of their flowers. When young, these leaf-stems are remarkably sensitive, and, if gently rubbed, will turn in the direction from which the friction comes. They will seize, therefore, and coil themselves around any twig or branch against which they are blown by the wind. Clematis hexasepala (The Six-sepaled Clematis). Very similar to C. indivisa, but smaller. Found throughout the islands, but not so commonly as the former. Fl. Sep. -Nov. Clematis afoliata (The Leafless Clematis). A remarkable plant, with leafless branches, and yellow flowers ; often binding together, with its long wiry stems, the bush upon which it grows. Found chiefly in the South Island : not common. It may still be collected within a short distance of the foot of Colombo Street, Christchurch. Fl. Oct. Clematis fcetida (The Fostid Clematis) produces fragrant, greenish-yellow flowers in great profusion, on long sprays. Fl. Sept. -Nov. Clematis parviflwa (The Small-flowered Clematis) — Flowers fewer, leaves smaller and softer than in C. fcetida. Rather local in the North Island, and rare in the South Island. Fl. Oct.-Nov. Genus Ranunculus. Most of the species of this genus are known as Buttercups. Sepals 3-5. Stamens many. Fruit a head of beaked achenes. 37 sp. Ranunculus Lyallii (Lyall's Eanunculus). Stem erect, without runners. Achenes silky. Leaves peltate, flowers white. Alpine districts of the South Island. Fl. Jan. -March. This stately plant is the finest species of the genus. The leaves, which are kidney-shaped in the young plants, are circular and concave in mature specimens, thus forming saucers. In them water often collects, and, as there are deep grooves over the leaf-veins, Diels considers that moisture may be absorbed at these places, but the matter has not yet been sub- jected to experiment. The plant is known to colonists as the Mountain, Shepherd's, or Mount Cook Lily, The name is BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 167 Fig. 48. Clematis parviflora (I nat. size). 168 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND most inappropriate, as the plant is not a lily, but a large white buttercup. However, any large-leaved herbaceous native plant is called by the colonists a lily, especially if it has white flowers. (For another instance of the misuse of the name, v. Chatham Island Lily, Myosotidium nobile, p. 347.) Ranunculus Lyallii is not unlike the English king-cup in its habit of growth, having the same large, round, fleshy leaves and juicy stems. But the flower of the king-cup is golden, and that of the Mount Cook Lily is of a pure and waxy white. This Ranunculus grows only in the alpine districts of the South Island, and at an altitude of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. It may, however, be readily seen on Mackinnon's Pass, on Arthur's Pass, and near Mount Cook, where it forms dense patches as high up as the Ball Hut on the edge of the Tasman Glacier. It is one of the most beautiful plants in the New Zealand alpine flora — its white anemone-like flowers contrasting well with its large, dark glossy-green leaves which sometimes measure fifteen inches across. This plant and R. Traversii are the only species with peltate leaves. It is cultivated with difficulty, as it requires the greatest heat possible during summer, and the most severe cold in winter. Other species which have extremely showy flowers are R. Buchanani (Otago lake district), R. Godleyanus (headwaters of the Rakaia), R. insignis (southern Nelson, Tararua, and Buahine Mountains), R. nivicola (Mount Egrnont). The only similar species known outside of New Zealand, is R. Baurii of the Transvaal mountains. Ranunculus crithmifolius (The Samphire-leaved Ranunculus). Similar to the next species, R. Haastii, but with shining green fleshy leaves, and short 1-flowered scapes. Wairau Gorge. Known only from a single specimen. The plant descriptions of many of the earlier botanists were often of necessity very imperfect, and, consequently, later investigators have frequently had much difficulty in identifying BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 169 Fig. 43. Ranunculus Lyallii (3 nat. size). 170 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND the species to which these descriptions allude. Sometimes not a scrap of the original specimens, from which the characters have been drawn up, is to be found in herbaria. Under these circumstances, it is a matter of astonishment how many of the original species have been identified with certainty. In spite, however, of all the perseverance and research of modern workers, a few of the forms apparently known to the earliest explorers, have not been re-discovered in recent times. In some cases it is probable that the plant has been redescribed under a fresh name ; in a very few cases, it may be, that, by some lucky chance, the first collectors found a plant that, on account of its extreme rarity, has never been seen again. In JR. crithmifolius we have a plant which has not been re-identified since first found by Travers on the shingle-slips of the Wairau Gorge. Even then only a single plant was seen. (cf. Cotula filiformis, Senecio perdicioides, and Pittosporum obcordatum). It seems more than likely, therefore, that the plant was a €asual variant of some other form, than really a distinct species. If, however, the original description is to be trusted, JR. crithmifolius is one of the most remarkable species of the genus. Like all other shingle-slip plants, it is highly specialized ; otherwise it would not be able to live in the place whence it was reported. A full description of the conditions of life in such a locality will be found under Stellaria Roughii, R3 crithmifolius has leaves, which, on a smaller scale, closely resemble those of the rock samphire, a plant of an altogether different order. They are thick, succulent, bluish-green, and highly polished. They thus differ widely from the normal leaf-forms of the genus. Diels compares them with the leaves of Ligusticum carno- sulum, which is one of the most singular species of the flora, and also grows on the same shingle-slips in the Wairau Gorge. BUTTERCUP, ANEMONE, AND CLEMATIS FAMILY 171 Ranunculus Haastii (Haast's Ranunculus). Stem simple, erect, without runners. Achenes glabrous ; leaves few, much •divided, leathery. Scape few-flowered, with leafy involucre. Perhaps the only New Zealand species with a stout, fleshy rootstock. Shingle-slips in the South Island, from Nelson to Otago. Fl. Dec. -Jan. A similar plant to R. crithmifolius, but much more widely distributed. Both species, however, were said to be found together on the shingle-slips of the Wairau. R. Haastii has flower-stalks as thick as the finger, and a stout, fleshy root- stock that burrows deep into the shingle. Thus, by increasing the succulence of its parts, it has managed to adapt itself to an exceedingly inclement situation. Ranunculus hirtus and Ranunculus lappaceus are the New Zealand representatives of the English meadow buttercup, whilst R. rivularis, R. acaulis, and R. macropus are found in swamps and pools. There are also many introduced species. Genus Caltha. A genus of few species, occurring in temperate and cold regions. Perennial herbs, with large, shining, radical leaves, and yellow flowers. 2 sp. Caltha novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand Caltha). A stout, fleshy plant, with heart-shaped, auricled leaves, and 1-flowered scapes. Petals none. Sepals coloured, petaloid. Stamens numerous. Carpels 5-8. Both islands in alpine districts. Dwarf specimens are found also in Stewart Island. Fl. Oct.-Jan. This is a little alpine marsh-marigold, interesting on account of its leaf structure. The functions of the upper and lower sides of the leaves have been largely reversed. The stomata are found on the upper surface, and the water storage apparatus on the lower. The lobes at the leaf base are usually bent upwards, or even turned right over upon the blade. A similar folding is found in the South American C. dioneaefolia, and in this case Goebel considers that the object of the bent leaf-bases is to secure wind-still spaces for the stomata to function in. The margins of the leaf are also 172 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND sometimes so much inrolled as almost completely to overarch the stomatic areas. This method of obtaining wind-calm spaces is known in other groups of plants. The leaves of many of the Papilionaceae, for example, are infolded to protect the stomatic surfaces. In other species of the genus Caltha, normal leaf-structure is found. Thus, in G. andicola of the Upper Andes, the stomata are borne on the lower surface, and the leaf is otherwise of the usual type. Intermediate forms between this and C. novae- Zelandiae are found elsewhere. The abnormal form is evidently an adaptation to an alpine environment. Magnoliaceae. THE MAGNOLIA FAMILY. Distribution. — The plants of this order are chiefly natives of southern North America, and of tropical and temperate Asia. Many of them are hand- some shrubs, cultivated for their beauty and for the sweet scent of their flowers. Genus Drimys. Sepals 2-4 ; petals 5 or 6, in two rows. Stamens many ; fruit a berry. (Name from the Greek, signifying pungent] . 3 sp. Drimys axillaris (The Axil- flowered Drimys). A small, evergreen tree, with glossy, alternate leaves, and black bark. The flowers occur in the leaf axils, or in the scars of fallen leaves, hence the name axillaris. Leaves simple, alternate, pellucid-dotted. Stamens 10-20. There is in the South Island a pungent species, D. colorata, which has leaves blotched with red, with a purple bloom on the under-surface and 2-seeded berries. The wood of this tree is reddish in colour, and is used for inlaid work. The bark is very aromatic, and is a tonic and astringent. A decoction of the leaves is often used by bushmen as a medicine, and has earned the name of " Maori Painkiller." Flowers yellowish-green. Fl. Oct. -Dec. Called by settlers the Pepper Tree. Maori name Horopito. THE MAGNOLIA FAMILY 173 Fig. 50. Hedycarya arborea (§ nat. size). 174 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND Monimiaceae. Distribution. — A small family, chiefly tropical, found in South America, Southern India and Tasmania. Leaves sometimes aromatic. Genus Laurelia. A genus of 4 species, including one found in Chili and two in Australia. Trees. Leaves opposite, aromatic. Flowers dicscious, in panicles. Perianth 5-8 parted. Stamens 6-20 in the male, flowers reduced to scales in the female. Ovaries 5-20, hairy. Achenes'with long feathery styles. (Name in allusion to the laurel-like leaves). 1 sp. Laurelia novae-Zelandiae (The Pukatea). One of the loftiest of New Zealand forest trees, sometimes reaching the height of 150 ft. Trunk from 3 ft. -7 ft. in diameter, flanked with thin spreading buttresses at its base. Bark pale Leaves thick, 1£ in.-3£in. long, f in.-lj in. wide, toothed, shining. Flowers racemed, axillary, ^ in. across. Stamens 6-10. Achenes 6-10. North Island ; northern parts of the South Island. Fl. Oct. -Nov. Maori name Pukatea, The wood of this tree is pale-brown, tinged with yellow, and streaked with darker shades. It is much valued for boat- building, as it does not split, and will not readily burn. The pukatea, like the tawa, furnishes the Maori with an illustration of cowardice. Te waka pukatea, te waka kohe-kohe. The pukatea canoe, the kohe-kohe canoe ; 'i.e., The coward is like the canoe of pukatea, which, being made of soft wood, soon gets water-logged and slow of motion. The brave man is like the kohe-kohe canoe, swift and strong. Genus Hedycarya. Trees. Leaves opposite. Flowers in panicles, axillary, dioacious. Perianth 5-10-lobed. Anthers sessile, numerous in the male flower. Ovaries numerous, stigma sessile in the female flower. Ovule solitary. 1 sp. Hedycarya arborea (The Tree-like Hedycarya). Trunk 20 ft. -30 ft. in height. Bark dark in colour. Leaves 1 in. -4 in. long, oblong, coarsely-toothed, rarely entire, shining or slightly hairy. Flower- panicles hairy, shorter than the leaves. Perianth J in. across, yellowish. Fruit oblong, £in. long, orange-red, beaked. Both Islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. Maori name Porokaiwhiri or Poporo-kaiwhiri. THE LAUEEL FAMILY 175 Lauraceae. THE LAUREL FAMILY. Distribution.— A large, chiefly tropical family, with only one European species (Laurus nobilis), the Sweet Bay tree. Cinnamon, Cassia-bark, Camphor and Clove Nutmegs, are all obtained from various species of this family. Key to tJie Genera. 1. Leafless twining herb. Cassytha, p. 177. Leafy trees. 2 2. Small tree. Flowers in a 4-5 leaved involucre. Litsea, p. 175. Lofty forest trees. Flowers in panicles. Beilschmiedia, p. 175. Genus Litsea. Shrubs or trees, leaves usually alternate. Flowers in axillary umbels, dioecious. Perianth absent, or 4-8-parted. Stamens 6-15 in the male flowers ; rudimentary in the female. Berry ovoid. 1 sp. Litsea calicaris. A leafy, shining tree, 30ft. -40ft. in height. Leaves 3in.-4in. long, oblong, entire, obtuse, pale brown when young. Leaves of involucre & in.-J in. long. Flowers 4 or 5 together, delicately fragrant. Perianth of 5-8 segments, cream-coloured. Stamens usually 12 ; anthers large, 4-valved. Berry f in. long, red. North Island : North Cape to Botorua. Fl. Sep. -Oct. Maori name Mangeao. Genus Beilschmiedia. Lofty forest trees. Leaves alternate. Flowers in panicles, terminal or axillary. Perianth of 6 segments. Stamens 12, some of which are usually infertile. Berry ovoid. This genus is endemic in New Zealand. 2 sp. Beilschmiedia Tarairi (The Tarairi). A handsome tree, 60 ft. -80 ft. in height, with large, glossy leaves. Young shoots and leaf -stalks clothed with rusty-coloured down. Leaves 3 in. -6 in. long, leathery, ovate-oblong, obtuse, sometimes whitish below. Flowers in branched panicles, inconspicuous, 1 in. -2 in. across. Perianth £ in. across. Fruit an oval berry, 1J in. long, purple, plum-like, very attractive to birds, but, unless boiled, said to be poisonous to man. North Island : Auckland district. Fl. Nov. Maori name Tarairi. Beilschmiedia Tawa (The Tawa). A forest tree, 60 ft. -70 ft. in height, with slender branches, and pale, usually narrow, leaves, 3 in. -4 in. long. Flowers in slender panicles, 2 in. -3 in. across, green. Perianth ^ in. long, smooth, shining. Fruit resembling a damson, edible, | in. long. North Island: abundant in hilly districts. South Island: near Cook Strait. 17(5 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND The tawa seed provides the Maori with two proverbs : — Ka mahi te tawa who M te riri ! Well done tawa kernel fighting away ! He tawa para ! He whati kau taana. A tawa pulp ! He only runs away ! Fig. 51. Beilschmiedia Tarairi (§ nat. size). The hard date-like stone of the tawa fruit symbolizes the hero, whilst the fleshy pulp is the emblem of the coward. Genus Cassytha. Herbaceous plants, leafless, parasitical upon shrubs, to which they attach themselves by suckers. Stems very slender. Flowers in heads, spikes or panicles. Perianth of 6 segments. Stamens 12, 3 of which are imperfect. Anthers 2-celled. Fruit enclosed in the fleshy perianth. A large genus, chiefly Australian. (Name from the Greek, signifying the dodder, in allusion to the resemblance between the two plants). 