JCN

HANDBOUND AT THE

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS

THI PERJPLl S

OF INK i RYTHR/KAN SEA

PRAVEl \\D I K \DI l\ I 111 I\DI \\ n \ \n KUI \\ i ( i \ M in

OM THI K AND \ I PCD

m

\\ II I KM) H >( IK HI. v M f Commercial Mutfttm,

1 uNGMANS, GREEN, \ND i

I ol K I II \\ I \t ! I M.I M Mkl ! I. M \\ YORK

191 :

•I'YKKiirr 1912 I Hi: COMMERCIAL MI'M I \l PHILADELPHIA

<1

roFTO"

I \HI.I <>| ( <)\ | IN |

i

Illl 1'IKIPI.Uf Hilt! I HI l-l !

NOTES

\KI I \1I \ I !"M l> IN I HI PI KIT

H

DATI "i i HI n KIIM US AS 1 .NI i> UN

m

Ml \ I |o\l |> l\ I HI I'l Kll'l I v 2*4

INDI »»

\| \|' |i) II I I N| K \ ! I I HI IM Kll'l .1 s A'l

I OR] \\ « > K D

I Philtddph s came I Kfencc %**tnc

Acil pur|*»s' -tie tiunu-

rKl's cumin

TheV luxe lost no in presenting •

•s of the world.

scums urulcrtook the HKiphic his- m the e.r

ami barter ilown sent tin

author . >t this translation wraj - ntmsteil with the study and prepu iihit, which in its early stages of develop-

sh..\\ii at the I n. It u as in the

prcpa • -d t<» the

its interest in the carlv historx <»t iuinmerce lus of tlu- Kr\rhr.r.iM Sea is the first

Aith the nations «.f the \* «

vessels luiilt ami cominaruicil l»v sul>jri-fs <-t thr \\'estern uorld.

I cat interesr, i;i\-iny as the\ Jo an exhaustive

• the international trade betueen the great empires of

thrr with a collect hiriLj tlu- carlx trade of a numhrr ot other cmintries

•

The \vfi -rltl is e\ • vomini» more

ami more umler exact laws of J< in.i'ul ami supplx. \\ hen the

•nmerce from its earliest Jaxxn to its present tre-

roportions shall be caretullx x*ritten.

A ill turnish a moil inter* s'-riu part of such early

ul the Commercial Museum will not haxetoapu'

fpr rescuing this work from o ami presenting it to the

ral public.

\\. IV \\ II M »\. S

'

trml>cr.

INTRODUCE K)N

//>/«! •/ iht Kryltrfum Aa i» one of

. like thr j..unui ' .1.. un.l Columbus and Vi

rcss nut only individual enterprise, but the awakening of i geograpl imer-

* '.«! > >f organized tn -h the

ni <>t the List, HI vessels built and commanded by subjects of

\CNtrrn World. It marks ihr turning «»f a inlr ncrte

! set in interrupt, ; the dawn

years before the I the

HI s.lV.l U nf the I'll. I

. human culture and com untru-N l>«inierin^' "ii the Persian (.

ami Bal\\ Ionia, and in the "\vh..lr land of II where there it

! of that land is good; there i» bdellium and the ilture in h«.ih direction*, KgypC and ;• in.ii.i canu- into t>eing, and a c

>rd f»>r tl • B «>f product* u ithin those

r of exchanges nr.ir the heail «•! the Persian

Ciulf. The peoples of tha' us Arab tribes and more

ic mystefious R*4 Mm. or intermediaries. The growth of .

in India created an. »* , trading to the Kuphrates and

id eastward we know not whither. The Arab merchants,

< :itl>, tolerated the presence of Indian trad \frica, but

tin the i that

uhich supplied stones and spiers and

• the gods of Keypc. Was their prero.j.i: :i trm th-

the Pharaohs The

•he Indian . carrying them

in turn over the highlands to the up; -r through the Rr

and :i desert to Thetx-> or Memphis. In the rare

•s of Egypt were turned eastward, and voyafes of lerce and conquest were despatched to the Eastern Ocean, the

officers of the Pharaohs found the treasures of all its shores gathered in the nearest ports, .nui sought no further to trace them to their

sources.

As the current of trade gradually Mowed beyond the Nile and F.upl. rates to the p< I the north, and their curiosity began to

trace the better things toward then source in India, new trade-routes

gradually opened. The story ot the world for many centuries was that of the Struggles of the nations upon the- Nile and Kuphratcs

Q all the territory through \\hich thi- neu routes passed, and so to prevent the northern barbarians from trading with others than thein- seluv It uas early in this struck- that one branch of the people known as Phu-mcians left their home on the Persian ( iulf and settled on the Mediterranean, there to win in the West commercial glories which competition in the Kast was beginning to deny them. The Greek colonies, planted at the terminus of every trade-route, for themselves a measure of commercial independence; but never until the overthrow of the Kast by the great Alexander was the control of the great overland caravan-routes threatened by a western people, and his early death led to no more than a readjustment of conditions as they had always existed.

Meantime the brethren of the Phoenicians and their kinsfolk in Arabia continued in control of the carrying trade of t! ..bject

to their agreements ami alliances with the merchants of India. () in- Arab kingdom after another retained the great eastern const of Africa, with its trade in gold and ivory, ostrich feathers and oil; the shores of the Arabian Gulf produced an ever-rising value in frankincense and myrrh; while the cloths and precious stones, the timbers and spices — particularly cinnamon — brought from India largely by Indian vessels, were redistributed at Socotra or Guardafui, and carried to the Nile and the Mediterranean. Gerrha and Obollah, Palmyra and Petra, Sabbatha and Mariaba were all partners in this commercial system. The Kgyptian nation in its later struggles made no effort to oppose or control it. The trade came and the price was paid. And the infusion of Greek energy after Alexander's day, when the Ptole- had made Egypt once more mistress of the nations, led to nothing more than the conquest of a few outposts on the Red Sea and at the head of the Gulf of Aden; while the accounts of Agathar- chides are sufficient proof of the opulence which came to Southern Arabia with the increase of prosperity in Egypt. Here, indeed, the trade control was more complete than ever; for changes in the topog- raphy of India, the westward shifting of the Indus delta, the shoal- ing of the harbors in the Cutch region, and the disorder incident to

of Astatic people*, had tapped ihe vigor of the Indian

• in Arabia itself - r »truggl<

.•ml in t- kingdom

rote and fell and pa*s< -. i?h bru

an coast was left •

\r.tl> tr ibr ML L !•.,:-. rd irvrlf jt ihr Sinks,

adversary, establishing itself in the old **L

v .1% building up ibr kmi'dom . ! \»-\

• the state \\huh ;<,s«rttrd lit former home in tl:

It was r that tbr rule of tbr I*To|emir% came to SO

end under > i, and tbr new ruler of • i, rhe

•» posses :ypt. and thus added to

its Control <»f the iara\ • and

of a direct .sea-route to tbe I .asrtt by way of tbe i*tolc •sts on tbe R<

t tbe Roman people was a rich

inquests and spoliation of ail tbe inran

ic treasures a> .» taste

for tl he East was developed almost oier-nighf.

unpbs <»f tbe conquerors d I:m»r arul .s\na glrt-

I bicb tbe people i lain. -ret! was pi rWkcd tbitber fr«

in tbe center :i(;esofti> vas mo%'ed

Alexaml But a wise derision of tbe I mperor

•us. only mice iicp.irtc(i fmni and that disastrously, limited the

n dominion t<> tbe bank of tbe Kupbrates . so that all this rich

trade tbat flowed to Rome paid its tolls t,, tb< 'urthia and

to tbe Arab kinndoins, unless Rome couKi itrol a

At; h an enterprise all the energy and subclct \rab

was called No information was allowed to reach the

he imagination could create was tl tuinir tbe least disturbance of th

human mem«.r\ be-jan And in an

unknown ocean, uith oni\ the \aguest ideas «»f tbe v»urce* of the

souubt, and tbe routes that led to them, it might ru\e

e a Roman vessel, coasting along b.wfcle

• uld reach the goal. Hut accidents fa^ iian amb»-

.m, smaning under the t realm srabia, was courting the Roman alliance.

1 Ul trading-posts atGuardafui, formerly under Arab control, \M re- new free, through the quarrels of thru overlords, and their markets A ho might seek. And then a Roman subject, perhaps in the .in service, was driven to sea and earned in an open

\\hemc he returned in a few months with a favorable wind and much information. Then Hippalux, a \enturesome navi- -.\hosr name deserved as much honor in Roman annals as that of Columbus in modern historv, observed the periodic- chaise of the Indian in- doubtless long known to Arab and Hindu

bnldlv --id at the proper season made a successful tradin

age and returned with a cargo of all those things for which Rome

was p.' -encmus I and pearls, ebony and samlalwood,

balms and spices, but especially pepper. The old channels of trade- were paralleled but not conquered; so strong was the age-long un- derstanding between Arab and Hindu, that cinnamon, which had made the fortune of traders to I. i:\pt in earlier times, was still found by the Romans only at (Juardafui and was scrupulously kept from their knowledge in the markets of India, where it he-red and

distributed; while the leaf of the same tree producing that precious bark was freely offered to the Roman merchants throughout the Malah . and as malabathrum formed the basis of one of their

alued ointments.

Great shifting of national power followed this entry of Roman shipping into the Indian Ocean. One by one Petra and (r Palmyra and Parthia itself, their revenues sapped by the diversion of accustomed trade, fell into Roman hands. The Homerite Kingdom in South Arabia fell upon hard times, its capital into ruin, and some of its best men migrated northward and as the Ghassanids bowed the neck to Rome. Abyssinia flourished in proportion as its old enemy declined. If this state of things had continued, the whole course of later events might have been changed. Islam might never have appeared, and a greater Rome might have left its system of law and government from the Thames to the Ganges. But the logic of history was too strong. Gradually the treasure that fell to the Roman arms was ex- pended in suppressing insurrections in the conquered provinces, in civil wars at home, and in a constant drain of specie to the east in settlement of adverse trade balances; a drain which was very real and menacing to a nation which made no notable advance in produc- tion or industry by means of which new wealth could be created. As x.urces of the West diminished the center of exchange shifted itinople. The trade-routes leading to that center were the old routes through Mesopotamia, where a revivified power under the

Sassanids was able to conquer every passage to the East, including

1 Arab states which had nut yielded submission tt» i Ksarhad>; uchadreaar or Darius ihr ( irrat. Egypt,

iL'rr m thr highway of commerce, became a mere gran.* Constantinople \i>yssinia, drum from iu hard-won footholds

east of th. .4, could otfrr ihr Hw.

aui IP. i power. And the »hirl»

welded the 1 a*trrn World as no force :ht the West for another millennium N<>( until '• ' those vast chain duttry and

tramp ! the nineteenth century did the Wrtfrrn

itf Stood in need, and b)ing stern markets on their own terms, turn h.uk the

direction.

rds of the s, who strove during the age* to stem

.ire of enduring interest in thr vi..r> . • human •hem .1 • the most fascinating it this

Penplui of tht Erytkraa* Sta — this plain and painstaking log of a

subject,, who stee vessel into the

i brought h.u k the first detailed record of

.>orts of its markets, an<i of the i ondition* and alh-

•he ..n!\ record fa eeattriai that «p^*kt

•n this trade in its entirety, and the gloom uas not lifted until the wider . f Islam broke

Arab secrecy m trading, and by grafting ( Jreek theory, laid the foundat! «»dern ge-

ography. Not Strabo or Pliny or Ptolemy, however great the store of t t ered together, can etju.il m In. rot this

merchant who wrote merely of the things he dealt in and -those peoples of -ill knows

so htr ses so much; who brought to the restless

the ordered and industrious East, and in to he waters of the "Krythraran S<

'INI DAM AND AUTHORSHIP OK INI PKRIPI

I he manuscript COpiea of the IVriplusat Heidelberg and lx>ndon

: enable us to fix either date or authorship. The Heiddberf

• rk to Arrian, apparently because in that

plus follows a report of a voyage around the Black

ule by the historian Arnan, who was governor of Cappadocia

1M \ I) This is manifestly a mistake, and the I «ndon

:;>t does not contain that re fern

The only guidance to date or authorship must he found m the itself.

Hippal the sea-route to India, described in .-

,ncent at about 47 A. 1 ).

\'r from Pliny's account < VI, 24) of the accidental

journey <'f a frccdman of Annius Plocamus who had fanned from easury the rc\cm, from the R< This freedman

was carried away by a gale and in fifteen days drifted to Ceylon, \\here he was hospitably received ami after a St \ months returned

home; after which the Ceylonese kings sent an embassy to R..me. Pliny says that this occurred during the reign of Kmpcror Claudius, which began in the year 41. The discovery of Hippalus must have come very soon after. (The first question suggested by tl. what the freedman was doing outside the Straits of l$ah--cl-Mandeb and from whom Annius Plocamus farmed the revenues. As to this Pliny is silent. Can it have been the friendly Abyssimans. or were the Greek colonies in Arabia still in existence?)

The discovery of Hippalus, described in £ 57, seems to ha\< curred not long before the author of the Periplus made hi> \ He evidently feels a deep respect for the discoverer, and goes on to say that " from that time until now" voyages could be made <i across the ocean by the monsoon.

Pliny has but a passing reference to Hippalus, suggesting that between 73 and 77 A. D. when he was writing, the memory of the discoverer had faded somewhat from view.

Assuming 50 A. D. as a date earlier than which this Periplus can not have been written, we must look next for a limit on the other side.

In § 38 is mentioned "the sea-coast of Scythia" around the mouth of the Indus, and the metropolis of Scythia, Minnagara, which ibject to Parthian princes at war among themseh <

In $41 is mentioned another city Minnagara, which, as indicated in the notes, is simply the Hindu name for "city of the invaders.'*

In £ 47 is mentioned the "very war-like inland nation of the Bactrians."

As explained in the notes, the Scythians of the Periplus are the Saka tribe, who had been driven from Eastern Turkestan by the Yueh- chi, and overran Beluchistan, the lower Indus valley, and a<: parts of the coast of India itself. They submitted to the Parthian Kingdom, of which they formed an important part. Their ern extension under Sandares, the ruler mentioned in § 52, indicates a growing pressure from the Kushan kingdom on the north, but prior

conquest -.uthaiu. which occurred

fhe "war-like iu r Boctnaiu ., the

r Kush.m,, former!] >.•, . who, after

>lmen westward by the Huns overran .1 km^i

.1 and Mrt up there .1 ;...;\. :tul kingdom xvhu h, «•.. : . mlhc fteCOdd cenhr ed most of northern Iiulu 1 r.. . . : • > .

had commrm r<j its*

in the valleys «if the Indut and ( .nd pr..iv r the

'icral Pancrun cd in l>" A I) A *hi%

: throughout Imlu and would not I let! our .tut! .nn ai *V

Lites, 90 and 95 A I).. Lter ilun uhuh thi% i'rriplus

ttea

In §§ 4 and 5 our author metitions the < ity of the Axumiir%, and

»ast and inland, nileii /oacales; whom Hrnr>

\\ith the : .unc "/a HakaJe" found by him in the

/; «>r C 'I of the kings »f Ah>\x «r duration

i>f this /.i ll.ik.il. i^ t«> the ( e, was thirteen

years, ami \\\-> dates Salt Hxes at 76 to 89 A ! wing a n

-he birth of Christ took place in the eighth year of i HA.ile's predecessors, Zabaesi Bazen. The date of the accesMnn si Bazen was 84 years prior to that of /a Ma-

kale. >f the name if probably correct, but the

Mini in the Chmnulr* were written some centuries after the e\< nts, and can hardly be accepted as safe authority in the abseii ' r c\uinu< The fact that nearly all the reigns are

i»i\ en as lasting an even number of years, or else as so many years and that the d -s were only estimating the time,

.is obliged to rearrange their chronology in order to fit it t.> known f.ut>, .uui • K quite possible that his rearrangement has : m i \\ !. -hat of /a Hakale. Obvkwsry Salt's

th more than his dates. South Arabian inscriptions dis- •c the separation of Axum from its mother-land, !i Arabia, not long before the date of

US; and the f.n-t that there is no mention of Axum in any work earlier than the i .md not < lliny, suggests the

same conclusion; namely, that the AlnsMSiun Chronicles are unreli- able, at any rate in their earlier portions. They count as independent kings a number of rulers who mu>t huvr been subject to the Arabian mother-laml; the order of events they relate is uncertain, and their dates are merely approximations.

10

1 ran if the dates in the Chronicle, and Salt's identification of Zotcalcs with /.i Hakalc were strictly correct, the date generally ac- i for the birth of Christ. .S \\. C., would bring /a Hakalc' s acces^ \ n to 71 A. D. and his death t

.irly all the commentators think that the IVriplus is earlier than Plim's \\ituml History, which is known to have heen published be- tween 7.1 and 77 A. I> The principal indication is their simiL the d< i of Arabia I'chx, where Pliny seems to condci,

Periplus; but, on the other hand, there arc- many statements in Pliny's sixth ho«. k \\hieh describe facts in disagreement with, and p; earlier than, the Periplus ( )f course Pliny v ipiler and i op\-

! usually not \ery discriminating, and lie may have chosen to follow the Periplus ,,nly where it did not contradict the earlier;,

lulu II of Mauretania, for whose knowledge he repeatedly ex- pressed respect. Pliny has much more information about Men»e than appears in the Periplus, but he does not mention Axum. H

ist at the Promontory of Mosyllum and says that the Atlani there. In this he follows King Juha; but 1

known the Periplus he ought to have included the African >

./.ibar. He has an account of Mariaba, the ro\al city of Arabia Felix, which the Periplus has not. He quotes Aelius (Jallus, writing in 24 B. C. , as stating that the Sabaeans are the richest tribe in south-

•. rabia. The Periplus, however, has them subject to the II ites, who rccci\c only passing mention from Aelius (Jallus.

One is tempted to imagine that Pliny's account of the- \<>yage to India (VI, 26) in which he refers to "information on which reliance maybe placed, here published for the first time," refers to the Peri- pliiN. then existing merely as a merchant's diary; and Glaser has based much of his argument as to the authorship of the IVriplus on that pa-s- age; but Pliny goes on to describe a voyage different in many \\ays from that of the Periplus, and giving quite a different account of the •>f India. At the time Pliny wrote, the sea-route to India had been opened for nearly thirty years, and he might have had this infor- mation from any sea-captain, as indeed he might have had th concerning Arabia Felix which seem to be in such cl< nu-nt

with the Periplus. The argument that Pliny, whose work was dedi- cated in 77 A. D., borrowed from the Periplus is, thei,. <• and even plausible, but by no means conclusive.

Return 11, the reference to the anarchy in the In do- Par-

thian or Saka region does not suggest the consolidated power of that King <»f Kathiawar and Ujjain who founded the ^a era

of 78 A. D. ; indicating for the Periplus a date earlier than th.;

.* '4,, » helpful.

>rthwest China, at the dale of

Ynplus the- must p.. wniid > • the Kate* of China, ind actively en- gag* :idahct and influence »c*waid acrcw

•> Mipoofted in br (he modem Singanfu I tl...t erland from chat country lo

.land Indu." hir . me from there and seldom ."

suggests thr l;.i.i> -••.iilet aCTUM'l urkeWan urrr Uill

in ' J Panchao.

ith of thr dt -srtt >tan was finally opened by him

• wat opened as early

I ) , indk ami'.! that thr IVnplus must l>r hxr.i u -i.,rr that date. In > 1'* is nirntiuni »1 M.iluhas, kinu «>f th«- Nahataeans. Aft

mportant indica- Josephiis in •/ ikt

- .1 M.ii> hi.s. k ' Aiuhia, under \% hit h name be

itaran km. -.I.. in, as having aMtsted Titu» in

iition a . ixalrm, \- .1 in the year 70

A. D />'... <'.•-;., IN. - j*.

'iihrms that a Nahataean king 'as ( Han npcror* I ilx-nus and Ca-

Ji hus III .1 about 40 to

A 1) It wat a sister <>f tln> M.iKluiN \\ho married Herod Antipas,

r his brother Philip's

Josephus, Ant. yw. X V 1 1 1 , 8).

r him to war with his father-in-law,

as, and doubtless explains to > it the policy hat

Judea. This must ha\r been the vamc as

against JcruNulrm must have

infer that if the Periplui

had lu-t-M \v ntten after that exp< Maiichas also would have been

haribael rnnerof/* and iher^

fore th.i lus \\a.s written before Titus' campaign of the year 70

hi ^ e have the names of C'hanbael, king of the

I and the Sabahes, and of Kleazus, king of

:ntry. It was the «.pim..n of GUser, based on

i by him in South Arabia, that both these names

r han persona] names, and that i i !xjrne by aev-

era! rulers during thr 1> H i ;,:;•;, \«v 1619

I a kinir Kleazus who was niler in 29 A. D., and a king Cha-

n was from A. D. The mendoii of

"a friend of the might answer for a date

under Vespasian after the succession «>t short reigns ilt.n followed but the years of turmoil throughout tin- Roman hmpirc. Forsev- cars after the death of Nero, were not years ot prospeiou

;phis dex» nhcx. Tin- '• mduates a dale eark

ID the rt-iun of Nero. br! >ie the memorv of his p; vdci exxor Claudius had faded; nuijhk. an\ time between ' \ l>

In • :•••• • < '•;,! destruction nt .\iai)ia I ,U<

nion Our present km>ul< \rahian histon dors not ^kcus

any positive date for the war leading to the destruction ot this Sab. ican port, hut the inscriptions discovered and c ommcnted on In ( il.^ci point to a time after the middle of the first rentir

In Author mentions the i it\ ol Mc-.< This ( apMal of

.ihian kin-.'dom \vas se\cr<-l\ treated hy the Romans soon after

their* ;>' The Nubian queen Candace had attacked

. and an expedition >ent out a-jainsf Iter u.uler IVtroniiis annihi- lated her army and destroyed many of her rities, nu ludinu that of

I his \\as in H. ( I'hat anotlier queen ( 'and. ,

\uhia retained considerable power in the first half of the first century A I) is shown in Aits VIII, 27. After this, Phm relates, the

E tribes of the neighboring deserts came down and plundered what was left of the Nubian Kingdom, so that an expedition of in- quiry sent by the emperor Nero Pliny, VI, SS when In contemplating a campaign in the South, ventured as far as Meroe and reported that they had met with nothing but deserts on their -routes. that the building in Meroe itself were but few in number and were still ruled over by a queen named Candace, that name having ; from queen to queen for many >ear>. 'I his stare of things can In- fixed at about 67 A. 1). It is obviously later than the- account in the Periplus

\ er\ sunn after Pliny's time Meroe must ha\e been destroyed, be name does not appear atrain for several centuries.

A suggestive fact is that the Periplus tells only of the ureat increase in trade with India, and has no mention of a cessation or decline of that trade consequent upon the burning of Rome, JuK L 9-25 in the year M Ten out of the fourteen districts of the city were destroyed. The loss was not equalized; fire insurance did not exist It is true that this great calamity hardly receives mention in Plim's work He- refers to the baseless story of Nero's having started the fire, and in several passages to the destruction of building, temples and the like, ;) some- reticence. In many places, however, once in so many \\ords, he mentions the crisis through which Rome passed in the ears of Nero and his short-lived successors, and of the

11

brought t r strong hand • i \ .

Hut i um Rome

whose sudden expansion was due enn >

ion of (hr iru«ir depression that im.vf ha%e

follow r.l MII h a destruction of capital in.! ihr ensuing political dit-

>«4 probable. The facts of this conflagra-

tion a stated in Revelation,

i \\III. hstanding the different point I ihr

...k, the , iicumstance* he describe I are of importance

hr ti-

the k mi's ..( thr earth . . . shall beuail hrr, and lament shall see the sin • r burning, . and

.irth shall weep and mourn ..-.. r h' man lui\eth r handise anymore :>

silk, and scarlet, and all sweet wood, and all manner vessels of i\<>ry, and all manner vessels of most precious wood, and of brass, .> and marble, and - .1 odourm, and otnt-

, and frankincense, and wine, and oil, and fine Hour, and , and beasts, and sheep, and horses, and chariots, and slaves, and souls of in. I ' thrsr things, which

ill stand afar off for the fear of her tor- 1 wailing, and saying, Alas, ala>, that great city, .is ilothnl in Hue linen, and purple, and scarlet, and tl<

and precious ST.,IU-S, and pearls' i -i one hour to great

>( An.: ipmaster, and all the com-

s, and as many as trade by sea, stood afar off,

\shrn thr\ v.m the- smoke .-t her burning, saying, ^

like unto tins .• And they cast dust on their heads

ned, weeping and uailmi:, saying, Alas, alas, that great city,

ere made rich all that had ships in the sea by reason of her

For thy OX e the great men of the

earth

Now our author was one of those same shipmasters trading by

ut m Ins .u -count there is no suggestion of standing afar off. h as would probably have appeared if he

writt -iiat great disas

iowmu the ii r Mippalus thrrc seems to have her

sudden and enormous increase in thr Roman trade with India, and par- ticularly in the Indian products. The I'enpli

the 4* larger ships" now needed for the cinnamon trade, < ease, particular 1> m the importation of luxuries, can 6e

and s, ami of pearls, and hue linen, and

Ascribed to the fashion of extravagaiu e set In Nero's comt, during the

»•• i.uu \ i.: his t.ixontc Sah.i.i I'oppia. whose influence lasted

^ until her death in 65 A I). Pliny* a reference to the ti

IM quantity of spurs usc«! .it Poppa-a s funeral XII, 41 • nulh

rased trade; \\hich he further confirms > VI, 2<> In ing that specie amounting to a nun p<-r yea-- was rcqu

.dance the- trade, and that these- Indian imports sold in Rom. hundred times tt Pliny's figures are untrust\M»rthy, as

in XII. 41, he estimates a litt! S4,UOO,OOU as the h.ilain

< (juneil for the entire trade with India, Arabia and C'ln hut a sudden iiu rease in commerce i 'in- less e\ idem.

Th- i- of any description in the I'eriplus of trade with the

^s of the Persian (iult, ' to Martina, sumrests that it

was written at a time when Is .1 Parthia W( ( )m

author's descriptions, e\en ot the southern coast of Arahia. stop

at the Frankincense Country and its dependent'), the island of Masira;

!-c explains that the coast lu-vond the islands of Kuria Muria " suhjci t to Persia" and thus closeil to him. Acc'ordini; to the •i by Rawlinson, < >/.v//; .1 A;///r,7n • XVI. conHictn nenian succession leil Rome to make war on Parthia in 5$ A. I)., the second \ear of Nero's rei^n. The Parthians. at the time occupied with ci\il war in the South (possibly even in their newly-actjuired South Arabian poagesstons , -ja\r hostages and abaiul- \ inenian pretensions; which, however, they 1 in

58, when war broke out anew. Hostilities continued in a desui way until 62, when the two powers agreed upon a mutual evacuation of Armenia and a settlement of the dispute by a Parthian embassy which to \isit Rome. This truce occurred in the summer of 62. The embassy made its \isit in the autumn and returned without a treaty. The truce was broken the same winter by a Roman invasion of Armenia, which was repulsed and the truce renewed. A second Parthian embassy to Rome in the spring of h.4 settled the matter by placing a Parthian prince on the Armenian throne and requiring him to receive investiture from the Roman Emperor. This cerem> occurred in 65 A. I ).

Hostilities between the two countries certainly ceased in the winter of 62 and probably, as far as commercial interests were con- cerned, in the summer of that year. Therefore, the date of the Periplus, or at any rate the date of the voyage on which it was based, can probably be fixed at not later than the summer of 62 and not eai than the summer of 58.

The possibilities are rather in favor of the second or third year of

u

.rn thr i •h

rarrst sinu'lr vtur thai cuggr»t% il«-lf a% tlir

HIS IS, ill" " A I >

A<» ujthtirxhip, if i* bet* iii admit ihui n«4hin^ i» •

^1 rililuiii of the I'enpluft atirilniir.! Alrv

ml olm.'i name altogrti

I I laser, in an artulr published in

trm|>lin<; J.. U true- He a«Mimo

in llir IVripUi%. f iiiijuiMi huh iMin\ nu-!.ti..ii.. \%a»i)iaiof cjut

•uilil li.ixr hn-ri qUOlcd ; . : <Hhcf t>«

.nul ilu >«»n of t 4Ufhorifir%

tin- rmi nr appearing in the

uKI )><• the II.UIM «r »ur until- «r lt> x. •. meant

.«mr U.. :. . .1:1. i ' ajj ' t«» the

. 'f that artuK " Ha

thr 1*1-11; D Hut I'linv him»rlf in thai

as tin- author «.f a:^ .1 thr upprr Nil« • than ihe

mus au'amst Nuhia in J4 t.. J^ B C . un.i .,

on I; s, is iju '. Pfa. p.

rd Hckkrr . \\h..sr u%ra*wril-

•..uit 1 1 utury and a half lx-f«.rr the IVnplu

t., In- this s.mu- Hasilis, r.ithrr ihan .» latrr \^ !ike name.