1 sp. THE WALLFLOWER FAMILY 177 Cassytha paniculata (The Panicled Cassytha). Stems shining, ^ in. -^ in. in diameter, with small membranous scales in the axils. Flowers in spikes, 1 in. -2 in. long. Perianth £ m.-J in. long, with small round bracts at the base. Ovary glabrous. Northern parts of the North Island. This is a widely sproad germs found chiefly in warm climates. The New Zealand species is so abundant in some districts north of Auckland as to cause frequent tripping. The same form is also to be found in Eastern Australia, where the genus is highly developed. The long, twining, thread-like stems of the parasite much resemble those of the dodder, though the two plants are not closely allied botanically. Further, the methods by which they attack the host plant, and the way in which they germinate, are in both cases so much alike, that one description will suffice for both genera. (v. Cuscuta.) Cruciferae. THE WALLFLOWER FAMILY. Distribution. — A large and useful family, comprising many plants used as •vegetables (e.g., turnip, radish, cabbage, cauliflower, cress, etc.). There are nearly 200 genera and 1200 species, and these are found chiefly in cold and tem- perate regions. In the Tropics they are rarely seen. The juices of the plants belonging io this order are entirely innocuous. Of the seven New Zealand genera, Pachycladon and Notothlaspi present most points of interest. Both are endemic in these islands. The following genera of Cruciferae are also represented in New Zealand, Nasturtium (the water-cress); Cardamine (the bitter-cress); Sisymbrium (the hedge-mustard) ; Capsella (the shepherd's purse), and Lepidium (the pepper- wort). Genus Pachycladon. An endemic genus, found only in the South Island. Leaves radical, tufted. Boot fleshy. Sepals, 5 ; stamens, 6. (Name from the Greek, signifying thick branches)* 1 sp. 18 178 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Pachycladon novae-Zelandiae. (The New Zealand Pachycladon). A stout, branching herb, found in mountainous districts of the South Island. Leaves in rosettes. Scape, 2-5-flowered. Petals twice as long as the sepals. Ascends to 5000 feet. This is a remarkable endemic cruciferous genus of Central and South- Western Otago. There is only one species, P. novae-Zelandiae, unless indeed a form reported from the mountains at the head of Lake Ohau, should prove to be distinct. The foliage is arranged in the form of a rosette, i.e., there is no stem. The leaves are, therefore, all radical, and arranged in concentric circles round the flower stem. The common dandelion is a typical rosette plant. Anyone who has dug one of these weeds out of a lawn, knows what an ugly bare patch is left behind. The rosette plant so cornpletely covers the soil beneath it, that nothing else can grow there. In the struggle for existence it successfully chokes out its- competitors. However, the desire for exclusive territorial possession, cannot be the purpose of the rosette of Pachycladon, for it grows on the shingle-slips, where there is plenty of room. Positions on such exposed situations are not greatly coveted, for few plants can successfully brave the hardships of life in such localities. It is probable that Pachycladon owes its rosette form, not to its environment, but to its ancestry. Many of the Cruciferae have this type of leaf arrangement, and it is not infrequently met with on the shingle slips. (See also Notothlaspi) . Genus Notothlaspi. A small endemic genus, found only in the South Island. Herbs, with thick radical leaves, and scapes of white flowers. Stamens 6. Pods compressed, winged, Jin. - lin. in length. Notothlaspi rosulatum. (The JRosette-Uke Notothlaspi). An erect, stemless herb. Leaves in a crowded rosette, hairy when young, glabrous when old. Flowers white, fragrant, pyramidal. Shingle beds in the alpine districts of the South Island. The Pen-Wiper Plant of the Settlers. PI. Dec. -Jan. 2 sp. THE WALLFLOWER FAMILY 179 This is a singular endemic genus, of the detritus fans and upper river-beds of the South Island. Kirk describes N. rosidatum " as one of the most remarkable plants known," but is surely in error when he speaks of it " as now becoming rare owing to the ravages of sheep." The plant is quite common in many sub-alpine districts, and certainly does not appear to be generally attacked by sheep. It is sometimes sought after by the settlers, and taken indoors, on account of the delicious orange-like fragrance of the flowers. As the name implies, the leaves are arranged in a rosette — a plant form not unusual in such a habitat (v. Pachycladon p. 178). The structure of the rosette, however, is very remarkable, if not altogether unique. The flower-head, as shown in the photograph on the title page, is much shorter than in the typical form, but the picture gives a much better idea of the character of the rosette than those drawn by previous writers. That given by Mr. and Mrs. Feat on in their Art Album of the New Zealand Flora is particularly misleading, evidently having been drawn by someone who had not seen the plant growing. The leaves overlap like the shingles of a roof, and the whole rosette itself is curved like an umbrella, so that only the outer edges touch the ground. Thus, all rain falling on it, quickly rolls off, and is rapidly conducted through the loose shingle to the long characteristic tap-root, which firmly anchors the plant amongst the drifting pebbles. Underneath the umbrella-like foliage is a cavity, which is not without its value in the economy of the plant. During the day, since the shingle is hot, and the under surface of the plant cool, vapour must then be condensed on the under-surface of the rosette. Thus the leaves obtain a copious supply of moisture throughout the period of insolation. At night the shingle cools down more rapidly than the plant, and condensation now takes place upon the ground. The foliage is thus kept dry, and protected to some extent from the effects of frost. 180 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND One of the chief dangers the plant has to contend with, arises from the continual moving of the stones of the shingle- slips. Indeed, its rosettes are often buried, and sometimes destroyed by them. However, specimens are not infrequently found, in which a second rosette has been developed above the original one, that had been covered by the ever-moving shingle. Obviously, the fleshy leaves, the long-tap root reaching to the wet stones below, the thick flower stem with its conical mass of low-growing, densely crowded flowers, have all been developed by the plant in its attempt to adjust itself to the perils of a difficult environment. As in other plants of the shingle-slips, the foliage is of a sandy hue, that suggests protective resemblance, but no sufficient explanation has yet been given of this assimilation of colour to habitat. Droseraceae. THE SUNDEW FAMILY. Distribution. — A remarkable family, with carnivorous habits ; usually found in marshy or sandy ground. Dioncea muscipula, the Venus' Fly-Trap of the North- American bogs, is wonderfully specialized for the catching of insects. The Droseraceae are a widely distributed family, but the greatest number of species is found in Australia. D. rotundifolia is found in almost all English bogs. The leaves of this plant, when young, are curled like the fronds of a fern. Some of the species yield a purple dye. Genus Drosera. Sepals, petals and stamens, 4, 5, or rarely 8. Flowers, white or purple, on long weak stems, Gin. -1 Sin. in length. The leaves of the different species are yery varied in shape. 6 sp. D rose ra pygmsea. (The Pygmy Drosera). A very minute plant, with leaf rosettes less than £in. across. Stem, 1- nowered,- fin. high. Flowers white. Calyx 4-lobed ; capsule 4-valved. Both islands : local. Fl. Dec. -Jan. THE SUNDEW FAMILY 181 Fig. 52. Drosera auriculata (§ nat. size). 182 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Drosera spathulata (The Spathulate-leaved Drosera). Leaves in a rosette, each leaf from £-in. - fin. long. Flower-stem, lin. - Gin. long; l-6flowered. Petals, white. Calyx, 5-lobed ; petals, 5; stamens, 5. From Mangonui to Stewart Island ; local. Fl. Dec. -Jan. Drosera binata (The Twin-leaved Drosera). A very distinct species, with leaves like a two-pronged fork, all radical, Flowers on slender stems, white, |in. - £in. across, 6 to 8 on a stem. Sepals, petals, and stamens, 4 - 5. Both islands ; common in clay bogs. Fl. Nov.-Feb. Drosera auriculata. (The Ear-shaped Drosera). A pretty little plant with pink or purple flowers, growing in dry soils. The stems are slender and straggling; sometimes 2ft. -3ft. in length. The root- leaves-are few in number; those on the stems alternate, with two long narrow processes on the upper part, like pointed ears. These, as well as the remainder of the leaf, are covered with the long red hairs common to all Sundews. Seen under a microscope, by artificial light, the leaf of the Sundew is a most beautiful object, and well worth studying, Both islands. INSECTIVOEOUS PLANTS, Plants which grow in bogs often find it difficult to procure the nitrogen necessary for their sustenance ; and they have, there- fore, evolved means of catching and digesting flies and other insects. Darwin was the first to investigate thoroughly, and establish the carnivorous nature of numerous plants. Many of the facts connected with them are highly remarkable, and for a full description, the great evolutionist's work on Insectivorous Plants should be consulted. In the Droseraceae, or Sundews, the upper surface of each leaf bears a number of bright red, clubbed, glandular hairs, every one with a glistening drop of viscid fluid at the upper end. These tentacles are longest round the margin of the leaf, and grow gradually shorter towards the centre. If an insect touches the centre of the leaf, it becomes glued to the hairs, and, a few minutes afterwards, the marginal tentacles bend towards it, and seize it. The orifices of its respiratory organs become blocked up by the viscid fluid, and, finally exhausted by its struggles, the unfortunate insect dies. The amount of the secretion from the tentacles increases,. THE SUNDEW FAMILY 183 Fig. 53. Drosera spathulata (§ nat. size). A- c- Smith- 184 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND and, if the insect is large, the whole leaf becomes more or less concave, and large quantities of juice are poured out from the glands. This juice is in many ways similar to the human gastric fluid, and accomplishes the same purpose, for, after several days, the insect is digested, and little of it is left, except the wings and horny casing. The leaf then gradually opens out, and, after a day or two, is again in a position to capture insects. The sensitiveness of the tentacles is marvellous. Thus, it has been said, that the four-thousandth part of a milligram of ammoniun carbonate is sufficient to produce motion in them, while a piece of a woman's hair about two- tenths of a millimetre (i.e. less than one-hundredth of an inch in length), placed upon a gland, also caused inflection in the filament belonging to the gland. The above description deals chiefly with D. rotundifolia, an English and continental plant. To it alone, Darwin devoted 270 pages of his book ; but he also experimented on two Australasian species — D. spathulata and D. binata. He found that functionally they differed little from D. rotundifolia. Both these species occur in New Zealand, though Darwin's specimens came from Australia. The very handsome D. binata, in particular, interested him very much. He refers to it as "this almost gigantic Australian species." In it the bifurcated leaf -blade, which is very long and narrow, is itself in no case inflected. Glands are borne, not only at the ends of the tentacles in this species, but " on both upper and lower surface of the blade, there are numerous minute, almost sessile glands, consisting of four, eight, or twelve cells." There are also on the backs of the leaves of this species, a few tentacles near the margins. These tentacles are remarkable in possessing no power of motion, but even had they this power, they are generally too short to bend round to the upper surface of the leaf. In their present situation, they seem to be of little use ; and Darwin regards these and the sessile glands, as vestigial structures, which have been lost in other species of the genus. *Darwin "Insectivorous Plants," p. 282. THE CURRANT-TREE FAMILY 185- Splendid specimens of this plant are to be found at the head of Paterson's Inlet (Stewart Island). Another well-known and readily accessible habitat is the Bluff Hill. Mr. G. M, Thomson experimented on specimens of D. arcturi, from the bogs on the top of Maungatua.* He considers that, owing to its frequent complete immersion in wet weather, it is seldom to be found in its native habitat with insects on the leaves. However, he found that four specimens of Aphis (blight) from rose leaves were completely digested in about four days' time by a single leaf of D. arcturi, though young leaves were easily sickened by an overdose of meat. The method of pollination in the New Zealand species does not seem to have been observed, though it is probably of con- siderable interest. Saxifragaceae. THE CURRANT-TREE FAMILY. Distribution. — A large family, containing many beautiful Alpine species. The London Pride, or None-so- Pretty (Saxifraga umbrosa) is used as a border edging in English gardens. Many other plants of the family are cultivated in rockeries, and some are remarkable for the chalky crust which forms on the margins of their leaves. The British Grass of Parnassus (Parnassus palustris) is one of the most beautiful of bog plants. The Currant and the Gooseberry are largely cultivated for their fruits. The New Zealand genera have all woody stems. Key to tJie Genera. 1. Leaves opposite. 2 Leaves alternate. 3 2. Flowers in panicles. t Ackama Flowers in racemes. Weinmannia, p. 188. 3. Ovary superior. Ixerba, p. 186. Ovary inferior. 4 4. Flowers racemose. Petals overlapping in bud Quintinia, p, 186. Flowers panicled. Petals touching in bud. Carpodetus, p, 188. *Trans. N.Z. Inst. Vol xiii., p. 261. I Not further described. 186 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Genus Quintinia. Shrubs or trees with alternate leaves, and axillary or terminal racemes of white or lilac flowers. Calyx-tube 5-toothed. Petals 5 ; stamens 5. Seed winged. Q. serrata and Q. acutifolia are both endemic in New Zealand. (Name in honour of La Quintinie, a French Botanist). 2 sp. Q u i n t i n i a se r rata (The Serrated Quintinia) . A small tree, sometimes 20 ft. in height. The young shoots are extremely viscid, and the whole plant is covered with small whitish scales. Leaves Fig. 54. Ixerba brexioides (J nat. size). 3 in. -6 in. long, oblong, roughly serrate, leathery. Flowers £ in. in diameter, pale-lilac. Racemes axillary, 3 in. -4 in. long. Called by settlers New Zealand lilac. Maori name, Eumarahou. North Island only : Auckland, Hawke's Bay, and Taranaki. Fl. Oct. -Nov. Genus Ixerba. An evergreen tree, with thick, leathery leaves, and flat panicles of white flowers. Calyx 5-lobed ; petals 5 ; stamens 5. (Name an anagram of Brexia.) Isp. Ixerba brexioides (The Brexia-like Ixerba). A beautiful tree, sometimes 70 ft. in height. Leaves 3 in. -7 in. long, coarsely-serrate, & in.-l in. broad. Flowers 1£ in. across. Petals waxy, white, THE CURRANT-TREE FAMILY 187 Fig. 55. Carpodetus serratus (§ nat. size). 188 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND pointed. North Island from Whangaroa to Hawke's Bay. In woods, not common. Maori name Tawari. Fl. Nov. -Jan. Kirk considers this to be perhaps the most beautiful tree in the flora. This and the following genus are endemic. Genus Carpodetus. A shrub or tree, with alternate leaves, and axillary panicles of white flowers. Calyx 5-6 lobed ; petals 5-6 ; stamens 5 or 6, inserted with the petals. Fruit round, fleshy, girdled by the calyx. (Name from the Greek in allusion to the fruit being girt by the calyx-limb). 1 sp. Carpodetus sernatus (The Serrate Carpodetus). A curious, flat-topped tree, about 20 ft. in height, with branches spreading like a fan. Leaves and branches slightly hairy. Leaves beautifully veined and marbled in appearance. Flowers very fragrant, small, white, in broad cymes, hidden amongst the leaves. Fruit the size of a pea, black when ripe. This fruit is very slow to ripen, taking nearly twelve months to come to perfection. As is the case with many New Zealand plants, flowers and ripe fruit may be seen together upon the tree. Found from North Cape to Stewart Island. Fl. Nov.-Mar. The native name Puta-puta-weta is derived from the fact that the curious and repulsive insect known as the Weta usually chooses the Carpodetus as a fit tree in which to bore its holes. In the North Island, trees of this species are rarely cut down unperforated by the longitudinal galleries of these insects, which are frequently discovered in their holes. Puta-puta literally signifies full of holes. Another name by which it is known is that of Punaweta. In the Uriwera country it is called Kai-weta (i.e. weta food). The weta, or Maori Devil, is a large orthopterous insect of the genus Deinacrida. Genus Weinmannia. Shrubs or trees, with opposite leaves, and regular flowers. Calyx-tube 4-5-partite ; petals 4-5 ; stamens 8-10, inserted with the petals. Fruit a capsule. A large genus of about 50 species, found chiefly in tropical countries. (Named after Weinmann a German writer). 2 sp. Weinmannia silvicola (The Forest-loving Weinmannia). A tree with dark-coloured bark, sometimes rising to a height of 70 ft. Leaves opposite, very variable in form, unequally pinnate, or 1-3 foliolate;. THE " MATIPO " FAMILY 189 leaflets in from 1-9 pairs. Flowers in slender racemes 2 in. -6 in. long. Single fl<> \vrrs ^ in. across, white. Capsule shining. Seed with a tuft of hairs at either end. North Island. Fl. Jan. -Feb. Maori names, Tawhero, Kamahi. Weinmannia racemosa (The Racemose Weinmannia). A tree, from 70 ft. -90 ft. in height, with larger leaves and flowers than those of 11'. xilricola. Leaves coriaceous, serrate, usually 1-foliolate, though young shoots often develop 3-foliolate leaves. Racemes stout, erect, 1 in. -4 in. long. Flowers white £ in. across. Both islands. Fl. Jan. Pittosporaceae. THE " MATIPO " FAMILY. Distribution. — A small family, chiefly Australian. All the New Zealand species are endemic. The North Island is richer in species than the South. Some of the Australian species are cultivated for their flowers and coloured berries. Genus Pittosporum. Flowers regular, axillary or in terminal umbels ; dark-purple, red, or yellowish green. Petals often recurved. Capsule woody, seeds viscid. Some of the species were known to the Natives as Mapau. 18 sp. Pittosporum tenuifolium (The Thin-leaved Pittosporum). A small tree, with black bark, and flowers of so dark a purple as to appear at times almost black. The branches give out a pungent odour when broken. Leaves pale-green below, often reddish above, undulate, 1 in. -3 in. long. Capsule 3-valved. A very variable plant, of which there are four named kinds. Both islands. Fl. Sept. -Nov. This species is largely used for the formation of ornamental hedges, and is then called the " Matipo." This is a misnomer, as the Maoris apparently applied this name to a species of My r sine. P. tenuifolium was called by them the Tawhi- whi. The fragrant gum taken from it was collected and hung round the neck in a sachet (v. Aciphylla Colensoi). The plant is evidently pollinated by insects. The flowers are bright purple at first, but become darker, and finally almost 190 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND black. Small drops of nectar are to be found at the base of the corolla. Mr. G. M. Thomson* is in error in saying that there is no perceptible fragrance. At night the flowers diffuse a sweet odour that fills the air for many yards around. This scent is evidently intended to attract night-flying insects. It is strange, therefore, that the flowers should be so dark in hue, for most night pollinated flowers are of a bright white colour. Its dense pale-green foliage, black twigs, and shapely form,, make it one of the most attractive of the smaller native trees. For some unaccountable reason, it is known to gardeners as. P. nigrescens, Pittosporum obcordatum. (The Obcordate-leaved Pittosporum). A small tree, with divaricating branches, small leaves, and white flowers. Fruit not seen. This plant was first collected by Eaoul about 1842. He reported it from Banks' Peninsula, and it has been sought for there by numerous later botanists, but never found. For sixty years the plant was not again met with, and was then found near Kaitaia by Messrs. Mathews and Carse. As Baoul had visited this district, it is therefore very probable that the habitat given in the first place was wrong. It is the only New Zealand species with white flowers. This error in the habitat has led Diels into supposing that the smallness of the leaves in this species is due to its inhabit- ing " one of the coldest districts in the wide area of distribu- tion of the genus." Even had the plant been found at Akaroa, this statement would scarcely have been correct, for Akaroa has a mild climate, with only very light frosts. P. tenuifolium var. fasiculatum however is found in Preservation Inlet, in South-west Otago, where the climate is much more severe, while P. rigidum is sub-alpine. Pittosporum cornifolium (The Cornel-leaved Pittosporum) An epiphytal species. This is a beautiful little shrub, with small, drooping terminal umbels of delicate reddish flowers. Flowering stem and buds deep red. * Trans. XIII. p. 254 THE MATIPO FAMILY 191 , Pittosporum tenuifolium (f nat. size). 192 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Petals 4 or 5, broad at the base and narrowing to a long point. Sepals 5, very narrow, pale-green. Leaves bright green, coriaceous in the older stage, beautifully veined on the under surface. Capsule 3-valved ; valves of a brilliant •orange colour on the inside. North Island chiefly. South Island : Pelorus Sound, and Titi Island. Fl. Sept. Pittosporum cornifolium, though possessed of rather insig- nificant flowers of a dull purple, has very showy seeds. These, Fig. 57. Pittosporum Kirkii— Flower (§ nat. size). as in other plants of the genus, are imbedded in gluten, which, in this case, is of a yellow colour. The seeds themselves are blackish purple, and when the capsule opens, it discloses the inner side of the valves, which are of a bright orange. The combination of colours is very striking. It is probably in- tended to attract birds, but, apparently, no investigation has been made to ascertain whether the seeds pass uninjured THE MATIPO FAMILY 193 Fig. 58. Pittosporuni cornifolium— Fruit (% nat. size). 14 194 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND through their digestive canals, or in what way they are distributed by them. Pittosporum Kirkii (Kirk's Pittosporum). One of the most beautiful species. Bark reddish-purple. Flowers in terminal umbels. Leaves narrow-linear, 2 in.-5 in. long. Epiphytal. North Island. Ascends to nearly 3,000 feet. Pittosporum crassifolium (The Thick-leaved Pittosporum). A tree, with black bark. Shoots, sepals and under-surface of leaves covered with close white hairs. Leaves coriaceous. Valves downy. Mowers in terminal umbels, often solitary, deep-purple, nearly Jin. long. Capsule round, 2-4 valved. North Island, chiefly on the East Coast. Fl. Sept. This is a sea-side plant, and, like most species growing in such a position has the epidermis and cuticle of the leaves thickened to protect it from excessive transpiration. Pittosporum Eugenioides (The Eugenia-like Pittosporum). A tree sometimes 40 ft. in height, glabrous, with large corymbs of fragrant flowers of a greenish-yellow hue. Leaves 2 in. -3 in. long, broadly oblong, usually waved at the margins. Bark white. Capsules 2-3-valved. Both Islands. FL Sept. -Oct. Maori name Tarata. (Name from Eugenia, a genus of myrtles). A beautiful tree whose pale-green leaves with undulating margins, emit, when bruised, a lemon-like odour. The delicate venation and light-coloured, almost white, midrib add to the beauty of the leaf. The Maoris mixed the resinous exudation from the bark with the juice of the sow-thistle, and worked it into a ball, which they chewed. In October the tree produces masses of yellowish-green flowers, whose heavy honied odour is almost sickly in its intensity. According to Mr. G. M. Thomson, the plant is probably often self-pollinated ; but Mr. Kirk points out in his Forest Flora, that, though stamens and pistils are always present, one or other is often abortive, so that the flowers are often practically unisexual. The wood of this species, like that of the other species of the genus, is almost worthless. The tree is often cultivated for its beauty, and is sometimes — though not so often as P. THE ROSE FAMILY 195 tenuifolium — used to form an ornamental hedge. It is known by a variety of names amongst the colonists, such as Mapau, White Mapau, and even Maple and Lemon-tree. The Maori name seems to have been Tarata, but it is also called the Mapau. Pittosporum Ralph ii (Ralph's Pittosporum). A somewhat similar species to P. crassifolium, but distinguished from it by the broader leaves with slender petioles, the shorter peduncles, and smaller capsules. Fl. Nov. -Dec. A beautiful, somewhat laxly branched shrub 15 ft -20 ft. high, found chiefly in the central district of the North Island from the Wanganui to Tolago Bay. It grows abundantly in the Christchurch Public Gardens. Its dark-crimson fascicled little flower bells with their slightly emergent yellow anther tips, resting on the downy white young foliage, make it, when in bloom, one of the most attractive of our larger shrubs. The ripe introrse anthers may often be found in contact with the viscid stigmas, so that the plant is probably frequently self -pollinated. Rosaceae. THE KOSE FAMILY. Distribution. — An almost universally distributed family, though most abundant in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. The plants of this family are remarkable for the sweetness of their fruits, and the beauty of their flowers. Hydrocyanic acid is contained in the seeds, leaves, and young shoots of the Pruneae and Pomeae, but the other tribes possess only harmless juices. The rose, the apple, the peach, the cherry, the strawberry, the plum, all belong to this wide-spread and useful family. Key to the Genera. 1 Climbing, prickly shrubs. Rubus, p. 196 Herbs with simple or pinnate leaves. Achenes many or few. 2 2. Herbs with pinnate leaves. Achenes 1 or 2. Accena, p. 201 Leaves simple or pinnate. Achenes many. 3 3. Leaves pinnate. Styles short. tPotentilla. Leaves simple or pinnate. Styles elongated. tGeum. tNot further described. 196 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Genus ~Rubus. Scrambling, thorny shrubs, with alternate leaves, often palmately divided. Calyx 5-lobed, petals 5, stamens many. Fruit a cluster of fleshy drupes, on a cone-shaped receptacle. New Zealand species dioecious. (Name from the Latin for a Bramble.) 4 sp. The New Zealand Bramble is of the same tribe as the raspberry and the blackberry, though its fruits are not so fine. Its twining stems and hooked prickles form one of the chief obstructions to a journey through the bush. These hooks are so placed as to allow the plant to slip easily up any support, though they will not permit it to be dragged down. The centre of the female flower is filled with carpels, each one of which develops in the autumn into a small red or yellow fruit. The aggregate of these little fruits forms the berry, which is pleasant to the taste, and is often made by settlers into a preserve. A sweet juice, which drops freely from the cut stems, is drunk by bushmen when thirsty. The native name, Tataramoa, signifies a heap of prickles. The Maoris have also bestowed this name upon the English furze, and upon brambles generally. The New Zealand species of Bubus do not present the bewildering variety of form that is found in the genus in Central Europe ; but they nevertheless add considerably to the perplexities of the local botanist. Nor have these perplexities been reduced by the carelessness of various writers on New Zealand plants. Thus A. R "Wallace* tells us that " In New Zealand the prickly Bubus is a leafless trailing plant, and its prickles are probably a protection against the large snails of the country, several of which have shells from two to three and a half inches long." Such an error could scarcely have been made by anyone familiar with the natural history of the country. Eubus is one of the commonest species on the edge of the forest ; and the snails referred to belong to rare and disappearing species — seldom, if ever, found * " Darwinism," Colonial Edition, p. 433. THE EOSE FAMILY 197 . 59. Rubus Schmidelioides (2 nat. size). 198 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND in the neighbourhood of Rubus. The correct explanation is given by tKerner. It is, perhaps, worth quoting :— " A plant distinguished by its unusually rich development of barb-like spines, and deserving special mention here, is the New Zealand bramble, Rubus squarrosus (R. cissoidesj . Each of its leaves is divided into three portions, each being provided with a tiny blade at its apex ; these three portions, as well as the leaf-stalk, are green throughout their entire length, and beset with yellow pointed prickles, which anchor so firmly in the intertwined bushes and shrubs, that a wholly inextricable tangle is the result." The passage quoted is provided with a good illustration of a spray of R. cissoides. Some confusion has also been caused in the determination of the species, by the neglect of most botanists to notice carefully enough the relation between the form of the plant and its habitat. Dr. Cockayne has, however, given a full account of the development of R. cissoides* and a description of the various forms which it assumes. Like the other New Zealand species, in the forest it is a liane climbing by prickles, and there it is provided with lanceolate acuminate leaflets. The flowers are yellowish, and the fruit red. When found in the open, it is a leafless mounded bush, consisting of intertwining stems and midribs, with far more numerous prickles, than it has, when growing in the forest. This is the stage described above by Kerner. An extraordinary fact about this depauperated form is, that it has never been known to produce flowers or fruit. This is probably due to the fact that the leafless plant is merely an arrested stage in the development of the mature form. Dr. Cockayne has also suggested that the absence of flowers may be due to the destruction of the young growing points in exposed situations. f Natural History of Plants. I., 677 (English Translation.) *Trans. XXXIII., p. 291. THE KOSE FAMILY 199 Fig. 60. Rubus australis — Fruit (i nat. size). 