IV * h. •

L D I nU-ss, th. Cilaicr aanimt

ffcrcnl mail fr..n> thr Basi! ' I hen. tOO, a mafl «'f I'luu's staiulu. : lu\r brca apt lo

'

;UI onm an ohsoirr *eaK.-apcau .»s his text .units him. rrfrrrinu inrrrk lo "inf«»rnuti..i. h reli-

ihr .ms-

:.il R..HU-. ami thr uritrr ..t thr !'<'!j>lu* did nol "Scion* "

>..ssihihtv that Plinv may have used his account does n«* imply

his namr Alto^rth. • -jumenl ll r»ern»-

•blc

uiti a men ham inactive

16

trade \\h«' 4j made the \o\aue to liulia, is c\ ulcnt In the text

. that he lixt'd in Berenice rather than Alexandria is indicated h\ the al1 • aii <mnt of thr journey up the Nile and aCTOSS

the desert from C\»ptos. \\hu-h Straho and Pliny describe at length. ossiblc that he made the voyage from Cape Guardafm to /.an- zibar, but the text is so vague and nurd-tain that lu- seems rather to be quoting from someone else, unless indeed much <>t this part ot the work has been lost in copying. The coast of Arabia east of the Frankincense Country, the entire Persian ( Julf and the coasts ot Persia and Heltu histan as far as the Indus rixer, serin to have been \. to him only by hears.,', They were subject to Parthia, an enenu of Rome.

That he was not a highly educated man is evident from his h< ijuent confusion of Greek and Latin words and his clumsy and some- times ungrammatical constructions. The value of his work consists, not in its literary merits, but in its trustworthy account of the trade of the Indian Ocean and of the settlements around its iboretj concern- ing which, until his time, we possess almost nothing of an intel- ligent and comprehensive nature.

Itllil [OCR Xl'in ol I III I'l KII'I.US

( aii Junrni i>( thr Tenth Century, in

thr -he I in\rrMt\ ..? Hn.iriu-r,- It was token 10

during th uiul r., .Jer Nav

.ind was restored in Heidelberg in 1

'WrillV iliffrrrnt tillr v of wkucH tDC

.IS folloU

I. Argumentum . i ( A llaZJ, who packed

and shipped thr Heidelberg I.ihruf> t«. Ron. II I -.igmenliim de 1'uludr M^.ituir rl dc PqfllO

111 \: . iamM

l\ I luaden 'unum qua pcriptut Pond

il i i.nti:

\ 1 N Rulni

\'| H.in:...iiis prripliis

m 1^,391. A panliiiu-nf. supposed lo be i>f the Four- th (Yntur\. in the Hritish Musrum. A portion ;>osctl to h.»\r (.oinr from the monxslcn of Mount .tains in common with the Heidel- berg manuscript seems to haxr been copied therefrom, or from a

In this tl.r Periplus is anonymous.

AkkivM M H \SS.-MN I'I.RIIM.I N . 1'n i ARI HI > DE FU7MINIMM IT MOM n S RAKMfn ii'ii"\n /-'retrx. Httnlae Ann*

Ml) \.\.\l II. Sitiimundui G<l<nm> Jnulm* E^rrm Mi*» S. I his apt and full of error* due to lack

of • ire of the sub-- cd nexertheless for three cen-

turies as the basis of later editions, because of the disappearance of the Heidelberg ma;

DELI i '*TT. RAMUSSO.

In I ! n< //,;, n,fa Stamp*™ d< C,iu*n, Ml > III.

Vol. 1, pi n* * Gw. fi^miar R*-

muiM, ttpra la navigatHmt <ttl Mar Ru»% fit* *U* 1*4* OrW»at* icritta per Arnaw and a begins \*uit*t9m* M m*r

Rwojini A Ut Indtt Ontntali u rin* per Arricm im Ltmgt* £r«tt,& J't qutlla f»i TrtH&tta ntUa Itaba**.

There were editions of Ramusio's Collection at Venice in 1SSO, 1S54, ISbJand 1 S88.

IS

ARRIAM HISTORICI ET PHILOSOPHI P«>N 1 1 l-'.i \i\ i .v \l \«is I .m i MK.I .

PERIPLUS, AD ADRIANUM G*SAKI\I \ . /»•////«/// < (,

urmoHf in Latinum versus, plur'wiu^ut ////•///// . /. .

lit/mo Stvckio Ti/vrino avthore. (Y .;nont

1577.

This text is based on that <>t ( Jelenius. \\itli feu m

•'.datlons

ARRIAM PICA, AMIS CONTRA ALAKOS, I'IKH-KS \\i\\\

\IM. Pi '. 1 I 1 •/. I UK I 1. I 1111 U l»l \ I \.\ I lu\| ,

• /»r*7/7'//.« / \ .. / » A',. .

.17 v M Blancardi, Am

This text is protrssvdk based on that of Stink.

'<APHI.« VBTI ii'ioKis i: ; c;///// /;///•/•-

. ' :ncrtti tion ihus, 'a,; . I .

hniano, MlX'.XCl ill. M Joannes llud-

18, DissrrtatiuiK-x I li-nnri I )od\vrlli. 'I "his onitains as its h'fth title, l\riplns Mans I'.rytlinti ( jfrriano ) i<n/go <i(htrif>tus. lnt<rpr<l< I,. Guilulm* Stucki* Ti^i, > The text is based on (Jelenius and Sturk.

i\ Li-noMfi rois PALAI GEOCRAPHBTHENTON

pkifatmoi <i<ip(in<i i>>n >.\ Kannirttn />/ii/^,

/>//','. /nsiMi.ADos Jiarin t'in /is Hf/li'nikii pu'nlfia$ f/>hi</>. H,ll<n'.n. En Hifnn'>i tis Austria* fk tis Scliniunhltk'o / -v/V/j,

It contains, pp. 2(< 1 Tr'uimn /'//•//*/-///.« //'j i.i \thnn

Tfalatfft, with notes translated from Hudson. KI\\II ARRIAM Nu o\u DII .\>is QPBRA GftJECC ad r,]ttinnu ,<liiiwfs

Studi* Jngnsti CltrutUOti Btrktck. I

This contains, pp. ^ 1-1 21, Arriantu Ptripkui //.» A/T////V/J The- tc-xt is from Hudson.

TNI PBU1 i iifRiAN Si \. Part the first, ronta

An Account */'//.• ;tiw of ti;. ,Jrotn // .s/v/'z

/« : inguebar. With Dissertations, li> \\illiani \'in-

' //, ./////.,

TNI CoMMCRCC AND NAVIGATION Ol IHI .\\MIN i s IN i Mi INDIAN IN //» 11'illittm I'm,,':;. />./).. / I! < tnnn v///. In

tun \olumcs. Lwdw: Cad f II & D 7. Vol. I.

' \ .'luts. Vol. II, '/'///• 7V/-/////J 'if tin Erytln Part the first (• staining, //w Account of the Navigation >,i An "i ////• &•// «/ .S///^ /'/ / • / . \\ ith

I >!xsc-rta:ioi)s. Part the second containinu, ./;/ ./«v»//;// o/

If

tr.m <h

///</ W »/ f .VY/»«. Thev .mi. ful \olumrs, presenting • k lett and

,'lish translation in parallel column*. a by dtwrrtttiom

that i!rii..fr exhaustive tieoyraphu al and tn r n ilriMirih, jrc *iill

of tl- • st .mil linpunjiur I., the olmlriK ..f ihr i'l rip|u»

»IHfrd

• ul. I nbtain ; ' ute *»i-

II, p.irt II

nriicr.ill\ Irss uxrtul ili.m lu> geographical and romn •!«,

.ire still, IM lame pan, illn and tru«wonh>, and

wt li-jrnt preientaik>fi of thr tub.

i I) I Ml I'lKIIMI * ••> I III I K^ I ».

SEA (ast rib- .nslatt-.l l»\ \\ \iiumf. ( )vf<jrd,

,»9.

tfUCHUN * IIN/M M GtOMTAIMDI HIM \

8CHK HI I. < ' ,k..s,,|, ;rtt-t

N IVnplux. translated into ( •rrman. SAMM. i I»IK MM n

>HIS I M> \IIIN (Htu.KM'llll ( (i Kin --/i»i.

•rk. pp 4%.

-\\AKI .!/;/.;»;,. .V »rr,.'-'

DCS PsEUDO-ARK I \^ (jMtCHirrUIIO DB ERVTHKABttCHIM \IuRl3 —

7/f, d'u uhrigen im .lunaff. I (fArr- tfr: ^ eub<r\\\ Jahrtt-Btrickt ukr At $trmla*tr k*ktr<

rnilatlrt C Hartung Berlin, DrxuL

I his partial translation is based on the te«> . Hud-

sonant! i IN <>f little \alur

ARRIAM irn > M > IMR^I Rnmtmit ti

kmi awt* tatiw imtruxil B. hatn< « H«-

. .!//

20

GBOGRAPHI GRJECI M INGRES. E codcibut rtcognovit, prolegomenis^ anno- tarionf, indicibutque instruxit, tabu/is trri ineisis illustravit Carolus

MSA n Pawn. Didot, MDCCCL I

Vol. I, pp. M* OQ bftl Prolegomena Anonymi Periplus M

id pp. 2 S 7-305 AnwrnH Jrriani, /// fcrtur ) Pfriplus Marts An-Mnr/, being the eighth title included in that volume. \,.| HI contUAS four inapt, xi-xiv, especially drawn to illustrate the IVriplus, ami four more, vi-vin and xv, drawn for other titles Inn presenting details that further elucidate this work. This edition is .1 \.ist improvement over all its predeo presenting a text \\hirh is still the standard, admitting of moditi- cation only in minor details. The Greek text, carefully corrected from the Heidelberg manuscript, and critically revised and im- proved, is presented side by side with a Latin translation. I he notes, which are in Latin, reflect almost everything of importance to the subject which had been written up to that time.

THK COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION OP mi: ERYTHRAEAN SKA, H\

1. IV. McCrindU, M.A., LL.D., Calcutta, 1879. This W////K-

.-,/;'// j ii translation ( with commentary) of t lit PMRIPU s KRYTH-

R.«I MARIS, by an unknown writer of the first Christian ,V;////;T,

and of the second part of the INDIKA of Arrian.

The translation of the Periplus was also printed in the Indian .Intiquary of Bombay, Vol. VIII, pp. 108-151.

This excellent translation, while based professedly on Mul- ler's text, is often reminiscent rather of Vincent's, and thus repeats various errors which Muller's notes had corrected.

The notes are valuable for the original material they contain Concerning Hindu names, places and commodities, hut show lack of acquaintance with German writers.

DKR PKRIPLUS DES ERYTHRAEISCHEN MEERES VON EINEM UNBEKANN- 1 1 v GritcAucA und deutsch mit kritischen und erkuJrenden Annur- kun&n nebst volls tandigem Worteruerztichnisse von B. I'abriciu*. IsifruK, I'frlag von Veit V Comp., 1883.

\ movt scholarly presentation of Greek text and German translation on opposite pages, with clear and exhaustive notes. The ( Irerk text, which has been revised with extreme c are, mains many verbal corrections of Muller's standard text, and leaves little to be desired. The historical and commercial notes call for revision where they omit conclusions previously reached by Knirlish writers, and in so far as they are affected by later research.

SJ

The present translation is hated on MGUer's text, adopting most of Fabnciuf* verbal emendations, but conforming as far at possible with the results of later research. Vincent's text and translation have also been consulted frequently. References in

Pliny and other contemporary writer*, as well as with modern

authorities.

12

The Voyage around the Erythraean Sea

1. Of tlu- designated ports on the Kr\ thr:r.in and the market-to\\ ns around it, the first is thr ]-^\ p- \1 «] I larhor. To those sailing down from that place, on the nidit hand, alter eighteen hun- dred stadia, there is Berenice. The harbors of both are at the boundary of K.^\ pt, and are hays opening from the Krythrran Sea.

I. On the right-hand coast next below Berenice is the country of the- Berber-. \lon^ tin- shore are the Fish-Haters, living in .-cattered cavea in the narro\\

l-'urther inland are the Berbers, and beyond them the \Vild-Hesh-Katers and C'alf-I\atei>, each trihe ^o\ - crned h\ its chiei ; and behind them, further inland, in the country toward the WCBt, there lies a cit\ called

' »e.

J, lielow the C'alf-Maters there is a little market- town on the shore after sailing about four thousand stadia from Men-nice, called Ptolemais of the- Hunts, from which the hunters started for the interior under thed\nast\ of the- Ptolemies. This market-town has the true land-tortoise- in small quantity ; it is white and Smaller in the shells. And here also is found a little ivory, like- that of Adulis. But the place has no harbor and i- reached only by small boats.

4. Below Ptolemaic of the- Hunts, at a distaiu about three thousand stadia, there is Adulis, a port es- tablished by law, lyin^ at the inner end of a bay that runs in toward the south. Before the harbor lies the

•o-caDed Mountain I t two hundred Md

•in the \er\ lir.ii! of the hay. with the shores of the- mainland close to if on hoth side*. Ships ho.m

cause <>' the

l.uul. I »r at th iir.it!

ot the lu\. h\ an isl.uul called Diodorus. i -the

shore, \\ hu h i ould l»e re.u hcdon -in the l.uul; In

orhich means the barbaroui tuuivot al • '.md.

Mount.iii) I shi !»(!.« »n the in.iinI.iinltv\rMi\ st.ulia

•d xill.i'^r. from \\huh <«»urnr\ t«> ^ inland t«»\v n

and ' l>«)in that plan- t«» the

rit\ i.t t >lc called \n\ninitcN '

jotirne) in« that pl.iee all the i\ hroii^ht

Mintrs l>e\<»ud the Nile through the ih called t '\rm-um. and then .alls the

\\hole iniinher ot elephants .did rhinoceros that killed live in th % inland, although at rare inter-

C hunted on the seacoast even near Adulis. :ie harhor of that market-town, out at sea on •^ht hand, there 1 ind\ islands

called Alalai. Melding tortois<--shell, which is drought

!;i I ' .