200 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Be this as it may, it is at least clear that, in one generation, the plant changes from the leafy flowering liane of the forest, to the leafless, compact, flowerless xerophyte of the open country. As this form is unable to propagate itself, it has to be perpetuated by escapees from the forest limits. The long green twining stems of this variety with their yellow hooks have a fascinating beauty, that must render the plant most attractive to all lovers of nature. The species of Rubus are generally known to colonists as bush lawyers, apparently because it is much easier to get into their clutches than out of them. Domett, with less than his usual benevolence, refers to them as " That vile twine of prickles fine, Which, if it touch you, cuts and clings Wherever you pass through brier and bush." Yet, in spite of this general condemnation, Rubus australis is one of the finest ornaments of the fringe of the forest, when in early summer it flings its great panicles of heavily-scented, snow-white flowers over every bush and tree on the forest's edge. Rubus austral is (The Southern Bramble.) A lofty climber. Leaves very variable ; the midribs armed with sharp, hooked prickles. Leaflets usually 3-5, in long petioles, toothed. Flowers in panicles, small, pink or white, axillary or terminal, fragrant. Fruit reddish, dry. Both islands : in the bush or on its outskirts. Fl. Sept. -Dec. Rubus cissoides (The Ivy -like Bramble). A much smaller plant than the preceding. Stem without prickles, petioles and midribs with few. Leaflets 3-5-foliate, very narrow, sometimes reduced to midribs. Flowers in slender panicles, 2 in. -4 in. long. Petals yellowish. Fruit very crowded. Both islands. Fl. Sept. -Oct. Rubus Schmidelioides (The Schmidelia-like Bramble). A dense bush. Midribs without prickles. Leaves usually 3-foliolate, with a longer petiole to the terminal leaf. Leaflets oval, rounded below, coriaceous. Flowering panicles 2-6 in. in length. Petals broad, flowers ^ in. across. Fruit yellow, sweet, juicy. Both islands. Fl. Oct. -Nov. THE KOSE FAMILY 201 Rubus parvus (The Small Bramble). A slender, prostrate plant, with reddish stems, 12 in. -18 in. long. Leaves bronze in colour, simple, 1 in. -3 in. long, sharply toothed. Flowers few, prickles few. Fruit £ in.-l in. long, red, sweet. This is a beautiful little forest species, hitherto only found near the head-waters of several western rivers of the South Island. The leaves are most delicately veined, and in autumn turn to a beautiful bronze colour. It is, therefore, one of the few New Zealand plants that show autumn tints. Others are Fusckia excorticata and a species of Notlwfagus. Here autumn lays no " fiery finger on the woods," and spring does not renew. The lack of these seasonal changes undoubtedly detracts much from the beauty of the New Zealand forests. The colours of the bush, though varied, are as a whole rather sombre, and alter but little throughout the whole circle of the year. Genus Accena. Perennial, prostrate herbs, with dense heads of minute flowers, and spinous fruit. Leaves pinnate, the whole plant often reddish in colour. Calyx 4-5- lobed, petals none. Stamens 1-10, rarely 30-40. Calyx-tube bristly, with hooked or barbed spines. These calyces sometimes cling to the wool of sheep in such quantities as to materially damage the fleece. (Name from the Greek for a spine, in reference to the spinous calyces). Maori name Piri-piri.* 6 sp. Acaena sanguisorbae (The Bidi-Udi). Leaflets 8-10, £ in. -I in. long, coarsely toothed. Flowers in globose heads, on peduncles 3 in. -6 in. long. Fruiting calyx 4-angled, with a long barbed purple bristle at each angle. Stamens 2. Stems prostrate. Fl. Oct. -Jan. (Sanguisorba means blood-stanching, and is in allusion to the supposed properties of the European Sanguisorba or Burnet). Acaena Novae-Zelandiae (The New Zealand Accena). Stems erect. Stamens 2 or 3. Fruiting calyx silky, red, slightly winged. Bristles barbed, reddish purple. Flower-heads larger than in A. Sanguisorbae. Both islands. Fl. Nov. -Jan. Acaena microphylla (The Small-leaved Acana). Chiefly distinguishable by the absence of barbs upon the bristles of the calyx. Flower-stems 1 in. -3 in. long ; heads sometimes sessile. Bristles 4, bright red. Both islands. Fl. Nov. -Jan. * This name was also applied to other small plants. 202 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND The common Accena was called by the Maoris Piri-piri, but colonists frequently corrupt the Maori name, and call the plant Bidi-bidi. As a general rule, the Maori names are more incorrectly pronounced as we go southward from Auckland to Otago. This is largely due to the fact that, in the north, Europeans have been brought into closer contact with the Maoris than in the south. In some few cases, the difference in pronunciation may be due to differences in the Maori dialects. The changes that take place often follow phonetic laws — thus the Maori " p " is softened into the European " b " as above, while " r " is replaced by " 1 " or "d." Poro-poro (Solanum aviculare) becomes Bulli-bulli, and Puriri becomes Boradi. This also explains such a form as " Kowdie " pine for Kauri pine. Korari — a flax-stalk — similarly becomes Koradi or even Kalladi. " K " is also sometimes altered into "g," thus Kie-kie (Freycinetia Banksii) becomes ghi-ghi. The last vowel in a reduplicated syllable was faintly pronounced in Maori, and often disappears altogether in the European form of the word, e.g., Poro-poro gives Bulli-bull, and Piri-piri gives Bidi-bid. Thus it is often possible to arrive at the correct Maori form of a word from the aborted European spelling. At the same time the reader should be careful not to assume that the Maori plant-names given in the ordinary botanical text-books are completely reliable. Very often they are merely local Maori names, or are names applied wrongly by Europeans, or even merely fanciful terms, invented by some Maori on the spur of the moment to please his botanical inquisitor. Distribution of the Genus. The genus is found only in the temperate regions of the Southern Hemisphere. All the New Zealand species are endemic, with the exception of A. sanguisorbae and A. adscendens. These are more widely distributed. A. sanguisorbae is a sub-Antarctic form. It is known from the PEA, CLOVEB, WATTLE, ETC. 203 Kermadecs to the Macquaries, and also has been collected in Australia and Tristan d'Acunha, while A. adscendens occurs from Marlborough to the Macquaries, and also in Chili, Fuegia, and the Falkland Islands. Leguminosae. FAMILY OF THE PEA, CLOVEK, WATTLE, ETC. Distribution. — One of the largest of the families, comprising between 6,000 and 7,000 species. Only 26 of these are native to New Zealand, and all of these belong to the sub-order Papilionaceae, though many others have now been introduced, such as the Broom, Gorse, Clover, etc. The New Zealand species may all be readily recognized by their papilionaceous (butterfly-like) flowers, and long seed-pods. From this family are obtained many vegetables, (e.g. Peas, Beans, Lentils, etc.), while the Vetches and Clovers are useful for fodder. Wistaria, Laburnum and Sweet-Pea are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. Other plants furnish valuable resins and dyes (e.g. Copal-resin, Gum-arabic, Gum Tragacanth, Balsam of Tolu, Indigo, etc.). SUB-FAMILY PAPILIONACEAE. This is an immense sub-family, abundant in most parts of the world, but poorly represented in New Zealand. Plants belonging to it are best recognized by the shape of their corollas. The flower of the pea may be taken as a typical example. There are five petals, of which the two front ones are united to form the " keel." The two side petals are called the " wings," and the back petal, which is generally large and erect, is called the " standard." Inside the keel will be found the ten stamens. One of these is usually free from the other nine, which are united. Together they encircle the pistil, which consists of a one-celled ovary, with a single style and stigma, and develops into the well-known pod (legume) of the pea. The New Zealand genera are all more or less aberrant. In Sophora the two petals forming the keel are scarcely united, the stamens are all free and the pod is 204 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND moniliform. In Clianthus the keel is comparatively large and the standard small. Carmichaelia is remarkable for its strange dehiscence. The pod of Huttonella, and of Notospartium, is indehiscent, whilst the three last mentioned genera, together with the aptly named Corallospartium, are nearly leafless brooms. Key to the Genera. 1. Stamens all free. Flowers large, yellow. Sophora, p. 210. Stamens united. 2 2. Leafless or nearly leafless shrubs. 3 Herbs or shrubs with pinnate leaves. 5 3. Stem yellow* stout, leafless. tCorallospartium. Stems green, often flattened. 4 4. Flowers pinkish-white, pods indehiscent. tHuttonella. Flowers white, lilac, or variously coloured. Valves of seed pods falling away. Carmichaelia, p. 201. 5. Herbs with pinnate leaves. Flowers blue or purple. iSwainsonia. Shrubs. Flowers large, scarlet, in drooping racemes. Clianthus, p. 210. fNot further described. Genus Carmicliaelia. Shrubs with grooved flattened branches, leafless except in very young plants. Calyx 5-toothed ; wings auricled at the base. Pods 1-12 seeded. A very remarkable genus, peculiar to New Zealand and Lord Howe's Island. The sides or valves of the seed-pod fall away when the fruit is ripe, and the tiny black or scarlet seeds are left hanging by a slender thread from the bare framework of the pod. Flowers solitary, or in racemes or fascicles, white, red or lilac. (Named in honour of the Cryptogamic botanist Carmichael). 19 sp. Carmichaelia nan a (The Dwarf Carmichaelia). A small, sub-alpine species, about 4 inches in height. Branches thin, flat. Leaves not seen. Flowers red, £ in.-J in. long. Racemes 2-3 flowered. Pod oblong, £ in. long, with a short, straight beak. Seeds 2-4, black. Both islands : in hilly districts. Fl. Dec. Carmichaelia austral is (The Southern Carmichaelia). A much-branched shrub, 3 ft. -9 ft. high. Branches very flat, with distant, alternate notches. Seedling leaves often 3-5-foliolate. Flowers striped lilac, pale or dark, fascicles 3-12-flowered, very fragrant. Pods oblong with a short beak. Seeds 1-4, scarlet. North Island : common. South Island : rare. Fl. Nov. -Dec. PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 205 Fig. 61. Carmichaelia australis— Fruit (3 nat. size). 206 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Carmichaelia flagelliformis (The Whip-like Carmichaelia) . A slender shrub, 4 ft. in height. Leaves on young plants, 3-5-foliolate, Young shoots much elongated, like whip-cord. Flowers usually fascicled, 3-7-flowered. Pod oblong, with short, stout beak. Seeds 2-4, flat mottled with yellow or red. Both islands, local in the North. Fl. Dec. -Jan. No genus is perhaps more characteristic of New Zealand than this. The only representative outside these islands is the well-named C. exsul of Lord Howe's Island. In Carmichaelia, particularly in the dwarf species, the reduction of leaf surface has been carried almost to the disappearing point. It is probable that this reduction is due to an attempt to protect the plants from loss of moisture, and not from excessive loss of heat by radiation, as nearly all the forms of the genus are glabrous. There is evidence to show that Carmichaelia was originally a genus of leaf-bearing forest shrubs. C. exsul puts forth its many tender leaves in the moist shade of the famous palm-forests of the picturesque Lord Howe's Island. The New Zealand species, compelled to live in the dry open plains, develop leaves only in their early stages, or when growing in shade. Some of the dwarf forms (e.g. C. Enysii*}, never go through a true leafy stage, but pass directly into a semi-leafy form with flattened branches, and then into the leafless mature form. They probably represent the last developed type of the genus. The flattening of the branches, which is seen in most of the species, is useful to the plant in various ways. It enables it to obtain a larger accumulating surface, without exposing this surface directly to the hot rays of the mid-day sun. Indeed the chief advantage of a flattened stem over a leaf, for the purpose of assimilation, is that the stem is in a vertical position, and, therefore, transpiration from its surface will not be so great as from the horizontal leaf-blade. Further, the flattened stem gets the full light from the rising and setting sun, when the heating effect is not excessive. In the closely allied, scarcely distinct genus Corallospartium, the stomata are *Dr. Cockayne. Trans. XXXIII, p. 91. PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 207 Fig. 62. Carrnichaelia australis — Flowers (£ nat. size). 208 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND protected by being sunk in hair-lined grooves in the stem. According to Diels, the stiff branches of this genus prevent any .shaking which might promote evaporation ; and the unusually well -developed cuticle supplies further protection against excessive transpiration. The stem is of a remarkably bright yellow with deep grooves of a greenish hue running down it longitudinally. A leafless plant, such as C. australis, with long, slender, rounded branches, is sometimes termed a switch-plant. The dwarf species form patch-plants (v. Raoulia) in river-beds, and on dry mountain sides. Their habit is extremely .singular, and they frequently give the impression of having been comparatively tall plants that have been mown down by the scythe, or of plants that have been suddenly arrested in their growth. The squat, broad stems are singularly ungainly. The genus is characterized by the strange method in which the pod opens to allow the seeds to escape. The sides fall away from the thickened edges, which are left on the plant, and form a frame enclosing the seeds. These seeds are .suspended by slender threads, and are generally black or of a brilliant red. Sometimes they are mottled. The number in a pod varies from one to twelve. Frequently there are only one or two. Occasionally in their shape and markings they resemble lady-birds. The flowers of Carmichaelia, though small, are often very dainty in appearance, and beautiful in colour and markings. C. australis has thick clusters of delicate lilac blossoms, striped with darker lines, and possesses a sweet scent. Many of the species are yet insufficiently known. The flowers oiHuttonella^Notospartium^ndi Corallospartium are very similar to those of Carmichaelia. Both species of Notospartium are beautiful and graceful plants, now rare. Corallospartium is one of the most remarkable plants of the flora. Its long, yellow, coralloid, switch-like stems are almost unique amongst flowering plants. PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 209 'I;,'. 