5. \ lit hundred stadia hexond th<

aiiot: it mound of sand

piled up at the- ri^ht «'t the entrap. the Ixittom

iiich th<- nd this IN the only

\\herv prodiurJ. These p -inn the

..ther lierher countr\ . are -o\rrned ; \sho is miserlx in his \\ ! aUvayt

it otlu-r\N iae upright, aiul acquainted 'ire.

24

6. There are imported into these places, undressed cloth made in Egypt for the Berhers; robes from Ar- sinoe; cloaks of poor quality dyed in colors; douhle- frin^cd linen mantles; many articles of Hint glass, and others of murrhine, made in Diospolis; and brass, which is used for ornament and in cut pieces instead of coin; sheets of soft copper, used for cooking-utensils and cut up for bracelets and anklets tor the- women ; iron, \\ Inch is made into spears used against the elephants and other wild beasts, and in their wars. Besides these, small axes are imported, and adzes and swords; copper drinking- cups, round and large: a little- coin for those coming to the market; wine of Laodicea and Ital\ , not much ; oli\e oil, not much; for the king, gold and silver plate- made after the fashion of the countrx , and for clothing, military cloaks, and thin coats of skin, of no great value. I ,ikewise from the district of Ariaca across this sea, there are imported Indian iron, and steel, and Indian cotton cloth; the broad cloth called ttiotnic/ic and that called Sii(rniiif^cm\ and girdles, and coats of skin and mal- low-colored cloth, and a few muslins, and colored lac. There are exported from these places i\or\ , and tort shell and rhinoceros-horn. The most from Kg\ pt is brought to this market from the month of January to September, that is, from Tyhi to Thoth: but scason- abl\ they put to sea about the month of ScptemK

7. From this place the Arabian dulf trends to

the east and becomes narrowest just before the dull' of Aval- \fter about four thousand stadia, for those

sailing eastward along the same coatt, there are other Berber market-towns, known as the "far-side" ports; King at interxals one after the other, without harbors

but haxing roadsteads ui >ips can anchor ami he

iret is called this

in Arahi.i to the far-side coast flu- shortest Hen- th< i siu.ill in.ii

tou ii called \\.ilm-. \\ Inch must I*.

ami ratts. Hiere are imported into d . Hint glast,

assorted r gra|X-s from I >

cloth .assorted, for the Ber

a littK- tin. I - r\p»»rtrtl from tlu- s;iinc- place,

and 1\\ tlu- HcrluTs then

nd Mu/.i on tlu- opposite ihoie, Npic-e*. a

little ii-ll. and .1 \cr\ little nixrrh. hut

hriti-r than the reM. \nd the Ii -.vh«» li\e in the r\ unrul\.

\\alitex tlu inarket-toxMi.

lu-ttc-r than fins. Called M.il.. int a sail of alxuit

ei'^ht hundred stadia. llu .nu • »cn road-

. sheltered In a spit running out troin the east.

ire more peaceable. There are im-

d into this pl.u c the- things alreadv mentioned, and

\ tnnies. cloaks troin . \rsin ss<-d and d\ ed ;

drinkin^-rnps, sheets of aoft copper in small qiiantitN,

»K1 and silxrr coin, not miu h. Iher troin these phuc-s m\ rrh. a little trankiiR-cnsc, (thatknown ai far-ride), the harder einnamon, JtuKa^ hulian copal an- . \v Inch are imported into Arahia;

ami sla\es, hut rarelx .

9. Twodaxs' sail, or three, hevoiul Malao is the

mark :i of Mmulu.s. xx here the ships \\c .it anchor

sateh behind a p: and close- to the shore.

There a into this place the things previously

d from it likexxise u d the mer-

26

chandise alread , and the incense called wocrotu.

And tlu- trailers li\ing here an- more quarrelsome.

10. Bc\ond Mundus, Bailing touard the cast, alter

fief tWO days' sail, or three-, \ou reach Mosvllum,

beach. \\ith a had anchorage-. There arc- imported

here the same tiling alread) mentioned, also siber

little iron, and glass. There are shipped

from the place a great c|iiantit\ of c'innanion, (so that

:n,.rket-to\vn requires shijvs of hi; and

fragrant minis, spice>, a little tortoise shell, and nifj^ (poorer than that of Mimdns), frankincense, ithe »r\ and myrrh in small quantities.

1 1 . Sailing alon^ the coast he\ ond Mosvllum. at\\oda\s' course sou come to the- so-called Little Nile Kuer, and a tine- spring, and a small laurel-^ro\ c\ and Cape I-.lephant. Then the shore recedes into a ha\, and has a river, called Klephant, and a lar^e laurel-

C called Acanna1; \\-herealone is produced the- far- side Frankincense, in u;reat quantity and of the hest ^rade.

12. Beyond this place, tin- coast trending toward the south, there is the Market and Cape of Spices, an abrupt promontory, at the- \er\ end of the Berber coast toward the east. The anchorage is dangerous at times from the ground-swell, because the place is exposed to the north. A sign of an approaching storm which is diar to the place, is that the- deep water becomes more turbid and changes its color. When this happens they all run to a large promontory called Taba?, which offers safe shelter. There are imported in to this market- town the things already mentioned; and there are pro- duced in it cinnamon and its different varieties, gizir, asypha, are/>';< nui^la^ and moto) and frankincense.

13. Beyond Taba ».mr lunulrcd stadia, there

t I'ano. \iul thru, .ttter sailing four

hundred stadi.i al.mga pn>montor\ . touard u Inch place

uncut also draws \ou. tlirrr is another market-

t(»\\ n called ( )pone, into \\ iiu li tlir same thing* arr 1111-

•se alread) mentioned, and in it thr greatest

im«»n is prodi, ;neAo and moto),

and slaves ot the hetter KMt, ' hu h arr hrou^lit to Egypt

in increasing nnmhcrs; and a :;r<-at ijnantit\ «.t t(»rtoise-

slu-11. hrttrr than that found cKru h.

14. Th. • all tlu-sr tar-side inarkrt-r«»\vns

b made from Eg]rpc about die mootb «>t |nl\. that is

lii. And .ships arc also ^ nl\ titled out from

placet across this *ea, from Aria*, a and Barygaza,

•in- to these tar-side markel-fo\\ Ms the products of their o\\n places; wheat. 'untied butter, sesame

oil. Cotton rloth, the mOKOcAl and the safpfMtofrhlt) 9 and girdles, and hone\ trom the reed called sacchtiri. .Some make the vo> dl\ to these market-toxs ns.

and others eu'han^e their Cargoes while sailing along the (XMSt I'his v-onntr> is not suhjnt to a King, but each market-tou ii is ruled 1>\ its separate chief.

15. Beyond Opone. the shore trending more to- the south, rirst there are the small and great bluffs

dJ \/.ima; this ^oast is destitute of harU>rs. hut there are places where ill D lie at atK'hor. the shore l>cing

ahrupt; ami this o>nrM- is <>t six days, the direction hcing south-west. Then conic- the small atul great lx-;u i another si \ days' course and ahcr that in order, the Course* of Azania, the tirst being called Sarapion and the next Nicon; and after that several rixerx and other aiu-horages. one atter the other, separately a rest and a

28

run for each day, seven in all, until the P\ralaa> islands and \\hat is called the channel: beyond which, a little to the south of south-ucst, after two courses of a day and night along the Ausanitu t, is the island

Menuthias, about three hundred stadia from the main- land, low ami and wooded, in which there arc- rixers and man\ kinds of birds and the mountain-tortoise.

There tre no wild b xcept the crocodiles; but there

they d<> not attack men. in this place there- a-

, and canoes hollowed from single logs, which

the\ use for fishing and catching tortoise. In this

island the) also catch them in a peculiar wax, in wicker

which the) fasten across the channel-Opening

between the breakers.

16. Two days' sail beyond, there lies the- very

hut market-town of the continent of A/ania, which is called Rhapta: which has its name from the Sewed -<//>/V/ /yfouiri'jH i already mentioned; in which there is ivory in great quantit) , and tortoise-shell. Along this coast live men of piratical habits, very great in mature, and under separate chiefs for each place. The Mapharitic chief governs it under some ancient right that subjects it to the so\ereignt\ of the state that is become first in Arabia. And the people of Mii/a hold it under his authorit) , and send thither many large ships; using Arab captains and agents, who are familiar with the natives and intermam with them, and u ho know the whole coast and understand the language.

17. There are imported into these markets the lances made at Muza especially for this trade, and hatchets and daggers and awls, and various kinds of glass; and at some places a little wine, and wheat, not for trade, but

29

to sc thr ^tMul-uil! ,>f the savages. There

if -MI these places a great quant

hut • that of Adulis, and rhinocen .s-horii

and ton II '\\huh is in l>est demand after th.it

:n India i, and a little palm-od.

\nil these markets ot \/ania are ti last

ot the continent th lies down on the ri^ht

from ;d these places theunexpl

around to\\ aril the west, and running along In the regions to the south of Anhi- i Libya and

a. it mingles \\ith the uestern sea*

19. Nou to the let! sailing for t\so

or three- da\- from Mussel Harhor eMtti rovs the

unit, there- is .mother harbor and fortirir which i- called White X'illa^e. from \\hich there is a road to 1'etra. which is suhjrct to \lalichas. Kin tlu- Nahata-an^. It holils the position of a mark

ie small vessels sent t >m Arabia; and so a

cc-nturion is stationed there as a collector *>f one-fourth of the merchandise imported, with an armed force, as on.

I<>. Dirccth lu-lou tln^ place is the adjoining

countrs ot Arahia. in it- length horderin^ a great ilis-

n the Knthnran Sea. Different trilxrs inhabit

tlu- conntr), ditlerin^ in their speech, s,,me partiallx .

and some altogether. The land next the sea is similarly

and there with ca\es of the I . but

ountr) inland is peopled by rascal 1\ men speaking

ani^uages, who live in villages and nomadic camps, In whom those xiilin^ orT the middle course are plun- dered, and those surviving shipu recks arc taken for slaves. A they too are continual 1\ taken prisoners

30

In the chiefs and k\\\<^ of Arabia; and the\ arc- called Carnaitcs. Na\ Ration is dangerous alon^ this whole coast of Arabia, \\hichis\\ithout harbors, with bad an- chorages, toul, inaccessible because of bfcaken and rocks, and terrible in everyway. Therefore \\ e hold our course down the middle of the ^ulf and pass on as fast as possible- In the country of Arabia until we conn- to the Burnt Island; directly below which there art regions of peaceful people, nomadic, pasturer.s ot cattle, sheep and camel.s.

11. Be\ond these places, in a ba\ at the- foot of the ide of this gulf, there is a place by the shore called

Mir/a, a market-town established In law, di.vtant alto- gether from Berenice for those .sailing southward, about t\\ eh e thousand stadia. And the whole place i.s en >wded \vith Arab shipowners and seafaring men, and is bus\ with the affairs of commerce; for the\ carry on a trade with the far-side coast and with Ban j^a/a, sending rlu-ir own ships there.

12. Three days inland from this port then- is ,' city called Saua, in the midst of the region called Mapharitis; and there is a vassal-chief named ( 'hol;r- bus who lives in that city.

23. And after nine da\s more then- ifl Sapiiar, tin- metropolis, in which lives C'haribael, lawful kin two tribes, the Homerites ami those lixin^ next to them, called the Sabaites; through continual embassies and gifts, he is a friend of the Kmpem

24. The market-town of Muza is without a har- bor, but has a good roadstead and anchorage because of the sandy bottom thereabouts, where the anchors hold safely. Tin- merchandise imported there consists

of purple cloths, both fine and coarse; clothing in the

Arabian st} le, with sleeves; plain, ordinar i»n»i-

d, or interwoven with gold; saffron, sweet rush.

•aks, l>lankcts (not many), some plain and

others made in the local fashion; flashes of different

iragrant ointments in moderate i|u.mtitx . xvinr

ami xx heat, not mm h. I liir ouintr) produces grain

in moderate amount, ami a great deal «»f xx m<

1 the Chief arc gixen horses ami Mimp-

iiiles, VCSM gold ami polished Mixer, tinrlx

! copper raids. I !' 'rtnl

the same pl.iv c the thin^ prodiueil in the i»mn-

sclccteil m\rrh, and the (irhanitr-Mm.i-.!

alahastcr and all the things alrrailx iiirntioneil from

.\\aliti-s ami the t.u llde 000 t I he x..\.i^r to this

made best about the month »cr. that

loth; hut there is nothing to prevent it exen earlier.

After sailing he\ond this place ahout three

hundred stadia, the o»ast of Arabia and the licrk-r

countrx about the Axalitic ^ulf mm coming ch«

Aether, tlu-i channel, not long in extent, x\ hich

B the M her and shuts it into a narroxx strait.

passage through \\hich, sixtx stadia in length, the

island Diodonis dixides. Th ,rse through

boet \\ith rushing currents and \\ith strong winds

hhmiiig doun from tlu- adjacent nd^e of mountains.

rtly on this strait In the shore there is a xilla. Arabs, subject to the same chief, called < ' xx Inch

is not so much a market-toxx n as it is an anchorage and xxatering-placc and the first landing for those sailing into the gulf.

Beyond Ocelis, the sea widenii to\\ard

32

the east and soon giving a \ LCW of the open ocean, after about txx-elvc hundred stadia there is Kuda-mon Arabia, a village- In tin- shore, abb of the Kingdom of Chari- bael. and having conxenient anchorages, and watering-

places, sweeter and better than those- at Ocelis; it lies at

tlu- entrance of a bay, and the land recedes from it. It \va- called Kuda'inon, because in the early da\ the citx when the vox age xx as not x rt made- from India to Egxpr. and \vlu-n tlu-v did not dare to sail from Egypt to the- ports across this ocean, hut all came to- gether at this place, it received the cargoes from both countries, just as Alexandria noxv receives the things brought both from abroad and from Kgvpt. But not long before our oxvn time C'haribae' destroyed the phu

27. After Eud-cmon Arabia then- is a continuous length of coast, and a bay extending two thousand stadia or more, along which there are Nomads and Fish-Katers lixing in villages; just beyond the cape projecting from this bay there is another market-ton n In the shore,

('ana, of the Kingdom of Kleazus, the Frankincense Country; and facing it there arc- two desert islands, one called Island of Birds, the- other Dome Island, one hundred and twenty stadia from Cana. Inland from this place lies the metropolis Sabbatha, in \\hich the King lives. -All the frankincense produced in the country is brought bx camels to that place to be stored, and to Cana on rafts held up by inflated skin> after the manner of the country, and in ! And this place

i trade also with the far-side potts, with Marxgaza and Scythia and Ommana and the neighboring . Persia.

1

I into tins place (nnii Kgypt

a little- \\hiMt .mil \\inr. us at Muza; clothing in the

Arahian st> Ir, plain ami i<»innioii and most ,uiri-

:ul tin and i oral .1 i\ and other

things ^;, h as go to \Iu/a; and for the km'K' usual!)

•Id and silver plate, .1! ^es, and

thin dot ulit\ . \nd tlu \ported

tins p' dvc produce, fran

aiul thr tlu- thin;- that enter into tin- trai1

•llu-r ports, Ihr M»\a^r t«» this pl.uv is U^t made at the I >r rather earlier.

Ctna, tlu- laiul r«x rdin^ ^reatlx. there- deep ha\ streu-hin^ .1 -^le.it W*J .tciXMi, \\ hivh is i-alleil Saehalitev; and the 1 'ranknu cns<- C'oun- iiu>untaiiu>us anil forbidding, urapjx-d in thick md f<>£, and \ieldin^ frank >»m the

! -hearing trees are not of great

:it or thu-knes.s; tlu-\ hear the tranknuense stk'k- ^ on the hark, ju^t U the tn-c-s amon^ us m pt weep their gum. The fnuikiooe

In ti laVtt and those \\ho are .sent t<> tin-

punishment. For these places ar un-

health), and j)estilc-ntial even to tho.sc tiling along the Coast: hut almost alua\- tatal to those working there, \\ ho also perish often from »d.

30. On this ha> thru ii a \er> great promonton Eating the east, called Syagrut; on \\hich is a for:

the defence *»t the oumtr\ . ami a harhor aiul storehouse for the frankiiu-en.se ti. :ul opposite tins

cape, well out at sea, there is an island, King bct\v it and the C ap< !</es opp nit nearer Syagms:

. and is very large but desert and

34

marshy, having rivers in it and crocodiles and mum snakes and threat lizards, of which the tle-sh is eaten anil the fat melted and used instead of oli\c oil. The island yields no fruit, neither vine nor grain. The inhabitants

are few and tlu-\ live on the coast toward the- north, which tn>m this side- faces the- continent. The\ are i mixture- of Arabs and Indians and (.reck-, who have emigrated to earn on trade- there. The island produce^ the true sea-tortoise, and tlu- land-tortoise-, and the- white tortoise which i> \cr\ numerous and prefer- red for its lar^e shells; and the mountain-tortoise-, which is largest of all and has the thickest shell ; of which the \\orthlessspecimenscannotbecutapart on the- under siele, because- they are even too hard ; hut those of value- are cut apart and the shells made \\hole into ca and small plates and cake-dishes and that sort of ware, There is also produced in this island cinnabar, that called Indian, which is collected in drops from tin- trees.

31. It happens that just as Axania is subject to Charibael and the Chief of Mapharitis, this island is subject to the King of the Frankincense Country. Trade is also carried on there by some people from Muza and by those who chance to call there on the- voyage from Damirica and Barygaza; they brin^ in rice and wheat and Indian cloth, and a feu female slaves; and they take for their exchange carin>, great quantity of tortoise-shell. No\\ the island is farmed out under the Kings and is garrisoned.

32. Immediately beyond Sya^rus the- ha\ of Omana cuts deep into the coast-line, the- \\idth of it bein^ six hundred stadia; and beyond this there are mountains,

Ji

anil roi-ky and steep, inhabited by \e hundred stadia more; and beynul tin, is a port established t».r rciciMii^ the S.u h.ditu tr.inkuu'

tiled Moscha, and ships from C'ana call the i irl\ ; and ships returning from Dam

anil Baryga'/a, if tin- season i- latr, \\intrr there, and trade \\ith the Kind's officers, exchanging th- anil wheat and sesame oil for frankincense, which lies in heaps all o\er the Sachaln itr\ . oprii and un-

drd. as if the plat< under the protean

•i her openly nor In stealth tan it Ixr loaded on board ship \\ifh.mtthc King's permission; i were loaded without this, the ship could not From the harhor.

ond the harbor of Moscha for about fr

hundred stadia as far as Asich, a mountain range runs

along the shore: at the end of \\hich. in a n>\\ . lie

i islands, railed /enobian. He.orul these there i-

a barbarous region \\huh ii no longer of the same

doni, hut now helon^s to Per i tiling alon^

v oast uell out at sea for two thousand stadia from

/cnohian Islands, there meettyOU an island called

Sarapis, about one hundred and twenn stadia from the

mainland. It is about two hundred stadia u ide and SIX

hundred lon^. inhabited In three settlements of |-'j>h-

\illainous lot, who use the Arabian language

and i palm-leaves. The island pnni

iderable tort. i,e-shell of tine quality, and small sail-

and cargo-ships are sent there regularly from

.1.

MIL; alMnjr the coast, which trends north- \\ard touard the entrance of the Persian Sea. there are

36

main islands known as tin- Cahri, aftrr about two thousand stadia, extending along the shore. The in- habitants are a treacherous lot, very little civili/ed.

35. At the- upper end of these Caliri islands is a range of mountain- railed C'alon, and there follows not far hc\ond, the mouth of the IVrsian Gulf, where there is much diving for the pearl-mussel. To the left of

if. iits arc- great mountains called Asabon, and to tlu- right there rises in full view another round and high mountain called Semiramis; between them the passage- across the strait is about six hundred stadia; he- ; ond which that very great and broad sea, the Persian Gulf, reaches far into the interior. At the upper end of this Gulf there is a market-town designated In law, called . \pologus, situated near Charax Spasini and the River Fuphrau s.

36. Sailing through the mouth of the Gulf, after a si \-da\s' course there is another market-town of I \TH.I called Ommana. To both of these market-towns large- vessels are regularly sent from Baryga/a, loaded with c< >p- per and sandalwood and timbers of teakuood and logs of blackwood and ehom . To Ommana frankincense i.s also brought from Cana, and from Ommana to Arabia

sewed together after the fashion of the place; these are known as ma Jam hi. From each of these market-towns, there are exported to Banga/a and also to Arabia, many pearls, hut inferior to those of India; purple, clothing after the fashion of the place, wine, a great quantity of dates, -old and slaves.

37. Beyond the Ommanitic region there is a coun- try also of the Parsida*, of another Kingdom, and the bay of Gedrosia, from the middle of which a cape juts

out int<» the bay. Urn- lin-rr i* a river affording an nps. uith a little market t,. MI at the iniuitli. i ailed Or.i-a: tod hai k from the place an in- land cit\, ii iriirN frmii tlir M \\hirh also is thr Kin. called ro|>- ahl\ Kluml.i \ • :rlds mm Ii v\ um< but along the coast flirt hut hdellium.

region, the continent n>

from the r.ist across thr depths « »t the hays, 'iic ct»,i na, \\hii-h lies

ul thr north; thr \\hnle marshx : \\ hii-h tio\\s ili>\\ n tlu- rivet Nmthus. the greatest o « that tlo\\ into the I- r\ i ii: i .in Sea, hrin . tlo\\n.in mormons \olmnr «»t \\.»trr; so that a l«m^

chin^ this o>nntr\ . ti:

of the ocean is fresh from it. Now as a si^n of ap- h to tliis oumtry t(» those i-«.min^ from the tea, »ming forth from the depths to meet ;i of the plao-s jnst mentioned ami in ire those called gnur. This n\er has | mouths, \rr\ shallt)\\ and m.ir-h\ . M> that the\ art

;t the- one in thr middle; at which In

the shore, is the markrt-to\\ n. Barharicum. Before it

thrn in.dl island, and inland hehind it is the me-

in.i. Minn.i^ar.i; it is subject to I'.irtln.m

princes \\ho art mtlx dri\ ing each other out.

39. Thr ships lie at anchor at Barharicum. but all

thrir i.ir^oes arc carried up to the metn»poli> 1>\ the

. to tin I here .ire imported into this mar-

i great deal of thin clothing, and a little spur:

figured hum-, topaz, coral, storax, frankincense, vessels

38

of gla.ss. silver and gold plate, and a little wine. On tlu- other hand there are exported costus, bdellium, Kcium. nard, tiirquoi.se. lapis lazuli, Scric skins, cotton cloth, silk \arn, and indigo. And sailors set out thither with the- Indian Ktesian winds, ahout the month of Jul), that is Kpiphi: it is more- dangerous thru, hut through these winds the voyage is more direct, and sooner completed.

40. Beyond the river Sinthus there is another gulf, not na\ liable, running in toward the north; it is called I-.irinon; its parts are called separately the- small gulf and the great; in hoth parts the water is shallow, with shifting sandbanks occurring continually and a great \\a\ from shore; so that very often when the shore- i.s not CNCII in sight, ships run aground, and if they at- tempt to hold their course they are wrecked. A proin- ontorx stands out from this gulf, curving around from Kirinon toward the East, then South, then West, and enclosing the gulf called Baraca, \\hich contains seven islands. Those who come to the entrance of this ba\ ipe it by putting about a little and standing further out to sea: but those who are drawn inside into the gulf of Baraca are lost; for the waves are high and very \iolent, and the- sea is tumultuous and foul, and ha- eddies and rushing whirlpools. The bottom is in some- places abrupt, and in others rocky and sharp, so that the anchors lying there are parted, some being quickly cut off, and others chafing on the bottom. As a sign of these places to those approaching from the sea there are serpents, very large and black; for at the other places on this coast and around Barygaxa, they are smaller, and in color bright green, running into gold.

41. He\ond the -ult <»t Bantca is that of Barygaza and tin- \riaca, \vhich IN the Ixr-

ginning of the Kingdom <>t \amhanusandofall 1

Hut part of it King inland and adjoining Srul called Ahiria, hut the coast is called S\ r.isirmr. It is .leldin^ u heat and rue and reame

oil .tn.l 1 hutter. cotton .ind the Indian cloths

[ sort*. -\ !iiaii>

cattle arr pastured there, and the men are of great ftat-

nd hlark in i-ol«»r. The metropolis of this o»untry

Minna^ara. troin \v Inch nuu h o»tton i loth is Imuiglit

do\\ n to Har\'^a/a. In these phues there remain c-\en

to the present time • ^edition <.t ulcr.

Mu h as aiu-ient shrines, \\all 'ts and great welN.

The irse alon^ this coast, from liarlxiricum

to the proinontorx called Papica, opposite Barygaza, and ; of three tlunisand stadia.

.ond this there is another gulf exposed to running up toward the north, at the mouth of which there i> an island called Ha-oru- its innermost part there is a great river called Mais. Those sailing to Barygaza pass across this gulf, which is three hundred stadia in width. leaving behind to their lett the island just \isihlr from their tops touard the

traiglit to the \er\ mouth of the ri\ er of liarxgazi; and this ri\c-r i- ^alU-il Nammailu-.

•df i- \er\ narrow to Barygaza and \er> hard to na\ r those coming from the ocean ; this

i.s the case with hoth the right and left passages, hut there is a better passage through the lef r on the

right -it the \er\ mouth of the gulf there lies a shoal.

and narrou . and full of n>cks. Called I lerone.

-ill

ig the village <>f tammoni; and opposite- this the- left projects the- proinontorx that lies hrfoiv campra, \\hich is railed Papica, and is a had anchorage

USe of the .strong current setting in aroiuul it and because the anchor- are cut otT, the hottoin being rough and rockx. And e\en it the- entrance to the- gulf is made satelx , the mouth of the- ri\ er .it Marx ga/a is found

with difficulty, because the shore isverj lo\\ and c-annot

he made out until \ on are close upon it. And \\hen \ou haxe found it the passage is difficult hecausr of the shoals at the- mouth of the liver.

44. Because <>t this, native fishermen in the- Kind's Service, -tationed at the very entrance in well-manned hirge hoats called /;v//>/w^/ and c'jtymhti* ^o up the

as far as Sx rastrene, from \\hich thex pilot \< to Baiygaza. And thex steer them straight from the mouth of the hax lu-txxcen the shoals \xith their crews; and thex toxx them to fixed stations, going up \xith the heLnnning of the Hood, and lying through the ehh at anchorages and in basins. These hasins :ire deeper- places in tiie ri\-er as far as Barxga/a; \\-hich lies by the river, about three hundred stadia up from the mouth.

45. Now the whole country of India has \erx many rivers, and XCTX great ehh and rlow of the tides; in- creasing at the new moon, and at the full moon t<>r three daxs, and falling off during the inters ening days of the moon. But about Barxga/a it is much greater, so that the bottom is suddenlx seen, and nox\ parts of the dry land are sea, and now it is dry where ships \\ere sailing just before; and the rivers, under the inrush of the flood tide, when the whole force of the sea is

•I

,mst them, are driven upwards more strongly

against their n.itur.il Current, for mam sta.

t tli^ reason entrance and departure of ves-

iose who are r

\\ ho come to this market f.>u n fur the first tun the rush ..t Watefl -it tlir nnomin^ tiilr is irresistible,

ind the anchors cannot hold against it; so that large utflit up In th< -t it. tiinird broadside

cm throunh the speed of the run-rut, ami so driven on the shoals and \\ n and smaller IxMtB are over-

turned: ami those that ha\e heen turned aside amon^ the channels h\ the receding WttCtl at the ehh. are left on their sides, and if not hrld on an e\en keel In props, i tide ^ .ipon thrin suddrnlx and undrr

•irst head of the current the) are tilled \\ith uatrr.

in the rush of the sea at the

ne\\ nmon. ill\ during the flood tidr at ni^ht.

that it \ou lu-'^in the entraiu'r at the moinrnt \\ hrn the

PC Ntill. on the instant there- is home to \<>ti at

the mouth of the n\cr. a \\Ol9t like ti of an army

1 trom a tar; and \er\ soon the sea ir.se It tomes rush

• the shoals u ith a hoarse- roar.