63. Cliiiuthus puniceus (i nat. size), 210 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Genus Clianthus. A small genus of perhaps four species. The New Zealand species is endemic. Small trees with pinnate leaves, and conspicuous flowers. Calyx 5-toothed. Wings half as long as the keel. Pod oblong, 2-valved, many seeded. (Name from the Greek, signifying a reclining flower, in allusion to the recurved standard) . Clianthus puniceus (The Scarlet Clianthus). A drooping undershrub, with silky branches. Leaves 4 in. -6 in. long, pinnate. Leaflets in 8-14 pairs. Flowers in long, pendulous racemes, bright scarlet, 2 inches in length. Auckland Province, rare ; chiefly near old Maori cultivations. Fl. Aug. -Oct. This tree is known as the Red Kowhai, Parrot's Bill or Kaka's Beak. Native name Kowhai-ngutu-kaka, signifying the Parrot- beaked kowhai. It is also called in the Uriwera Country Ngutu-Kakariki, the ParroqueVs Beak. Fl. Aug. -Nov. This is one of the most gorgeous of our flowering plants. Its flowers in their brilliancy of colour form a marked contrast to the greens, whites, and yellows, of most other New Zealand species. Though such a showy plant, it is scarcely a graceful one. The heavy, dark-green, glossy, pinnate leaves do not set off the scarlet flowers to the best advantage. However, the plant is widely cultivated, and when introduced into England in 1831, specimens of it were sold at £5 each. It grows well in Dunedin, but is apt to be cut back in winter by the more severe and continuous frosts of Christchurch. The plant — always rare — is now scarcely ever seen except in gardens, and is becoming extinct on the mainland, though still to be found on the cliffs round Lake Waikare-Moana, and on the Great Barrier Island. At one time it was comparatively common in the East Cape district, and in the early days it was seen near the Bay of Islands. It would probably have been long ago exterminated, had it not been cultivated by the Maoris, and also by the Europeans. The flowers are pollinated by birds (cf. Phormium, Sophora, Vitex, etc.) Genus Sophora. Trees with pinnate leaves, and conspicuous flowers. Calyx inflated. Standard very broad ; wings shorter than the keel. Stamens 10, free. Pod angled or 4-winged ; seeds oblong. (Name from Sophero, the Arabic for a papilionaceous-flowered tree.) PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 211 Fia. 64. Sophora tetraptera (£ nat. size). PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Sophora tetraptera (The Yelloiu Kowhai). A handsome tree, sometimes 40 ft. in height, with pinnate leaves and large gold-coloured blossoms. Leaves curled in bud, like the fronds of a fern. The trees are often bare of leaves in the early spring, and the flowers are produced in the axils of the leafless branches. Leaflets very variable, in from 6-40 pairs. Calyx greenish ; stamens hanging loosely below the petals. Standard scarcely reflexed. Pods 1 in. -5 in. long, with four membranous wings. Both islands. PI. Sept. Maori name Kowhai. Var. grandiflora. Trunk sometimes 3 ft. in diameter. Flowers large, deep- coloured ; standard slightly reflexed. Leaflets in 10-25 pairs. Var. micropliylla. Standard not reflexed. Stamens exserted. Leaflets in 25-40 pairs. Mowers rather broader than in grandiflora. Var. prostrata. Stems prostrate. Flowers small. Stamens exserted. Leaflets in 2-4 pairs. We have followed the usual practice of botanists in separating the New Zealand species of Sophora into three varieties, but this discrimination is by no means satisfactory. The life histories of the various forms are at present insufficiently known, and no doubt, when they are more fully studied, several species will be created. It can scarcely be doubted but that the variety grandiflora is entitled to specific rank. Again, a common North Island form is usually deciduous, and produces in early spring, before the bursting of the leaves, dense masses of pale yellow blooms. S. microphylla goes through two distinct stages in its development. In the first, it is a flexuose shrub with wiry, yellowish, interlacing stems, and a few small leaves. When the plant is from eight to twelve feet in height, this is gradually replaced by the mature form, which has a rounded leafy head, naked trunk, and straight brown branches. Dr. Cockayne informs us that neither the typical form, nor S. grandiflora, goes through the " scrubby " stage, but assumes the mature leafy form at once. The distribution of S. tetraptera outside of New Zealand is generally given as South Chili, Juan Fernandez, Saster Island, and Lord Howe Island. However, it may be doubted whether one and the same species is to be found in all these widely separated districts. It has been shown again and again, that PEA, CLOVER, WATTLE, ETC. 213 . 65. Sophora tetraptera (£ nat. size). 214 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND plants considered by the earliest botanists to be the same, but growing in habitats distant from each other, are really distinct species. Dr. Cockayne has clearly proved" that there are at least three, perhaps more, distinct species of Sophora in New Zealand. The question at once arises, which of these are endemic in the Colony and which are more widely distributed ? Until the Chilian and other forms have been closely compared with our local plants, it is impossible to say which foreign species (if any) are identical with the New Zealand forms. This much, however, may be admitted. We have in the distribution of the genus Sophora, evidence of a former closer communication with the South American Continent. The kowhai is one of the earliest of the spring-flowering plants. The flowers are sulphur-yellow in colour, with a calyx of old gold. At the time of opening, the corolla shows most delicate tints of green at its base, which, however, disappear when the blossoms are fully expanded. They secrete a large quantity of nectar. The tuis or parson-birds will not take the trouble to insert their brush-tongues to get at the honey, but in their hurry, tear open the flowers with their beaks, leaving the beautiful petals torn and ragged. The Maoris are said to have regulated the time of their potato-planting by the flowering of the kowhai. The wood of this tree is handsome, and very valuable on account of its extreme durability. House blocks have been cut from felled trees which have lain from twenty to twenty-five years in^the damp bush. These logs show no sign of decay, even when they have almost to be dug out of the ground. The tree is sometimes called the New Zealand Laburnum. The Maori name is said to mean yellow (the colour of the flowers) . As might have been expected, the kowhai has not failed to attract the attention of most writers of New Zealand poetry, and it has been described in verse more often perhaps than *Trans. XXXI. p. 373. THE GERANIUMS OR CRANESBILLS 215 any other native plant. Beautiful descriptions of it are to be found in the writings of Domett, Dora Wilcox, Johannes Andersen, and others. Geraniaceae. (Including the Oxalidaceae). THE FAMILY OF GERANIUMS OR CRANESBILLS. Distribution. — A family of 20 genera and 750 species, found chiefly in temperate and hot climates. Many of the species have astringent and aromatic properties. Oxalic acid is obtained from the Oxalidaceae. The Geraniums and Pelargoniums are well-known garden flowers. Most of the latter are natives of the Cape of Good Hope. This family is very nearly allied to the Linaceae. Key to tlie Genera. 1. Flowers irregular. tPelargonium. Flowers regular. 2 2. Leaves lobed. Geranium, p. 215. Leaves foliolate. Oxalis, p. 215. tNot further described. Genus Geranium. About 100 species. Two of the New Zealand species are endemic. Herbs with stems swollen at the joints, and stipulate leaves. Flowers regular. Fruit with a long beak. 5 sp. Geranium dissectum, var. australe (The Cut-leaved Geranium). A downy plant, 1ft. -2ft. in height. Leaves 5 - 7 lobed. Flowers two on a stem, J-inch across. Petals, notched, pink. Seeds, pitted. Both islands, more common in the north. Fl. Nov. -Feb. Genus Oxalis. Flowers, regular. Stamens, 10, all fertile. Stems very slender. Leaves, 3-foliolate, the leaflets folding one upon another at night. About 240 species, found chiefly in S. Africa and S. America. O. acetosella produces cleistogamic flowers. Some tropical species have pinnate leaves. Flowers yellow, white, or pink. (Name from the Greek, signifying sharp or acid). 2 sp. 216 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Oxalis corniculata (The Horned Oxalis). A perennial herb, sometimes creeping. Leaves shining or downy. Stipules, very small. Flowers, from 1-6 on a stem, ^ in. -^ in. across. Petals yellow. Fruit an oblong capsule. Fl. Oct. -Mar. Both islands, abundant. Oxalis magellanica (Magellan's Oxalis}. This little plant much resembles the English Wood Sorrel (0. acetoselld). It is smaller than corniculata, with slightly fleshy leaves, and solitary white flowers. Capsules, round. Stipules, large. Both islands : in shady places. Fl. Aug. -Oct. Our two dwarf species of Oxalis are interesting from several points of view. On a bright day 0. corniculata enlivens the turf with a blaze of little yellow flowers. It grows chiefly in dry sunny localities, and it is one of the last of our indige- nous plants to disappear before the advance of civilization. There is no town in New Zealand in which there is such a dearth of uncultivated native plants as in Christchurch, yet this little Oxalis may be found on many of the lawns, even in the centre of the town. Hagley Park lies almost within the borders of the City, and here a few wild flowers eke out a poverty-stricken existence for the delight of the town-dweller, if he care to notice them. The list is a short one, and (excluding monocotyledons) includes Oxalis corniculata, Carmichaelia flagelliformis,Ligusticum (AcipTiylla) Colensoi, Eaoulia Monroi, Geranium microphyllum, Muhlenbeckia axillaris and Cotula speciosa. None of them, except the little Oxalis, have brightly coloured flowers ; none of them are showy or conspicuous, but every one of them is well worthy of study, and in a German town of size equal to this, would already have been monographed and examined micro- scopically throughout, in all its stages. 0. magellanica is found chiefly in bogs and damp woods. It is a widely distributed form, with a sub-antarctic range, being found in Victoria, Tasmania, South Chili, and Fuegia. Mr. G. M. Thomson found that the flower produced no seed GERANIUMS OR CRANESBILLS 217 even when the " stigma was abundantly smeared with its own pollen." It is difficult to understand how such an extra- ordinary characteristic as this is developed, but it is not uncommon, particularly amongst the Orchidaceae. 0. corni- culata is endemic. The genus Oxalis shows well the folding of the leaves known as the " sleep of plants." The head of the petiole droops, and each blade is folded along the midrib, so that only the edges, and not the surfaces of the leaf are exposed to the sky. The position is, no doubt, as Darwin suggested, a method of protection against excessive loss of heat by radiation to a clear, cold sky ; but when this has been said, many things still remain to be explained. The movement is generally stimulated by the oncoming of darkness. However, it will take place at regular intervals, for a time at least, in prolonged darkness, or in constant illumination. There is, therefore, a tendency in the plant to carry on the regular changes of position, in the absence of the stimulus ; but sooner or later unnatural con- ditions produce disease, or an abnormal response in the leaves. The mechanism, by means of which the movements are carried on, is fairly well known. In many plants, it consists of a cushion of cells on the petiole, which can be distended or contracted by the injection of fluid into them, or its removal from them. When the cushion is in a state of turgidity, the leaf is raised ; when it is flaccid, the leaf droops. The " sense-organs " — if so they may be termed — by means of which the plant can distinguish light from darkness, or variations in light, are as yet very imperfectly known. Haberlandt, however, has endeavoured to show that there are, in many leaves, transparent microscopic lenses which he terms " ocelli " (little eyes), whose function is to detect the alteration in the amount of light received by the leaf, and thus, perhaps, receive a stimulus, which will automatically control the motion of the leaf. This " Somnus plantarum" as Linnaeus termed it, may be readily witnessed in 0. corniculata. 218 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Linaceae. THE FLAX FAMILY. Distribution. — A large family, found chiefly in tropical regions, and not unlike the Malvaceae in the mucilaginous character of the seeds, and the tenacity of the fibres. Linseed Oil is prepared from the oily seeds of the Linum (or flax), and the woven material known to us as linen takes its name from this plant, which produces it. The flowers of the flax are of a delicate pale-blue, and the petals fall readily. Genus Linum. This is the largest genus of the order, and is usually found in temperate climates. The New Zealand species is endemic, but several other species have been naturalized. Linum monogynum (The True New Zealand Flax). A perennial woody herb, 6 in. -24 in. in height, with pale-green shining leaves, and terminal corymbs of white, maUow-like flowers. Flowers lin. in diameter. Usually found on dry banks and cliffs, especially near the coast. North and South Islands, Stewart Island, Chatham Islands. Fl. Oct. -Jan. Native name Rauhuia. This is the true New Zealand flax ; the plant which is usually so called being a lily. The only point of resemblance between the two plants is the possession by each of a strong fibre. Rutaceae. THE EUE FAMILY. Distribution. — A large family, found in warm and tropical regions. These plants are usually remarkable for their powerful and aromatic odour. The leaves contain glands filled with a bitter volatile oil. The common Rue (Ruta graveolens) is used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic. Dictamnus fraxinella, the false Dittany, is said to exhale so much of this volatile oil that the surrounding air becomes charged with it, and faint flashes of light may be obtained on warm still evenings, if a flame be brought near the plant. Of the 78 genera comprised in the order, only two are found in New Zealand. THE EUE FAMILY 219 Fig. 66. Melicope simplex (i nat. size). 220 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Key to the Genera, Sepals and petals, 5. Stamens, 10. Phebalium, p. 220. Sepals and petals, 4. Stamens, 8. Melicope, p. 220. Genus Phebalium. Shrubs, with alternate, pellucid-dotted, simple leaves, and corymbs of white flowers. Calyx small. 28 species are found in Australia, but only one in New Zealand. Phebalium nudum (The Naked Phebalium}. A slender, branching shrub, with reddish bark. Leaves, lin. - Ifin. long ; flowers, J in.-J in. across; white, in terminal corymbs; endemic. North Island : as far south as the Thames. Great Barrier Island. Fl. Nov.-Dec. Maori name Mairehau. Genus Melicope. Flowers, regular. Sepals and petals, 4. Stamens, 8. Ovary of 4 carpels. Shrubs or trees, with dotted leaves, simple or ternate. Flowers terminal or axillary; small. About 15 species, two of which are endemic in New Zealand. (Name from the Greek, in reference to the lobed glands round the ovary). Melicope ternata (The Ternate-leaved Melicope). A small tree, with shining yellowish-green leaves, and axillary cymes of greenish flowers. Leaves opposite ; 3-foliate ; leaflets, 2in.-4in. long. Flowers, Jin. in diameter. Seed, black, shining. Common in the North Island ; local in the South. Fl. Sept. -Oct. Maori name Wliarangi. The gum of this tree is said to have been chewed by the natives. Melicope simplex (The Simple-leaved Melicope). A small tree, 3ft. - 12ft. high. Leaves alternate, usually simple, rarely 3-foliolate, Jin. -fin. long. Leaf stem flattened, broad. Flowers, £-in. across, white or pink, fascicled on the branches. The appearance of this plant is different in every respect from that of M. ternata. Both islands abundant. This is one of the few New Zealand plants that have been shown to have cleistogamic flowers (v. Viola Cunning hamii.) Mr. G. M. Thomson found specimens of Melicope simplex on Pigeon Island in Lake Wanaka, with closed flowers that were seeding freely." On examining them he found that the flowers were much reduced, and adapted for self-pollination. The sepals were normal, and the petals nearly so, but of the eight stamens found in the well-developed flower, four were *Trans. Vol. XXIV. p. 416. THE RUE FAMILY 221 either altogether rudimentary, or had the anthers apparently aborted. The other four had large anthers on short filaments. The four carpels, in place of being in contact, were completely free, and instead of having four united styles, as in the normal flower, with a single stigma, the cleistogamic flower 67. Melicope simplex (life size). had four more or less distinct styles. The flowers were pen- dulous, and probably the pollen matured early, and was shed into the apex of the corolla, thus reaching the stigma. As the filaments were shorter than the ovary, it was impossible for the pollen to pass directly from anther to stigma. This plant, like several other New Zealand species, is found sometimes with hermaphrodite, sometimes with dioecious 222 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND flowers, an anomaly that has never been fully explained. It is probable that we have here, examples of species that are changing from the hermaphrodite to the unisexual condition,, or vice versa. The problem presented is one of considerable interest and importance, and should in the future attract the attention of investigators. Meliaceae. THE FAMILY OF MAHOGANY TEEES. Distribution. — A tropical family of forest trees, which includes the Mahogany, the Indian Satin Wood, and the Red Cedar of Australia. Found chiefly in Asia and America. Genus Dysoxylum. About 30 species, all large forest trees, often with a strong odour of garlic. One species alone is found in New Zealand, and that is endemic. (Name from the Greek, meaning sour or acid, in allusion to the bitter principle contained in the leaves.) 1 sp Dysoxylum spectabile (The Handsome Dysoxylum). A tree, often 50 ft. in height, with handsome glossy leaves, unequally pinnate. Flowers £ in. broad, white, produced in drooping axillary panicles. The fruit is large and conspicuous, the hard thick capsule opening gradually, and showing the brilliant scarlet covering of the seeds. This extra covering is called the aril. (Mace is the aril of the nutmeg.) This tree is known to settlers as the New Zealand Cedar. Maori name KoJiekohe. Fl. May-July. This is one of the most beautiful troos of the New Zealand flora. Its large glossy leaves, its white, lily-of-the-valley-like flowers, springing from the bare parts of trunk or branch, and its large fruits, make it a conspicuous object in the bush of the North Island, to which it is practically confined. In the South Island it is rare, and is found only in the north of Nelson and Marlborough. The leaves are very bitter, and an infusion of them is sometimes used by bushmen as a tonic. The wood is light, and very useful for fencing posts in loose sand. In such situations it is more durable than any other New Zealand tree. THE FAMILY OF MAHOGANY TEEES 223 Fig. 68. Dysoxylum spectabile— Unripe Fruit (J nat. size). 224 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Euphorbiaceae, THE SPUBGE FAMILY. Distribution. — A large and interesting family of plants, with, about 4000 species, but poorly represented in New Zealand. In some respects this family is allied to the Geraniaceae, but, from the absence of petals in many genera, it is placed amongst the Incompletae by Hooker. Xylophylla has flattened branches, which bear flowers on their margins. The milky juice contained in the stems of many of the species is usually highly poisonous. Some species produce resin, caoutchouc, or oil, while others yield a valuable food-starch, from which cassava, arrow-root, and tapioca are made. The Croton-oil, and Castor-oil plants are members of this family, while the Common Box is well-known as a garden edging. Some euphorbiaceous plants, such as Poinsettia, are cultivated in gardens and greenhouses for their brilliantly coloured bracts. Genus Euphorbia. Herbs with milky juice, rarely shrubs. Flowers cymose, terminal, enclosed in a perianth-like 4-5-lobed involucre, with yellowish or purple glands between the lobes. Stamens unequal, jointed in the middle. Each separate stamen of the inflorescence is regarded as a male flower. Often it is provided with a scale- like bract at its base. In the centre of this cluster of male flowers, is a single female flower, consisting of a stalked 3-celled ovary. Cells 1-ovuled. Capsule 3-lobed. Some of the African and Canary Island species closely resemble Cacti, and sometimes attain a height of 30 ft. The common weed known as the Spurge, is a European Euphorbia. 1 sp. Euphorbia glauca (The Glaucous Euphorbia). A shining, glaucous herb, 1 ft. -2 ft. high. Eootstock woody, thick. Stem branched at the top, leafy. Leaves 1 in. -4 in. long, broadly oblong or narrow. Floral leaves broad, whorled. Involucres bell-shaped, % in. across, fleshy, with 4 or 5 purple glands. Capsule the size of a pea, smooth. Both islands : sea- beaches. Common. Fl. Oct. -Feb. Sapindaceae. THE MAPLE AND HORSE-CHESTNUT FAMILY. Distribution. — A large, chiefly tropical, family, including many plants with poisonous properties. Some species yield a pleasant fruit, while their leaves are highly poisonous. The nut-like fruits of the Sapindaceae lather freely in water, and are used in the West Indies for washing purposes. The Maples and THE MAPLE AND HORSE-CHESTNUT FAMILY 225 Horse -Chestnuts are amongst the most handsome trees belonging to the order. The North American Sugar Maple, Acer saccharinum, contains a great quantity of sugar in its sap. Key to the Genera. Leaves simple (in the N.Z. species). Dodoneea, p. 225. Leaves pinnate Alectryon, p. 225. Genus Dodoncea. Small trees, sometimes viscid. Leaves alternate. Sepals 3-5, petals none, stamens 5-8. A genus chiefly Australian. Flowers terminal or axillary. (Named after Dodoens, a German botanist.) Dodonsea viscosa (The Viscid Dodoncea). A small hard-wooded tree, with viscid shoots. Leaves linear-oblong, entire, 1-3 in. long. Flowers in small terminal panicles, green. 10-12 stamens are found in the male flowers. Fruit dark-brown, flat, winged. Both islands : dry woods. Fl. Oct.-Nov. Native name *Ake-ake, perhaps signifying for ever and ever, in allusion to the durability of the wood. The wood was much used for native clubs, and is now valued by settlers for making mauls, as it does not spread. 1 sp. Genus Alectryon. A tree, with black bark, and hairy branches. Leaves pinnate, 4 in. -18 in. in length ; leaflets 2 in. -4 in. Flowers in erect panicles. Calyx 4-5-lobed ; petals none ; stamens 5-8. Fruit a capsule, coriaceous. (Name from the Greek, signifying a cock, in allusion to the scarlet, comb-like aril of the seed). 1 sp. Alectryon excelsum (The Lofty Alectryon). A handsome tree, sometimes 60 ft. high. Flowers, fruit, and branches clothed with a rusty-coloured down. The whole of the flowering panicles appear to be of a reddish brown, from the deep colour of the anthers. The seed is black and shining, enclosed in a bright scarlet aril. An oil obtained from these seeds is said to have been used in the making of native perfumes. This tree is sometimes called TJie New Zealand Ash, and its timber is largely used. Maori name, Titoki. Fl. Nov.-Dec. One of the best known of the bush trees, often comprising a large portion of the forest. It grows as far south as Banks Peninsula, where, with several other North Island forms, it reaches its southern-most habit. The prominent jet-black seed, embedded in its scarlet envelope with flattened crest and one side terminating in a spur, is one of the most attractive objects for the ordinary visitor to the bush. This name was applied by the Maoris to other hard-wooded trees. 16 226 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Coriariaceae. THE TUTU FAMILY. Distribution. — A small family of about 12 species, found in Europe, China,. Japan, India, Peru, and New Zealand. The four New Zealand forms vary greatly. Genus Coriaria. Herbaceous plants, or small trees. Bacemes erect or drooping. Flowers axillary. Leaves, J in. -3 in. long. 4 sp. Coriaria ruscifolia (The Buscus-leaved Coriaria). A small tree, with shining opposite leaves, and long drooping racemes of tiny, greenish flowers. These racemes are Gin. - 12in. long. The flower petals become red and fleshy while the seeds are ripening, and are filled with a purple juice. Both islands. Fl. Sept. -Oct. Maori Name : Tupakihi or Tutu. (Ruscus is the plant known as the Butcher's Broom.) The family Coriariaceae possesses only one genus, Coriaria^ whose remarkable distribution has been given above. Of the New Zealand species, two, C. ruscifolia, and C. thymifolia, are said to be found also in South America ; the identity, however, of thp.se forms with ours has been questioned. This dis- tribution has been used to prove a former land connection between New Zealand and South America, but the order is probably a very ancient one, and the discontinuity of distribution is more likely to be due to relict endemism, than to direct communication between these two remote districts. The family may at one time have been widely distributed over the face of the globe, and have died out in all places except those in which it is now found. C. thymifolia is known in New Granada as the Ink-plant, as the juice of its fruit is used as a writing fluid. Bather a curious character of the genus is the formation of the fruit from the persistent petals, which become fleshy and full of purple juice. THE TUTU FAMILY 227 228 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND EFFECTS OF THE POISON. The tutu is well known as the most remarkable of New Zealand's poisonous plants. Some of the animals liberated here by Captain Cook died from the effects of eating the leaves, and in the early days of the Colony the settlers lost large numbers of their animals in this way. Thus Dr. Lauder Lindsay states in the " British Medical Review " (July 1865) ; "He seemed a fortunate farmer or runholder who had not lost more than 25 per cent, of his stock from toot-poisoning, whilst in some instances, the losses were so high as 75 per cent." Sir Julius von Haast narrates how an elephant travelling with a circus, died from eating this plant by the way-side. Further, there are on record a few cases in which human beings have lost their lives from eating the shoots or berries of the tutu. The poison produces vomiting, convulsions, frothing at the mouth, and death. It has been found that a dose of about a milligram of the extract " produces nausea, vomiting, and incapacity for work extending over twenty-four hours in a healthy, full-grown man.">: Various methods of treatment have been employed to counteract the effects of the poison, including the use of lime-water, ammonia, stimulants, and the inhalation of chloroform followed by sedatives and bleeding. If the ex- perience of stock owners is to be trusted, the last mentioned is the most efficacious means of affording relief. No antidote is known. Maori children, poisoned by eating the berries, were smoked over a fire of green boughs, being shaken all the time ! There is some reason to believe that the accounts given of the effects of the poison on stock have been exaggerated. Horses have been known to eat freely of this plant without evil results. Possibly the over-driving of cattle and sheep has in many cases intensified the action of the poison. *Easterfield and Aston : Trans. Vol. XXXIII., p. 345. THE TUTU FAMILY 229 TUTU WINE. Though the green shoots and seeds are intensely poisonous, the Maoris prepared from the juice of the berries a beverage, of which, according to Colenso, they drank large quantities. In the early days of the Colony the settlers also used to make a wine from the fruit, after removing the seeds. However, this wine was not above suspicion. Canon Stack relates how he drank the wine upon one occasion when travelling in company with Bishop Harper. Fortunately, neither of them did more than taste it. Shortly after swallowing it, the Canon lost all feeling in his extremities, and could scarcely retain his seat, but felt that he must fall forward on his face. A mist came over the room, and he perceived that he was being poisoned, and must ask for an emetic. Soon, however, his feet began to tingle, and the strange sensation passed. The good Bishop was similarly affected, so, judging from this case, the beverage can scarcely be recommended for general use. THE NATURE OF THE POISON. The poison apparently affects the medulla oblongata, and basal ganglia of the brain. Various attempts were made to isolate the poisonous principle, and this was finally accom- plished by Professor Easterfield and Mr. Aston in 1900. The results of their work will be found in the paper already referred to. At the end of their article is also a full biblio- graphy of the subject. These workers find that " all the New Zealand species of Coriaria, contain a highly poisonous crystalline glucoside, of the formula C^H^O?." To this they give the name "tut in." The poisonous principle of tutu is, therefore, allied to the bitter substances found in many plants, such as amygdalin, found in bitter almonds ; liquorice-sugar, found in the liquorice root ; salicin, contained in the leaves and young bark of poplars and willows ; and convolvulin, 230 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND obtained from the jalap-root. The poisonous constituent of the European C. myrtifolia has been termed " coriamyrtin " and is distinct from "tutin," though both probably belong to the same chemical series. Icacinaceae. THE LASIANTHERA FAMILY. Distribution. — An unimportant tropical family, comprising 38 genera, of which only one is found in New Zealand. This genus is also found in Norfolk Island. Genus Pennantia. Shrubs or trees. Leaves alternate. Flowers in large terminal panicles. Sepals and petals 5. Stamens 5, attached to the top of the stem. Drupe small, stone three-angled. The genus is named after the Scotch naturalist, Pennant. Pennantia corymbosa (The Corymbose Pennantia?) A tree, 10-40 ft. in height. Leaves 1 in. to 4 in. long. Flowers small, numerous, waxy- white, fragrant ; flowering stems white and hairy. Drupes black and fleshy. Both islands. Fl. Nov.