47. ThromntrN inland from Uarygaza is inhabited

In numerous tribe-. MU'h as the \raftn. the

the ( and the- people of I' n whii'h is

Chains .\lr\andria. \bo\e these is th \ar-

hkr nation ot the Ha^trians. \\h«» are under thrir oun

And Alexander, setting out from these parts,

•tratrd to the (. lra\m^ aside Dainirir.t and

'iithern part of India; and to the prrx-nt day an-

vii-nt draihma arr current in Bars ^a/a. coming fn»m

this rountrv, hearing inscriptions in (Jrcek letters, and

4: the device- <»t those \\ho reigned after Alexander,

ApollodotUs and Mcnander.

Inland from tliis place- and to the east, is the citx called O/ene. formerb a ro\al capital; from this place an- brought down all things needed for the wel- fare of the country about Barygaza, and many things tor our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth. Through this sanu- region and from the upper countrx is brought ;>ikenard that comes through Poclais; that is, the \ip\renc and Paropanisene and C'abolitic and that brought through the adjoining country of Scuhia; aKo costus and bdellium.

49. There arc imported into this market-town, \\ine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar, an- timony, gold and silver. coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not \cr\ costK and not much. And for the King there- arc- brought into those places very costly vessels of siber, singing bo\s, beautiful maidens for the harem, tine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, agate and carnelian, Ivcium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market- towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi.

41

Be\ <>nd Harygaza the adjoining coast extend*

^ragt lin north to south; and «o this re-

is called Dachinabades, for Jachanos in the lan- guage oi the natives means "south." inland

coimtrx hack from the coast toward the east comprises deser us and grett mountains; and all kinds ild beasts — leopards, tigers, elephants, enormous hyenas, and baboons of many sorts; and n

ir .is the (Ganges.

>1. \mon;r the market-touns .; I ).u hinalttdes thet l'i th.uu. distant

aboi:1 journey south from Baryga/a; !*•-

\\hich, about ten dax^' journey east, the another \ery gresit Tagara. I here .ire hrou^ht

> Barygaza from these places In \\a^ons and through ^reat tracts \\ithout roads, from Pathana car- reat quantity, and from Tagara much com- mon cloth, all kind.s of muslins and mallou cloth, and other merchaiulise brought there local 1\ from th

ea-coast. the \\hole course to

the end ot Damirica is seven thousand stadia; but the

to the Coast Countrx .

The market-tou-ns of this region are. in order, Barygaza: Suppara, and the at] ««i C'alliena. \\lucb

in the time of the elder Sara^amis became a lauful markc t-tt>\\ n ; hut since it came into the possession of Sandares the port i- much obstructed, and Greek ships landing there max chance to be taken to Barygaza under guard.

llcxoiul C'alliena there are other market-towns

of thi^ re-ion: Scmylla, Maiulai; .im.i . Meh-

.ntium. I urn and Aunmnohoas. The \

there are the islands called Sesecriense ami that <>t the Aegidii, and that of the Csenitae, opposite tin place called t'hersom-Mis ami in these places there are piraf and after this the White Island. Thru come Nauru

and Tyndis, the first markets «>f Dainirica, and then Mu/iris and Nelcynda, which are now of leading im- portance.

54. Tyndis is of the Kingdom of C'crohothra: it is a village in plain sight In the sea. Mu/iris, of the same Kingdom, ahounds in ships .sent there- with car- goes from Arabia, and by the Greeks: it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea ti\e hundred stadia, and up the- river from the shore twcntx stadia. Nelcynda is distant from Mu/iris In river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another King- dom, the Pandian. This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twcnn stadia from the

55. There is another place at the mouth of this river, the village of Bacare; to which ships drop down on the outward voyage from Nelcynda, and anchor in the roadstead to take on their can because the river is full of shoals and the channels are not clear. The kings of both these market-towns live in the in- terior. And as a sign to those approaching these- places from the sea there are serpents coming forth to meet you, black in color, but shorter, like snakes in the head, and with blood-red e\ <

56. They send large ships to these market-towns on account of the great quantity and hulk of pepper and malabathrum. There are imported here, in the first place, a great quantity of coin : topaz, thin clothing, not

•i red liiic-fi.s. antimom, COnd. tin, lead; \\inc -. nut intuit, luir as IIHR h as at

Barygaza; realgar and orpimcnt; and wheat enough

for the sailo- leah in l»\ thr nirn liailtfc

I prpprr, uhlih l- produced

in i|uantit\ in onl\ one re-/ion urar these markcti, a i t i .died ( ira. Besides this th

Teat quant tmc pearls . silk clMth.

Ganges, in.il.ilvathnim frmn the - in tli isparrnt stone* of all kinds,

ilumnmls and sapphires, and tnrt«)isf-Nhcll ; that from C'hrvsr M.uul, and that taken amon^ the- islands along Dannrua. I hey make the \o\atfr t«. this in a favorahle season who set out from Kgypl •lit the month <>t |vd\, that i- l-piphi. 57. Thi- \\holc \oyagc as above described, from and Eudiemon Araliia. thry used to make m small veasel.s. sailing close around the- B! the milfx; and

Hippaln -he pilot \\ho hy obscn'ing the location

of thr ports and the conditi. he sea. first discov-

ered lio\\ to la\ hi- ronrse straight arross the ocean. .it the sanu- tune \\hrn \\ith us the Ktrsian winds arc- hlo\\iii'4. OH the thoTCI • »f India the \\iiul sets in tromthroi' M»uth\\rst \\uui i^iallrd HIJV

palus. from the name- ;>f him u ho first di-, 1 the

paSKi I rom that time to the prrsrnt ilay ships

start. ma, and some from the Cape

of Sp .md those hound for Damirica thnm the

ship's head i onsiderahlN orT the wind; \\hile tluwe hound for Harygaza and Sothia keep along shi»re not more than three days and for rhc rest of the time hold the same Bourse straight out to sea from that region.

46

\sith a favorable wind, quite away from the land, and ill outride pa-t tlic aforesaid gulfs.

Besom! Bacare there is the Dark Red Mountain, anil another distru ; ,nng along the coast toward

the south, called Paralia. The first place is called Balita ; it has a fine harbor and a village h\ the shop-. He\ond

this there i> another platv railed C'omari, at which are the Cape of Comari and a harbor; hither come those men \vho \\ish to consecrate themselves for the rest of their livrs. and bathe and dwell in celibacy; and women also do the same; for it is told that a goddess once dwelt here and bathed.

59. From C'omari toward the south this re-urn extends to Colchi, where the pearl-fisheries are; (the\ worked In condemned criminals); and it belongs to the Pandian Kingdom. Beyond Colchi there fol- lows another district 'called the Coast Country, which lies on a bay, and has a region inland called Argaru. At this place, and nowhere else, are bought the pearls gathered on the coast thereabouts; and from there are

•orted muslins, those called Argaritic.

Amon^the market-towns of these countries, and the harbors where the ships put in from Damirica and from the north, the most important are, in order

the\ lie, hr^t C'amara, then Poduca, then Sopatma; in which there are ships of the countn coasting alonjj the shore as far as Damirica; and other MTN lar-v \ sel.s made of single logs bound together, called .iw//tw/v/; but those \\hich make the voyage to C'hnse and to the -• ( -ailed cfj/iimliii, and art- very large. There are imported into these places even thing made in Da- mirica, and the greatest parr of what is brought at any

M

time from Egypt comes h -ether uith most kinds

of ill the thing! that ait brought from l)amiric;i

th.it ire carried through I'aralia.

\bout thr following region, th e trend-

ml the cast. King out .it sea touard thr we* IS

the island Pala simimdu. called -I ipro-

banc. The northern part is a distant.

and the southern ; ds graduall) toward thr west,

and almost tOUchd the opporifi h ' <»f A/.ima. It

pnuhues pearls, transparent stones, muslins, and tor-

•11.

\hout these plac'es is the region ••! \la«lia stretching a grt-.:' ilong the cirast Ix-fore the inland

conn ^reat ijuantit\ of muslins is made ti

ml tin- ward the east and CTossiag

iy, there is the region d I )i>sarene, \irld-

thc i\or\ knoun Afl Dosarenit. He\on,l this, the ;in^ toward the north, there arc man\ l>ar- •rihes, among \\hom are the C'irrhada <-n \\ith flattened noses. \(-r\ vi\age; another tril>c. the I ;ul the II. ul the Lon^-fuCCS,

wh«> 1 to he cannibals.

After the M. the course turns touard the east

ul sailing \\ith the ocean to the right and the

shore- remaining hexond to the left, Ganges into

\ie\\, and near it the \er\ last land touard the east,

C hr\ M . lit. • it called the danges,

and it rise's and falls in the same ua\ as the Nile. On

market-toun which has the same nan

the river, Ganges. I ii" i-h this place are brought

malahathrum and ( tic spikenard and jx-arls. and

muslins of the finest SOTtS, u Inch are called (.aiu

48

It i- said that there arc gold-mines m-ar these places, and there is a gold coin \\hich is called <w///.r. And just opposite this rixcr there is an i.slaiul in the ocean, the last part of the inhahited world toward the under thr rising Mm itself: it is called Chr\se; and it

•he hest tortoise-shell of all the places on the l-.r\ thra-an Sea.

64. After this region uiuler the very north, th< outside ending in a land culled This, there- is a \er\ great iidand cit\ culleil Thina-, from \\hich raw silk and silk \arn and silk cloth arc- brought on foot through Bactria to Bur\gu/u, and are also exported to Dumi- rica In way of the river Ganges. But the land of

This is not easy of -access; few men come from there, and seldom. The country lies under the Lesser Bear, and is said to horder on the farthest parts of Pontusand the- Caspian Sea, next to which lies Lake Ma'ot is; all of which empty into the ocean.

65. Kverx \ear on the horders of the land of This t lu-re comes together a trihe of men with short hodies and hroud, rlut faces, and In nature peaceahlc; they are culled Besata\ and ure almost entirely uncix ili/ed. They come with their wives and children, cam mi; gn-ut pucks and plaited hasketsof what looks like green grape-leaves. They meet in a place hetween their own countn and the land of This. There they hold a

for several da\s, spreading out the haskets under them- sc-Kcsas mut>, and then return to their own phuv the- interior. And then the natives wutching them come into that place and gather up their mats; and they pick out from the braids the rihers which the\ call pctri. They lay the leaves closely together in. several

rs and make them into lulls, \\hifli they pierce \\ith tin- tilers from the matt. And thrrr arc tlircr

those made of the largest 1 raves are callctl the

large-hall malahathrum ; th.^e < -I tin- iniii' r. the inr-

cliuin-hall; and those of thr sinallrsC. thr -mall-lull.

:st three s< iialaluthrnin. and it i*

(it into India 1>\ those- u ho j. :t.

mid thrM- places arc cither

access because of their evces ntcr*

and ^reat iold. or else cannot Jit out because

6 divinr intliK the

NOT]

(Numerals refer to paraKrr-'l>lls Minilarlv numbered in the tev

Title. Periplus \\.is the name applied ID a numerous class of

wrmngs in Roman limes. \\hich answered fnr sailing-chart aiul ti.i\-

hand-book. The title might be rendered as Guide-Book ID

Title. Erythraean Sea was the term applied by ( ircek and Ro- man geographers to the Indian ( Kean, including its adjuncts, the Red Sea and the Persian (iulf. A/T////Y/ means R<f/< SD that the modem name perpetuates the aneient; but we are assured by Agatharchides

• means, not Red Sea. but Sea of Kin-_r l.iythras, folio-.-. Persian legend.

'I'he following is the account gi\en In Agatharchldes oi the of the name: ' /)<• Man Erythnir*, S 5. )

'The Persian account is after this manner. There was a man famous for his \alor and wealth, by name I, i \thras, a Persian by birth, s'.n ot \I\D/,eus. His home was by the sea, facing toward islands which are not now desert, but \\ere BO at the time of the em- pire of the Medes, when Kryrhras li\ed. In the u'inter-time lie used to uo to Pasaru'ada?, making the journey at his o\\n cost; and he in- dulged in these changes of scene no\\ for profit, and now for sonic pleasure of his own life. On a time the- lions i hanjed into a larire >f his mares, and some were slam; while the rest, unharmed but terror-stricken at what they had seen, fled to the sea. A strong wind was blowing from the land, and as they plunged into the waves in their terror, they were carried beyond their footing; and the continuing, they swam through the sea and came out «»n the sip the island opposite. With them went one of the herdsmen, a \outh of marked bravery, who thus reached the shore by clinging to the shoulders of a mare. Now Krythras looked for his mares, and not seeing them, first put together a raft of small si/.e, but secure in the strength of its building; and happening on a favorable wind, he pushed off into the strait, across which he was swiftly carried by the waves, and so found his mares and found their keeper also. Arfd then, being pleased with the island, he built a stronghold at a place well chosen by the shore, and brought hither from the main-land op- h as were dis>atisfied with their life there, and subsequently

II

: all (he other uninlufuird , .,:ai> v» uh j numerous populations uh was the iflorv ascribed t.. I iMilar

of these- hit tire-vis, t! .it even d'lttn (•• our »un (utir

• .mm hrrr th, n is i

irferenl tiling Iron, >••

fur (I ' ..ost illustrious .. .,.- ,.f ilui *rm, while

t<> (he . V.-.v • vpbnaiNM)

of thr lume, as due to thr io|,-r, IN fals«- srj u not

asinbmu it t.. thr nun u i UN thr i Yrsian story tcsii'

Hrrr ^ in kernel ..: tru(h, referring, hour

iier (iiiH- tlun thr I injure of thr Mriirt ami (I PlSanrad^-. It Suggests thr th< ( ..>hir« 1 i.iuntr

art >und Arabia, as set fnnh i>\ (, ,1 |{.,min(! the aocy ol a

.tin, \\ h.i M-ttlrd in thr lul. .U and thru %pread

altmu South Arahu, Iraxing tht-ir rpithrt of "Rrd" or "rudd-.

many Deluding thr M.I that u.i-Ju-.i thnr shores and floated

.1 o( the Rrd People^" or, •oooidbi t«> Acathar-

E under I

1. Designated ports.— Trade U.IN hunted to p«»n» of entry

cstahlt .IN the text has it, '*d i l>\ l.i Mipcr-

vbed unriit ohSuaUuhn U-vird .lui.o many

MIC h ports on the . under the 1'tolein • • I - urrc alv«.

ports of entr\ maintained In the \.ibat.ran Kin j«i«>in, h\ the I |..mrriir -in in ^ .:id In tl • < slahlished Kingdom of thr

Axumitrs. the latter, possibly, farmed (•• I v:\ptun (Ireeks, now Ro- man subjects.