-Dec. Maori name, Kaikomako. This is an interesting little tree, not uncommon in many parts of the country. In its young state it is a shrub, with long, flexuous, interlacing branches, and small, distant, sessile, truncate, variable, wedge-shaped leaves. When full-grown, it is a handsome tree, 20 ft. to 30 ft. high, with broadly oblong, short-stalked, glossy leaves, about two inches in length. Only a keen student of nature would recognize in the rather ugly shrub, the precursor of the ornamental tree. The profuse, white, fragrant flowers make it well worthy of cultivation. The curious black fungus, so common on the native beeches, is sometimes found on the bark of this tree. The seed is suspended in the ovary by a remarkable filamentous process, which originates outside the fruit, and, THE LASIANTHEEA FAMILY 231 Fig. 70. Corynocarpus Isevigata (\ nat. size). 232 PLANTS OP NEW ZEALAND after running along one of the external faces, enters by a pore near the apex. The Kaikomako in Maori Lore. The story concerning the origin of fire is one of the best known Maori legends. There are several variants of it. Maui, the famous hero and demigod, one evening maliciously extinguished all the household fires, so that, when morning came, it was impossible for his mother to cook the daily meal. This the hero had foreseen, and it gave him the required excuse to go to the bowels of the earth, where dwelt the dread goddess of fire, Mahuika. He thus hoped to discover whence came fire. He reached the abode of the goddess by a subterranean path, and begged from her a spark to rekindle the terrestrial hearths. On receiving this daring request, the goddess pulled out one of her finger-nails, and with it there leaped forth a stream of fire. Maui carried off the flame with him, but, wishing to learn more of its origin, put it out before he had gone far. He returned to the cavern of the goddess, and told her that he had accidentally lost the fire. She drew out a second finger-nail, and Maui carried off the fire and extinguished it as before. The same trick was repeated by Maui, until Mahuika had pulled out all her nails except that on one of her big toes. By this time, however, the goddess recognized that she was being tricked. So, when Maui returned for the twentieth nail, she tore it out and violently dashed it on the ground. Immediately her dwelling was filled with flames. Maui escaped to the upper world, but was chased by the goddess with conflagration. With great presence of mind, he turned himself into a bird, but even then he was likely to have perished, for a pool of water into which he plunged, was boiling hot. Indeed, he would undoubtedly have been burned, had he not called to his assistance the gods of the wind and rain and hail. These quenched the fires, and Mahuika, appalled by the terrors of the tempest, fled shrieking to the underworld. As she went, however, Maui saw her THE KAEAKA FAMILY 233 throw the seeds of fire into several trees. Amongst these were the kaikomako, mahoe, totara, and pate. Thus he obtained the coveted knowledge, for if a sharp pointed kaikomako stick is worked vigorously along the surface of a flat piece of mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus) , or pate (Schefflera digitata) , a groove is formed, which fills with fine dust. This, being gathered to one end of the groove, will presently smoke ; and, if the worker is sufficiently adroit and strong, he will at last be able to kindle a flame. Strangely enough, this primitive method of obtaining fire was the only one known to the Maoris. Those, who have tried it, alone know what violent exertion and care are needed to ensure kindling by these means. Smoke is readily obtained by the vigorous worker, but flame hardly ever. Corynocarpaceae. THE KARAKA FAMILY. Distribution. — A family of two species, one in New Zealand and the other found in New Caledonia and the adjacent islands. Corynocarpus Isevigata (The Smooth Corynocarpus) . A handsome tree, with glossy, laurel-like foliage. Leaves 3 in. -7 in. long, oblong. Flowers in erect panicles, 4 in. in length. Flowers £ in. in diameter, white. Petals concave. Fruit oblong, 1 in. in length, extremely poisonous. Found in both islands. Fl. Aug. -Dec. Maori name, Karaka. This tree is often called by settlers the "New Zealand Laurel." The Karaka forms the chief forest in the Chatham Islands, and was much used by the natives in the making of canoes. This is one of the handsomest of New Zealand trees, The rounded, massive heads of laurel -like leaves are to be seen rising near most Maori clearings, as far south as Long- Look-Out Point, on Banks Peninsula, This is its southern- most habitat, though it also grows in the Chatham Islands, '234 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND where it is known to the natives as Kopi. It is common in many places near the coast in the North Island, where it has obviously been planted by the Maoris ; and it is also .sometimes to be found along river-banks, being specially plentiful in the neighbourhood of the Wanganui Eiver. In the South Island it is rarer, though Kirk (Forest Flora, p. 173) is scarcely right in calling it " very rare "as it grows Fig. 71. Karaka Grove. in great abundance along the coast-line north of Kaikoura in the neighbourhood of old Maori settlements. The kernel of the orange-coloured, damson-shaped fruit was one of the staple articles of diet of the Maori. Consequently, the tree was much cultivated, and, as the young plants grow readily from self-sown seeds in the shade of the old, the karaka is very often to be found in groves. These groves, according to Colenso, were strictly tapu. His account* of the * Trans. IV., p. 317. THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 235 manner of preparation of the food, and the action of the poison is extremely interesting. Mr. Skey investigated the nature of the poison, and came to the conclusion that it was probably a glucoside (v., under Coriaria ruscifolia.) He isolated the bitter principle in beautifully radiating acicular crystals, and considered that it was similar to digitaline (i.e., the drug obtained from the root of the fox-glove), (v., also under Pomaderris.) THE HOME OF THE KARAKA. The Maoris state that they originally brought the karaka with them from their semi-mythical Eden (Hawaiki), but science contradicts this statement. Until quite recently, the genus was believed to be endemic, but it has now been found in New Caledonia and the New Hebrides, so that it is probable the plant came into New Zealand when there was a land extension to the north. It is apparently quite unknown in the Western Pacific, whence the Maoris came to New Zealand, but a very similar tree growing in Polynesia bears, it is said, the same name. It is probable, therefore, that the name karaka was attached to the New Zealand tree by the Maoris, because of its resemblance to a tree found in their former home, and not because they brought it with them. The Maoris wore chaplets of the leaves upon their heads, when they visited the graves of their ancestors on any important occasion. Rhamnaceae. THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY. Distribution. — A widely-distributed family, occurring in warm and temperate regions. Some of the species possess edible fruits, while the bark of others yields a tonic, and is used in medicine. Yellow, green and blue dyes are also obtained from some of the fruits. The leaves of Ceanothus americanus have been used as a substitute for tea. 236 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Key to the Genera. Leafy shrubs. Leaves alternate. Pomaderris, p. 236. Spinous shrubs. Leaves opposite or 0. Discaria, p. 239. Genus Pomaderris. Shrubs, clothed with a hoary stellate down. Leaves alternate. Calyx-tube divided into 5 lobes. Petals 5 or 0. Stamens 5. Flowers in terminal or axillary corymbs or panicles. About 22 species, found only in Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia. (Name from the Greek, signifying a covering and the skin, the fruit being loosely covered by the calyx) . Pomaderris elliptica (The Elliptical-leaved Pomaderris) . A branching shrub, 2-10 ft. in height. Leaves 2-3 in. long, shining above, white with down on the under-surface. Cymes fragrant, many-flowered. Calyx, white. Petals crisped at the edges, greenish -white. North Island : dry hills. Fl. Sept. Native name, Kumarahou, from Kumara, a tuber-like root, and hout growing deep or strongly. Pomaderris apetala (The Tainui). A small tree 6 ft. -20 ft. in height, trunk 5 in. -6 in. in diameter. Leaves, flowers, and flowering stems clothed with dense soft hairs. Cymes many-flowered. Petals none. Fruit a capsule. North Island only, rare and local. Fl. Oct. -Nov. Maori name Tainui. -THE DISCOVERY OF THE TAINUI. This plant was discovered in New Zealand by Sir James Hector, and described by him in 1879" as Pomaderris Tainui. It is of special interest because of the Maori legend attached to it. When Sir James was in the Mokau district in December, 1878, he was informed by the Maoris, that a certain tree, which had sprung from the green boughs used in the flooring of the canoe " Tainui," was still growing in that district. The Tainui was one of the six famous canoes of the Great Heke, and in it the ancestors of the Waikatos, Ngatimaniapotos, and other tribes, came to New Zealand some five hundred and fifty years ago. Sir James expressed a doubt as to the credibility of this statement concerning the origin of the tree. The Maoris then offered to show him the living specimens, which were growing on a spur between the *Trans. XI. p. 428. THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 237 Mokau and the Mohakatina Kivers. The scientist, on seeing them, was forced to admit that he had not observed any tree of the kind in New Zealand before, and the Maoris considered Fig. 72. Pomaderris phylicsefolia ($ nat. size). this admission was prima facie evidence of the truth of their tale. Sir James concurred in their view, and suggested that, "if we could hereafter determine the original habitat of the tree, it might give us a clue to the whereabouts of their 238 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND ancestral home, Hawaiki, the place whence the Maoris originally migrated to New Zealand." But, unfortunately for the lover of romance, there is a sequel to the tale. When the earthen pot of tradition, and the iron vessel of science, go down the stream together, it is the former which is likely to be broken. Kirk has shown (Forest Flora, p. 11) that the plant is none other than the Australian Pomaderris apetala. Moreover, the genus Pomaderris, so far as is at present known, is peculiar to New Zealand and Australia, and does not occur in the South Seas. It is obvious, therefore, that the story has grown up to explain the tree, and that the presence of the plant in New Zealand is no proof of the truth of the legend. Indeed, on examination of the tale, discrepancies in it soon appear. The species is not confined to the habitat where it was first found, nor was the " Tainui " stranded near the Mokau, but at Kawhia. Pomaderris phylicsefolia (The Phylica-leaved Pomaderris). A strongly scented, heath-like shrub, which grows profusely amongst the small tea-tree, upon gum-lands. The branches are thickly covered with soft hairs, and the leaves so much recurved as to appear to be round rather than flat. The flowers are axillary, in cymes of 3-5, and are of a yellowish colour. North Island. Fl. Aug. -Oct. Maori name Tauhinu.* (Phylica is an African genus of the order, consisting of heath-like shrubs). This plant is often abundant in the open country in the North Island, and constitutes, particularly in Auckland Province, one of the chief components of the lowland heaths. Its structure also is typical of the heath-plant. The small leaves bear their stomata on the under-surface, in wind-still tubes, formed by the inrolled margins and the rough hairs. Transpiration is thus checked, and the plant is enabled to withstand long continued insolation. Similar leaves may be found in Olearia virgata, Cassinia retorta, and Celmisia longifolia. The roots of this plant were, according to Colenso, some- times used for fish-hooks, when bone ones were lacking. *This name is also applied to Cassinia levto&hvlla. THE BUCKTHOKN FAMILY 239 Genus Discaria. About 14 species, of which 1 is found in New Zealand. Much branched, almost leafless, usually thorny shrubs, with twisted interlacing stems. Branches grooved. Leaves £ in.-f in. long. Flowers axillary, fascicled, small. Petals 0, 4 or 5. Stamens 4 or 5. Fruit a dry hard drupe. (Name from the Greek signifying a disk, from the ovary being situated on a broad disk.) Discaria toumatou (The Wild Irishman). A spinous bush, sometimes 20 ft. in height. Flower £ in. in diameter, white ; calyx, downy. Leaves, when present, fascicled or solitary in the axil of spines. North and South Islands. Fl. Dec. -Jan. Maori name Tumatakuru. XEROPHYTIC LEAVES. It doubtless sometimes happens, that, owing to slow move- ments of the earth's crust, the climate of a plant habitat alters. There is reason, for example, to believe that, at some past time, the climate of the Canterbury Plains, and perhaps of other parts of New Zealand, was much more arid than it now is. Under changing circumstances, a plant has either to accommodate itself to its new environment, or give place to other and better adapted species. There are many ways in which a plant can adjust its leaf to the conditions of a desert climate. The leaf may be set obliquely to the sun, as in Eucalyptus ; it may provide itself with water-storage apparatus, as in Mesembryanthemum ; the leaf margins may be recurved, as in Olearia virgata ; the total leaf surface may be reduced, as in many Veronicas ; or again, the leaves may become spinescent, as in Aciphylla. If all these methods fail in protecting the transpiring surface sufficiently, the plant may become leafless. Then the stem has to take on the functions of a leaf, as in Carmichaelia, Clematis afoliata, etc. Now Discaria has nearly been reduced to these straits to prolong its existence. Such extreme measures, however, are only adopted by the plant, if other devices for protection against drought fail, or are unavailable; for a stem cannot be expected to carry on the work of assimilation as efficiently as a leaf. 240 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND The leaves of the Wild Irishman are fairly abundant in spring, become fewer in summer, and are altogether wanting in autumn and winter. Most of the shoots are reduced to green pungent spines, sometimes with brown tips. These when old lose their chlorophyll, and become very hard and dry. They .are then so strong and needle-like, that they were often used j Fig. 73. Discaria toumatou ($ nat. size). (Moist air form on the left, ordinary form on the right.) by the Maoris for tattooing, when bone or other needles were unprocurable. DE. L. COCKAYNE'S EXPERIMENT. The small deciduous leaves, and hard green acuminate shoots of Discaria at once proclaim it a plant of dry localities. As a matter of fact, it is found chiefly on sand-dunes, on arid or clayey hill-sides, and on stony plains. That it should acquire such a highly xerophytic structure is therefore little to be THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY 241 wondered at, but the strangest part of the story yet remains to be told. Dr. Cockayne has studied its development, and has also shown by an experiment, which is probably destined to become classic, that Discaria was originally a spineless leafy plant adapted to a moist habitat." The seedling plant is erect, leafy, and bears no spines. After it attains an inch or two in height, spines begin to develop in the leaf axils, and the foliage becomes gradually sparse. If, however, the plant is now put into a warm moist chamber, no more spines will be developed, the leaves will be retained, and, — in a word, — the plant returns to its seedling form. Nor is this a temporary change, for this form will be retained as long as the plant remains in an atmosphere saturated with moisture. And in this complete suppression of the spines, Dr. Cockayne's experiment is unique. Goebel, perhaps the greatest living botanist, recently said : — " I do not think that up till now any more has been proved, than that in moist air the formation of prickles and thorns is retarded ; there is no proof that it can be suppressed."