.iesiuna(ed." and translates "frequented," therein strainmu' (he n. >i and losing its obvious dr-

MTIptlon ,.t I

I tuier the early Ptolemies, who succeeded Alexander the (»rcaf, Egypt went far toward recovering her former \\ealth and glon I i'tole.m II. called I'lnladelpln. - the canal

and the Red Sea < oriumallx *ii:u' h\ .,nr ..f the

about (he «<>(}, tl.,,:. , reojx-ned under the l.mpire in the 1 Sih

century, and partly reopened hy the Persians under Darius m the Sfh

lenti. more open to comment . \arious canmui-n*j(r%,

carefulK pn>\ ided with \\ells and stoppmu-places, were opened be-

the river and (he sea, and where t1 ;uted pom of miry

'.ished and colnni/c .1 I : .m shipping on the Red Seat

was encouraged, and regular trade was oper the

\rahia, and the tribes of the Somali Ihe nanu-s of all

these ports, and a dcsi riptmn of this ne\\ 1\ -i reatcd commcn c, in

' tomantic enthusiasm, are given by A.Mth.uvhides in his \\ork • »n the l.nthnran Sea. At the time of this Pcriplus, tin- remain- ing settlements seem to be Arsinoe, M\os-hormus, IJcrcnicc, Ptolcmais and Adulis The other places mentioned by Agatharclmlcs had probably lost their importance as the l.^vptian ships ventured farther beyond the straits and frequented the richer markets that fringed the r.ulf of Aden.

1. Mussel Harbor (Myos-hormus , is identified with the bay \\ithintheheadland now known as R.is Aim .Somer, 27°12'N., .<5° 55' K. It uas founded by Ptolemy Philadelphia II. ( 274. He selected it as the principal port of Kuyptian trade with India, in prefcieiuc t<» Arsinoe (near the modern Sue/.1, which uas closer to the Kgyptian capital, but difficult of access because of the bad through the upper waters of the Red Sea Myos-hormus \\as distant • >r se\en days from I'optos on the Nile, along a road opened through the desert by Ptolemy Philadelphia. Straho \YII. I. 4S

"at present C'optos and Myos-hormus are in repute, and they are frequented. Formerly the camel-merchants tra\eled in the night, directing their course by obsen in g the stars, and, like mariners, car- ried with them a supply of water. But now watering-places are pro- vided; water is also obtained by digging to a great depth, and rain- water is found although rain rarely falls, which is also collected in reservoirs. Coptos is the modern Koft, in the bend of the Nile.

\ essels bound for Africa and Southern Arabia left Myos-hormus about the autumnal equinox, when the N. W. wind then prevailing carried them quickly down the gulf. Those bound for India or Cey- lon left in July, and if they cleared the Red Sea before the first of September they had the monsoon to assist their passage across the ocean.

1. Sailing. — The ship used by the author of the Periplus prob- ably did not differ very materially from the types created in Egypt long before, as depicted in the reliefs of the Punt Kxpedition in the I)er-el- Bahri temple at Thebes, and elsewhere. By the first century A. I) the single square sail, with two yards, each much longer than the height of the sail, which distinguished the shipping of the 1 5th century B. C. , had been modified by omitting the lower yard and by increas- ing the height of the mast; while a triangular topsail had come into general use. The artimon or sloping foremast, later developed into a bowsprit, was not generally used, even in the Mediterranean, until the 2d century. The accompanying illustration of a modern Burmah

Irr, uliuh ;> * in iii.uiy ways thr shipbuilding ideas of an-

. probably gives a better idea of our author' * ship than any of the (Jreek <>r Roman o»ins or rrlicK, \\huh were all of Molttrr- r.u , built f«>r tliffrrcnt c-oiuiitioiis and purposes.

In the Indian Ocean naxiuation drprudrd on the trade- wind*,

i \..\.iL'( . nrd so that the slup i ould run bcforr the wind in

\\ithout i-alliiii! the rudder info nun h use ThbwBft

•he quarter, the steersman plyinu the tiller fnun hi* station high in

. oxc-rlookinu the whole \essel

Hippalus* d • the pernuiu n\ --t the trade-winds, described

in S 57, carried with it a knowledge of steering fhe boat somewhat

off the \\ind, to reach a destination farther M>uih than the straight

jv.sxihle This was done partly bv the rudder,

but lar^elx bv shiftinu the \

I "hi- lateen sail, as exemplified in the Arab ,///>,;<, the Bombay loria, and so on, came into use about tin- 4th centu". II C., but was used lv. Arab and Hiiuiu, rather th.i in CM (iieek

: Sailing Ships an./ their .s //.-/., , II

Ancient an.: •//>/; Pritrhnt: M/ tches of SAi/>/-tri£ ,111.: >

////ten :nt Shipping anJ Ancient Commerce \ Charnnck.

ntif A- Ja I : Archfologie Naval*.

1. Stadia. — Three .stadia were iii use in the Roman world at thi> time. — the Philctcrian of 525 to the decree, the ( )lympic ol anil f1 l;cncs, of Jin. Reduced to Knglish measure this

would make the Phili-u-rian stadium equivalent to alxmt h.Sn feet, tin- OI\mpK- ah«ni- ;id that . ilu-iu-s ah<»ut

-;adium of the IVriplns seems to In- that of Kratostheiu fnillvspeakinu, ten st ulia of the IVriplus to the Km_'lish statute mile \v«uihl he a fair calculation. But it must not he forgotten that all .imeil in this text are approximations, based prindpallv on the length of time consumed in iroinir from place toplaie, \\liuh naturally \arieil according t<> directi.m of the wind and current, of sailing-course, and other factors as well. 'I'he distan icrally

irixen in round numbers; ami without any means of arrix imj at an exact calculation, the h'jures in the text ran be considered only as

approximation*,

According to the system <>t mrasiirement laid do\\ n b> I'tolrmy, the circumference of the earth was estimated at 180,000 stadia SOO stadia to the degree.

'I'he true length Of the degree is 600 stadia.

The Olympic or standard Greek stadium (being the length of the race-course at Olympia), was 600 (Ireek feet, or S to the Roman mile. There was a later stadium of which 7'- went to the Roman mile (1000 paces, 4854 Knglish feet). This, the 1'hileterian stadium, survived in Arabic science, and thence in the calculations of Kurope; being very nearly the Knglish furlong. According to Col. Leake's calculations,

1 Olympic stadium = 606.75 Knglish feet. 10 =6067.50

1 Nautical mile = 6075. 50 1 Admiralty knot = 60S- or, by Clarke's measurement, 6087 1 1 Therefore,

In Olympic stadia = 1 minute of the equator.

t 4 * 4 . , 44 ( (

= 1 de.

1 Roman milr - 1000*n/*/— 4SS4 Knglnh (ret.

i I nu.|,sh mile - 1000 pa** — 5090

1 M m,tr "

til Illllrs | degree.

«*9 to be exa« •

4 Roman miles w 1'v Kngluh *• 1 mar

The earth's • mi nautical milev

A dearer <>n tlu- • •..-...i- •• ' - 1 to 69.5 SUM

Has geographers, in |4'*4, ^\c 21.62$

• followed K

naiir -In- globe 1-lhth larger than it really is. Vespucci, following I'toleim ami Alfra.-an. figured 6000 HUM Ron . as the measure- of tlir car*

360, 16*3 leagues made a umhus. foli .irious Arabian Beographcrs, nude the

leagues. Ml tin >n goesback tosomr drtiuiti(»n based <>n IS.I.

iini: to N the valuation of 1734 league*

to the degree had become general. At the treaty of /aragcr/a, in .is admitted on both sides, figure is \cr\ i lost- (.. 17>7 leagues.

/ All ancient calculations \\rre based on dead reckoning. 'l"he d i omr info use until 1

•i ilc Saint- Martin, Lt Ntnt Jt rAfrtqtu Jams I'Amtx^mtik frr*fme a nmmimt. Paris, 1863 1 p. 197.

Samuel Edward Dawson : The hut of Drmarraftim •/ /V Altx*mJ< mm* tk*t of tht Trtaty of TorJfiiltat, in Tranxactioni of the Royal Society of Canada, 1199: Vol. V. § 2, pp. 467 ff.

I. Berenice (named for the mother of holcmv Phibdelphus),

th I'mn ' Hay, below Ras

and.i! I fe M ^ Roman miles, or 11 da* s, from

. a road across the desert c ruins still ttstble, r\en

in the center is a an trmple with hieroglyphics and bas-rrl .reek

I 'hen- is a tine natural harbor, hut the bar b mr at lou : Strabo XVI. l\ . 6) mention* dangerous rod»

and \iolrnt \\nuis from the sea.

the tune of this IVr.pius, Berenice seem» to ha» e been the >«: port of Egypt for the Kastern trade, and was probably the • •f the an1

S6

2 Berber Country. — This word means more than the "land of the barbarians," and seems, like our modern "Barbary States, to refer to the Berber race, as represent ing the am -lent Tlamitic stock of North Air

The name itself seems to be foreign to the people, and is prob- ably related to the Arabic bar, a desert; and its application to North .tils that ancient nu e-oppositmn about the (iulf of Aden, when the Red Men, or ruddy people, oxercamc the "children of the ad over all North Africa and carried the name with them, submitting: time after time to similar Semitic conquests, I'hcr- nician, Carthauinian or Saracen.

The occurrence of the name throughout North Africa is re- Me. We have the modern Somali port of Bcrbera, the Nile toun and district of Berber (and its inhabitants, the Barbara, Barbe- rins or Barbarins, who appear in the ancient Theban inscriptions as Beraberata the Barbary States, the modern Berbers or Kalnles; and at the western extremity, on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, still another tribe calling themselves Berabra.

The ancient Egyptians extended the word to include the meanings of savage and outlandtr, or public enemies in general; and from them the Greeks took the word into their own language, with like mean-

The Berbers of the Periplus probably included the ancestors of the Bcjas between the Nile and Red Sea, the Danakils between the I'pper Nile, Abyssinia and the (Iulf of Aden, and the Somals and Gallas.

2 Cave -Dwelling Fish -Eaters, Wild -Flesh -Eaters, Calf-Eaters. — The original names, Ichtkyipkep (Tiogfodytae , dgriophagi, Moschophagi, add nothing to our ethnic knowledge, being merely appellations given by the Greeks; and they are therefore • : These tribes are represented by the modern Bisharins. "C'alf-l.au -rs" seems to mean eaters after the style of calves, i. e. of green things, rather than eaters of calves. Some commentators would replace dgriophagi by Acridophazi, locust-eaters.

2. Meroe was the final capital of the Kingdom of Nubia. It became the royal seat about 560 B. C. and continued as such until a after this Periplus, when the kingdom, worn out by con- tinued attacks by the tribes of the desert and the negroes of the Sudan, fell to pieces. It was located on the Nile, below the 6th cataract, but just within the fertile region that begins ab<.\e the confluence of

\tbara; and is identified with the modern Begerawiyeh, about

57 VI* comprttrd the Nilr drka and ihr

frrtilr v.illrv ,.t thr n\cf IS flf a* ihr 1 « Cat araCt, ihr modem AttUMt madr thr oirram unpayable for b>«tS Jiul

tiatunU barrier. Above Auuan the detrrt hug« ihr mrr close until above the Sth (ataratt, uhm it gitrs plate to iiprn fertile

the- island ..( I lepham.ne and Assuan, and the

the dixtame it about 480 n , dim i Imr, and by

. <-r about I <>OH inilc-s I ln« narrow strip of river -hrd was Ndbss

I lie Atbara, • nd> thr Nile tome 40 nulr» brluw

< s MI nonhcrn Abvuii at Khartum, about ISO

above Meroc, thr .m lirs a^um, ihr lilur Nilr fuming

from the IIIHIIMI.IIMS ..t ( 'rnirul A r Anthara, and the

•n 1 1 1»- Nyanza lake* .>n<» urrr mure or

lest M> ">u at diffrrriu (xruuix, but fhrir population

Nsinian highlands u-crc peopled h\ a Hamitic slock ,ui.ins .is \\.ll ..s tn thr Mill uiui\ili/rii .idem and western desert, hut with a in nefro

: and a strong strain of Arabian origin Ihr upper reaches of peopled I tribes, cnprelv <J! \mut from

or licrber. From the mouth of thr Red Sea there wa» a

.UTOXX the i •.Mjhlands t«» thr Atlura Ri\«

xo to tin \iit-. and other mutrx rc.u hrd \|rmr from the Sudan and

da. Theiue the products of trade found their \* ay down-stream

:>hantine, beyond uhuh no nruro wax permmed to k-

ic market for all I dem town, Anuan, rtpcMS

its history, as the \ery name means "market." mdan

• ny and i\<>r>, panther xkms and ostru h feathers, from

the Nubian desert east of the Nile, cold, from the Red Sea across

h, frankincense, and various fragrant woods and resins:

\\lmh ufrc in Constant demand for the Kgypcian treasury and

the service of the temples, and provided a constant reason for

LX)ntrol of this important avenue of

In the early period of the Kgyptian nation the jw.wrr i entered in

the Delta, but a loose control seems to have been maintained between

•t and 2d cataracts over tribes appearing in the inscriptions as

probably negroes. During the prosperous period of the

Old Kmudom, between the .<0th and 2>th i enturm H. C* , the river-

routes were kept in order, and Egyptian ships sailed the Red Sea as

far as the untry. Then came a period of disorder and ike

fall of the Delta dynasties, followed m the :2d century by the rise of

the rheban or Middle Kingdom, the dynasties of the Amenemhets

>esostrises These kings fully conquered the nver tribes to the

58

2d cataract, as well as the Nubian troglodytes" «>t tin- eastern desert,

where they dexelopt -d the ^old-mines that added 10 imu h t«> their

wealth and power. In this period, from tin- 22d to the IXthcen-

• he name "Cush" fiitt appears in the inscriptions, imli-

ration overland to the Nile by the wan-

dering C 'ushite-1. lamite tribes who had left their home at tin- lu the IVrsian (Iidt some 300 \cars previously. and who, after M-tiling in the incense-producing regions of Southern Arabia and Soma whence the\ had opened trade with Mesopotamia, had i the same trade to its others cat market in l.<j\pt. The name Clish" seems to ha\e included not only the Nile \alley between the M\ and and 6th cataracts, but much of the highlands. These people, appar- ently a mongrel race, were held in great contempt h\ the 1 •".«_'> ptians,

annals contain numerous references such as the follov "Impost of the wretched Cush: gold, negro slaves, male and female; oxen, and calves; bulls; vessels laden with ivory, ehonv, all the good products of this country, together with the harvc this country.*' J« tf M0