! Dr. Cockayne seems clearly to have shewn that complete suppression is possible. Such a remarkable experiment as this cannot fail to be profound and far-reaching in its effect on biological ideas of the species. As will be pointed out (v. Plagianthus betulinus, p. 256), the seedling often passes through the ancestral forms of the species in its development. We must, therefore, assume that Discaria had originally small thin leaves, adapted to a moist climate, but has changed its characters in response to the stimulus of a drier atmosphere. Sixty years ago the dogma of the fixity of species was one of the most sacred beliefs of biologist and layman. Darwin showed us that species are not fixed ; and now there are not wanting many indications, which seem to prove, that in some cases, individuals even, may show a marvellous plasticity. *The New Phytologist Vol. IV. No. 4, On the Significance of the Spines in Discaria toumatou. TPlant Organography Eng. Trans. Part I. pp. 263, 264. 17 242 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Tiliaceae. THE LIME-TREE FAMILY. Distribution.— A family of 40 genera, and 340 species. Tilia is the only genus found in cold regions. The English Lime-tree (Tilia europcea), the typical plant of the order, furnishes the bast used by gardeners. Bast mats are made from it in Russia. From Corchorus capsularis, the Jute, the Indian tribes made their nets and fishing-lines, while another variety of the same plant was used by the Egyptians as a vegetable. It is said that one species of Aristotelia possesses fibres of such strength and toughness, as to be used as strings for musical instruments. Sparmannia africana, a pretty shrub with umbels of white flowers, and with evergreen leaves, is cultivated in Britain as a greenhouse plant. Key to the Genera. 1. Fruit a spinous capsule. Entelea, p. 242. Fruit a drupe or berry. 2 2. Leaves opposite. Aristotelia, p. 244. Leaves alternate. Elseocarpus, p. 248. Genus Entelea. A genus of only one species, almost confined to the North Island of New Zealand. Leaves alternate, flowers regular. Sepals and petals, 4 or 5. Stamens numerous ; fruit spiny. (Name from the Greek, signifying perfect, referring to the stamens, as opposed to the imperfect ones of Sparmannia). Maori names, y Hauama. Fl. Oct. -Nov. Entelea arborescens (The Shrubby Entelea). The genus is confined to these islands, and this is its only species. The tree may, therefore, be regarded as peculiarly a New Zealand plant. Its large leaves and beautiful white flowers make it one of the handsomest of small trees. It used to be common along the coast of the northern part of the North Island, being particularly plentiful north of Auckland and in the neighbourhood of Gisborne. It is not found nearer Wellington than Paekakariki, and in the South Island has been seen only in the Collingwood district and near the Croiselles. In some places this tree is called the New Zealand Mulberry, on account of the shape of the leaves. These leaves are very large, sometimes nine or ten inches in length, heart-shaped, and with toothed margins. They are THE LIME-TREE FAMILY 243 beautifully veined, soft, and fade quickly when gathered. The flowers are produced in large drooping clusters, and are of a pure white, with crumpled petals, each single blossom being about an inch in diameter. The petals are pointed, and are four or five in number. The fruit is dark-brown, and rough with long bristles. These spines are often an inch in length. Fig. 74. Entelea arborescens — Flower and Fruit (3 nat. size). It is unfortunate that this beautiful tree is now becoming rare. However, it is easily cultivated from ,seed, and will grow in any sheltered situation. The wood is remarkably light, and was used by the Maoris in the construction of floats for their fishing-nets, and of small rafts. It is about half the weight of cork, and the whau is sometimes, therefore, termed " the cork- wood tree." Mr. T. Kirk suggested that it might be utilized for life-belts. 244 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND This is one of the three large-leaved trees of New Zealand that by their foliage seem to suggest a tropical origin. The other two are Meryta Sinclairii and Pisonia brunoniana. Its nearest relation is apparently Sparmannia of the Cape of Good Hope. It has been suggested that the spinous character of the fruit is probably due to the need for protection against grazing animals, in the country whence it originally came. Perhaps the only other New Zealand fruit similarly protected, is the nut of Sicyos australis. It seems, however, unlikely, that either of these plants has indued itself with bristles, as a safeguard against browsing mammalia. Bitter juices are a better protection than thorny leaves, and an edible fruit is often of more value to the plant, than one which is inedible. As a matter of fact, the spinous fruits of the whau form no protection to it, for if stock are running in the neighbourhood, all the young plants are eaten up by cattle, before they have time to develop their seeds. Indeed, were the fruit of the whau edible, the bristles upon it would be a quite insufficient defence against grazing animals, as they are often fond of sharp plants. Horses, for example, will eat dead thistles in preference to grass. Sheep sometimes eat the prickly leaves of Leptospermum scoparium, and, did they taste sufficiently pleasant, the sharp tips would not hinder stock from grazing on the plant. It is the bitter acrid juice developed in the leaves which is its chief safeguard. It seems probable, therefore, that some other reason must be sought for to explain the spinous coat of the seed of the whau. Genus Aristotelia. Small trees, with 'opposite, deeply-toothed leaves. Flowers in panicles or racemes. Fruit a berry. (Named in honour of Aristotle). 3 sp. Aristotelia racemosa (The Racemose Aristotelia). A small tree 6ft. -30ft. high, with red bark. Flowers in large panicles, varying in colour from a faint rosy flush to deep claret. Fruit, a red 3- or 4-celled berry. North and South Islands. Fl. Nov. -Dec. THE LIME-TREE FAMILY 245 Fig. 75. Aristotelia racemosa (i nat. size). 246 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND This is another handsome tree of the same order as the whau. It is common everywhere throughout the islands at altitudes from sea-level up to 2,000 ft. In bush clearings, it is one of the first plants to come up, and would, on this account, be termed by the Americans a " fireweed." It goes by different names in different districts. In Otago, it is the New Zealand Currant, or Moko-mok'. In Canterbury, it is called the Wine-berry. In the North Island, it is the Mako-mako. Its graceful plumes of rosy flowers make it one of the most attractive objects of the bush in Spring. The red-brown under-surfaces of its leaves flash into view with every breath of wind, and the memory of their beauty is one of the pleasantest recollections of the lover of the New Zealand bush. The genus also occurs in South America and Australia. Our species, therefore, perhaps indicate an American connection at some remote period. The wood is white, and has been used for conversion into charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder. Aristotelia fruticosa (The Shrubby Aristotelia). A much-branched shrub, 3 ft. -6 ft. high. Mowers solitary, or in small cymes or racemes. Leaves linear, lanceolate to elliptic, oblong, entire, crenate or serrate. Fl. Oct. -Nov. Mountains, both islands. A sub-alpine plant of the most variable habit, and extreme mutability of leaf form. These changes of form may be due to the extreme sensitiveness of the plant to alteration of environment, or it may possibly be due to the fact that the plant is undergoing mutation (v. Veronica, p. 370). At any rate, few of our variable species afford more promising material for experiment. Like so many other New Zealand plants, in one of its stages it resembles a twisted Coprosma (v. Plagian- thus betulinus). The leaves of the seedlings are sometimes similar to those of A. racemosa. The leaf form of the last- mentioned species, according to Dr. Cockayne, may, therefore, possibly be regarded as typical of the " common ancestral stock." THE LIME-TREE FAMILY 247 Fig. 76. Elseocarpus dentatus. (Six flowers life size.) 248 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Genus Elceocarpus. Soft-wooded trees, with alternate leaves, and long racemes of white or greenish flowers. The two New Zealand species are endemic. Leaves coriaceous, serrate. Fruit a drupe. (Name from the Greek, signifying an olive and fruity the drupe resembling an olive in appearance.) Elaeocarpus dentatus (The Toothed Elcsocarpus) . A rough-headed tree, with trunk 1ft. -3ft. in diameter, and oblong-obovate leaves, with recurved margin. The leaves of E. Hookerianus are linear, oblong or lanceolate, and the margins are flat. This distinction enables the two species, to be separated. Maori name Hinau. Both islands. Fl. Oct. -Nov. One of the most beautiful flowering trees in the New Zealand bush. In a good season, the whole tree is covered with racemes of creamy, saucer-shaped flowers, each raceme having the appearance of a spray of lily-of- the- valley. The petals are deeply fringed at the edges, and the leaves are strongly notched. The fruit resembles the damson, and was used for food by the Maoris, who greatly valued it. A chief who owned a fine grove of Hinau trees was considered a wealthy man, while to rob the grove of its fruit was regarded as a capital offence. The fruit was prepared in the following way : — It was collected into the hull of a canoe, and soaked in water. After a long steeping, the berries were rubbed between the hands, the stalks and skins strained out, and the coarse grey meal, left behind, was made into a cake, baked and eaten. This cake had a dark appearance, and was too oily for European tastes. Eats are very fond of the kernel of this fruit, and bore cleverly through the shell in order to obtain it. The bark of the Hinau makes an excellent blue-black dye, and was used by the Maoris for dyeing the black threads in their garments. It also contains over twenty per cent, of tannin, but this is not much used. The wood is difficult to burn, and might be employed with advantage where there is special danger of fire. In the Maori language hi signifies to- bleed or emit sap ; nau is a shrub or tree. THE LIME-TEEE FAMILY 249 Fig 77. Eleeocarpus Hookerianus (life size). 250 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND Elseocappus Hookerianus (Hooker's Elceocarpus) . A smaller species, called Pokaka by the Maoris. The flowers do not open out so widely as those of the Hinau, and are greenish-white in colour. Drupe blue, small. Found in both islands. Fl. Nov. -Jan. Malvaceae. THE FAMILY OF MALLOWS AND KIBBON-WOODS. Distribution. — An important and widely distributed family, occurring chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical countries. Of the 60 genera belonging to the order, only four are found in New Zealand, and of these, three are endemic. The Malvaceae are generally mucilaginous, and non-poisonous. The most valuable .genus is Gossypium. The delicate unicellular hairs which cover the seeds of these plants, form the cotton so largely used in manufacture. The Hollyhock (Althcea), the tree-mallow (Lavatera), the Abutilon, and the Hibiscus, are much cultivated for their flowers. Hibiscus cannabimus is the Deccan Hemp of western India. A decoction of the Marsh Mallow is used in throat affections. Some of the New Zealand trees of this order are noted for the strength and beauty of their inner bark, which is used for various ornamental purposes. Key to the Genera 1. Ovary 1 or 2 celled. Plagianthus, p. 253. Ovary 5 celled. 2 2. One ovule in each cell. Hoheria, p. 250. Two or more ovules in each cell. Hibiscus, p. 260. 5. Ovary 10-12 celled. Gaya, p. 260. Genus Hoheria. Trees with tough inner bark. Leaves extraordinarily variable. Flowers white, axillary, on jointed peduncles. (Hoheria is a modification of the native name). Maori names Houi, Whauwhi, Houhere. 1 sp. Plants of both this and of the next genus (Plagianthus), are popularly known as Ribbonwoods. The bast or inner bark is perforated by the medullary rays, and this gives to it a characteristic ribbon-like appearance. This genus is endemic in New Zealand. Hoheria populnea (The Poplar-like RMon-ivood). The varied names given by the Maoris in different districts to this plant, are all said to spring from the same root. Whau MALLOWS AND KIBBON-WOODS 251 Fig. 78. Hoheria populnea, var. vulgaris (i nat.'size). 252 PLANTS OF NEW ZEALAND signifies wrapped about, netted, — like lace, and the tree is so called from the character of its inner bark. The settlers name it lace-bark, ribbon- wood, or thousand- jacket. This inner fibre is remarkably tough, and is, therefore, often used for cordage. It is also beautifully perforated, and has been employed for many ornamental purposes, such as trimming for ladies' hats, basket work, etc. Lace-bark bonnets are said to have been at one time fashionable in Nelson. The houhere is one of the most beautiful of the small trees of the forest It is covered in autumn with a sheet of white, starry flowers, which are often developed in such profusion as entirely to conceal the leaves. There is a large number of recognized varieties, but, as Dr. Cockayne has shewn, H. angustifolia at least should be