After the fall of the XMth dynasty, 1788 B. C, came a period of feudal disorder, followed by an invasion from Arabia and a f« dynasty, the H\ksos, probably Minsean Beduins. This was ended by the expulsion of the Arabs and the establishment of the Umpire under the XYlIIth dynasty (1580-1350 B. C.). These Ureat IM.a- raohs carried the Egyptian arms to their widest extent, from Asia Minor to the 4th cataract and possibly even farther south. The collapse of npire at the death of Rameses III (1167 B. C. ) left Nubia still Egyptian. Invasions from the west resulted in a series of Libyan dynasties, which began, under Sheshonk or Shishak I, by reasserting sovereignty over Syria and by plundering the temple of Solomon and the treasures of the newly-established Kingdom of Israel; but the latter part of this administration was so inefficient that Theban princes established in Nubia separated from Kgypt and formed a new king- dom, now called Ethiopia (indicating a growing Arabian settlement , with capital at Napata, below the 4th cataract (the modern ( Jebel Barkal), subsequently invading Egypt and establishing their , over the whole valley, from ~22 to <><>•; H. C1. Then came the As- syrian invasions, first by Esarhaddon and then the definite conquest of Egypt proper by Assurbanipal in 661 B. C. The ruin of Thebes is vividly described by the prophet Nahtim (III, 8-10). The Nubians withdrew to Napata. There they were attacked by the res- power of Egypt under Psammetichus II, and about 560 15. C., trans- ferred their capital to Meroe; a much better location, less open to

59

attack tr >nh, m a fertile region

I id the dim r |.ufh -.f the

41-. I u.ulr fmm the »outh and eari. Hrrr they < hm ked the army of

. s<->. ulmh ma.ie I .-ypt a Persian pro\i The

capita) M! mt» his hands for 4 time. t>ut the country waa not Mb»

^ypl by Alexander rhe Great. *

iiM.iisturhr,!. 4ii.l with hit fUCCCMOn, the Htolemie*, ihry

notwithstanding the active policy

•un Miprenui , in rhr Kcd Sea.

>;••' N. Y., If

I r. Roman province and the Ni

I'heir quern, < the

iVtroniuftdettroyrd t)i< -rmbo,

.•Inl kingdom was engulf' .Irsert; and Plnu, u hovr \titur*J HnHty wm

I ) , notei thai and towns

•' t embasty in 67 A I )

•Id tr and that tlu <«, wafcbut a

bud National decay had done its work;

and tl tt from the attacks of the Derhers had joined

M "Kin'jilom «.f rhr .\\unur.,' • :l .- ! : /hlandf to the

C »!

In 1 i, under the l'\ /.: •; >ia again

md prosperity. Its new capital, the mi*.

tuin. hrr.unr a KM « hristian thought, and nuintained its mriu-

1 .nl <>\rrrun KgypC; only hnally to . a new irruption from the

desert, under thr spur and t.» leave .»ja \byvinian

highbnds the d< 1 onophysite C Christianity.

of //if Jnif, II, 9) has an account of a war

of the Kizyptians a- ;M:III>, utuier rhe command of Mote*.

puns were hnally driven hack into their capital. Sjru . Cambyses aft the name of Met -mnl»-

to his Msrc : it tx- ing situated at the conrKix of the men

>uth rhr N va^hnall

> as the conditmi ^e<' marriage with the

.luuhtcr Thar! had fallen in love with him.

the ohvious anachronisms in thisitory. one fact is of

M the name of the- Saha. indicate* that Nubia wa»

rulnl, if not mamlx peopled, by Arabs, wh«> had followed the

trade-mutes from the mouth «»f the R<M Sea.

Punt ittut fa tufarakuktn R**k<. « *e* that N.

60

also is a Semitic name, probably Nabat, allied to Nabatu of the Assy- rian inscriptions, to Nebaioth (son of Ishmacl), and to the later Nabaurans of

Herodotus (II, 8) refers to the "mountain of Arabia" extending from north to south along the Nile, stretrhiin.: up to the Krythr.ran Sea, and says that at its greatest width from east to west it is a t\\<> months' journey; and that "eastward its confines produce frankin- cense." Here also is an indication of the connection of Nubia \\ith SomaJiland, confirmed by the pompous titles of the later Cushite kings in Meroc (Ed. Meyer: Geschichte Aegyptenst 359): "Kings of the four quarters of the world and of the nine distant peoples."

.<. Ptolemais.— This is identified with Kr-nh island, 18°9'N., 38° 27' E., the southern portion of the Tokar delta. It was fortified by Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C. 285-246), and became the cento of the elephant-trade. Being situated near the Nubian forest, where ele- phants abounded, its location was very favorable. The Egyptians had formerly imported their elephants from Asia; but the cost was high and th£ supply uncertain, and Ptolemy sent his own hunters to Nubia, against the will of the inhabitants, to obtain a nearer supply.

From very early times there was a trade-route from the Red Sea to the Nile at this point, terminating near Meroe, and corresponding closely to the railway recently built between Berber on the Nile and Port Sudan on the Red Sea.

3. Adulis. — The present port is Massowa, center of t In- Italian colony of Eritrea, which lies near the mouth of the bay of Adulis. The ancient name is preserved in the modern villa Zula. The location has been described by J. Theodore Bent

crtd City of the Ethiopians, London, 1896: pp. 228-230'. It is on the west side of Annesley Bay, and numerous black basalt ruins are still visible there. Adulis was one of the colonies of Ptolemy Phila- delphus, and was always of commercial importance because it was the natural port for Abyssinia and the Sudan. It seems to have been built by Syrian Greeks. Here was the famous inscription reciting the conquests of Ptolemy Euergetes (B. C. 247-223) with an addition by Aizanas, or El Abreha, King of Abyssinia about 330 A. D., for a copy of which we are indebted to the Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleu

4. Coloe. — The ruins of Coloe were found by Bent at Kohaito, {Sacred City of the Ethiopians, Chap. XII,). It is a large flat plateau many miles in extent, high above the surrounding country (7000 feet) and thus cool and comfortable. It seems to have been the main set- dement, and Adulis the trading-post, which was inhabited no mote

61

necessary because of its hoc climate I here i§ a fae dam, • fig, and in one place 74 fret 4 mche* above bed-ruck, with gates 5 fen % mi hrs v\ i.Jr , the u hole buik of large cut MOMS \\ hm 111 u xr i Urge Ukr uiniM hate formed arc numerous MUMS of stone templo and dwelling, the ar- •nrr resembling that at Adulis, apparently Hloiema

: many a*

I il.isrr thin- '.MI near Adulu in be the ancient i'«*lne.

kit iu xe mis (<> ovrrlnok the sfiH i Inn1* up the niountjii., uhu I. vrpdd ,ke longer in pmp.>riiMii than thr %ul»*r<|urnl niad ofer fhr luhlr l.iiul

1 In- nap • (ilaier note* ( Punt and d f imiamtiukm Re*k<t

the same as the Arabic Kala'a. < \\huh .,:.;»<-a-, ,-. the Adult* insrnr anas), and is tirmnl f-.-m the tame wiurce as

ii.fi Islands and Calon mountaniH in southeastern Arab'

II, deriviH tlu Al.il i i Islands in tlm ?: 4 fn.m the tame

f'.lUH-. K.llll i

!\<>i\ In die HIM -iipthiiiN of llarkhuf, an Assuan noble Kin-! \! ' tlu \ |ih |)x,,.,stx II I .<iur% fhr

v as a Com men ia I artulr in Kk!)p<

:iled (from the- oumtrx «•( ^ am, southrrn Nubia) with ^scs laden with inirnse, ebony, grain, panthrr>, i\.»r>, throw- anil exrry good proilin't I uas m.»rr vijtlant than any caravan-conductor who had been sent to Yam bet h-. .,

'.rdi 9f Egypt, I.

I hrrr arc numerous records of the receipt of i\«»ry, in commerce under the XV I Nth I >\ nasty; coming from Trhenu

Nomaliland . God's

\rabia-, (inhn NKIIIIIX »f Kuna Muria Island* ;. CttSfc h C'ountries, Retenu .*nd Isy (Cyprus).

Also a .tile of i\«.t\ . v hairs, tahirs, i hests, Statues, and whips

•ular records OCCU1 unde-r the XlXrh an.l XXlh dynasties; the in the Papymi Harrii, bring an item in a Iwt of gift* of Ra- il I to the god Ktah.

km/ N. I, .m.. ii x throne was of ivory, overlaid whh L'«»ld. and 1 harshixh" brought him the ivory every three yean, together with nold ami sil\ert apes and peacocks • I Kui^ \ Cyeneum is the modern Sennaai — Eastern Sudan. 4 City of the people called Auxumite*.— This i% the first ki of Axum, and senes very nearly to

fix the date of its foundation Pliny and oth« of this period

mention the Asachar living south of Men* and known as eirphaiM-

62

hunters j and their stronghold, Uppidum Sac<e, probably the same settlement as Axum. Bion speaks of Asachae five days from t! and Ptoleim locates a "city of the Sacse" in the Tiure highlands, hut has no knowledge of A xu in Pliny • VI, >4 iltoi ;he . \scit.i

\\ho brought myrrh and frankincense to South Arabia cm their raits supported on inflated skii)», and dcrixation <»f 'the name from

askus, bladder; but both names' reproduce rather tin- mountainous coast of South Arabia, east of Hadramaut, called li.isik ASK h in

•. identlyan ethnic and geographic •M between Hasik, the Asaoh* or Ascitae, and Axum

Axum, the ancient capital and sacred city of the kingdom \\ e call ma. is still the place of coronation for its kings. Abyssinia is the I^atinized form of Mabash. while its people call thcmsel\< ftwiwr, Hellenized into Acthiopians. Habash is translated by modern Arabs as "mixture," while Herodotus explained Aethiopia as "land of the sunburned faces;" each explanation being, probably, incorrect. The Habashat appear likewise along the eastern terraces of South Arabia (Mahra) where they were the dominant race t 1 cen-

turies before the Christian era. Pausanias ' d< S//H < speaks of a "deep bay of the Krythr.i an Sea, having islands, Abasa andSacaea" (probably Kuria Muria. Masira, and Socotra ' ; the Roman writers mention an Abissa Polis in this region, and Stephanus of P>\- /antium says "beyond the Sab;rans are the Chatramotitae (Hadra- maut) and the Abaseni." 1 mm the I^tr\ptian inscriptions we learn that one of the Punt-people visited in their trading voyages \\;is tailed Hirst/, and dwelt, apparently, not only in Mahra, but also in Socotra and 1. astern Somaliland.

Glaser derhes the name Habash from a Mahri word, meanine "uaihere Synonymous with this is Aethiopian or Itiopyavan,

which he derives from atyoh, "incense;" and it is Significant that evefl in the time of the Periplus their ancient home in Mahra \\as still the "Frankincense Country." As "gatherers of incense," then, \\eha\e the mission of tin Asaclut- or Axumites. This people, like their prede- cessors from the same region, the Cushites u ho traded with lialnlon and Thebes, a branch of whom, 'Intermarrying with the names" 'Periplus, £ 16 >, helped found the Nubian Kingdom, and like the Punt or Poen-people of the Theban inscriptions, left their settle- ments in Mahra, Socotra and Somaliland (the true frankincense country) and migrated westward, settling hnally in the Tiure hiirh- lands, where for the first time they established an endurin-j p«»uer. Hut their migration was different from the others, in that it was due

.irfare and oppression rather than trade.

41

Ir. ' Habathac or tamtfcn" were

use-land*, and thnr aliie* and. perhap*. reU-

•h«- Saforans, worked with ihrin m thr »jm r and imrrtw trade 'lirn at thr hri.-ht of lift power Ufuirr ihr hnSTHIHM TW

procprn!\ ..t thr ; Tstr.i h> AgatharchioW Thr Hafaaiiat

hrl.i Sococra and Cape (tuarc!afui, and inui h «»f the r-**i A coast. Hut the MI. rdrr aloog

the south Arabian lentr*

•Humar , ti:.- Naki-ans. I ladranuut. k. .:..)'.». i. and ihr Habj»haf il>rs iintit t IVtxian ii • \\ ith ihr cattMiatunrnt

of flu- I'urthun, or A: N.I. id, rin; r a wave of tongue* by ihr

Parthians thr.> n Arahi.i .vt ftin

l'f..l( in. I -u r«jrtr%, taid In

inn on thr Siiin.il , rn«e-

Un«ls .itii hit I lien came " • .ii.|iu-sr <•? kaiakin h)

Hadr.i .trinii.- ;».,i:. x h\ Himyar againaf the Sabvaiia.

CJIas* M npti.ni telling <>f an alluUH t Umi.

.Mih thrr<- MIH rsM . .tlu, for mutual

tuui .iiiauiNt Madraiiuiit and Hnii\.ir This tJatrs !rom ab«Hil

Uidorus «>t (. 'hai.i m thr tinir ..f Auguatltf,

nit-lit!.. MN a v! in thr InoefMe-Couflffy, named

(J...HN..S ,' tlu- lanu'ua-jf «>t tin- H.iS.^Ki1. (, ^ .• .•• .t •

L'trrward thr ParthuiiN rrnrwrd

.ittai k tmm thr East] II • .. >.thg and demoliihed

t, and Hadianiaut moved on Habasfa I grpcwatti a had way.

and t ;IL' «»*»T its iM'U'nimn"

airiii'.: a dirt-it sea-tradr from It \mu Indian emhaaiie*, and

MI; up tli \\huii had so I..HL- Jusrd thr Arabian gulf to

Indian shippmu I )rsp,,ilrd of thru Arabia and of

.il artuitu-s at ( •uardaftn, ihr Haba*hat MMieht a nru

-i in thr I in i r highlands !nu!t thnr ctronghold, the

!mh soon hecamr the i it\ <>? \\unt It lay .ttural tra. trom India \dulis the

:>ara Ri\( »d through a fertile

(.ttiintn instrad ot thr drsrrt to thr north Urn. thru, to long as

thr lowlands could hr domnutrd. .• viale Could

.>:ui IK-IK i- thr "mi%erl>

in Ins ,m\mv: for ni : MX irniunr* ihr net*

kinudom «>f Abyssinia krpt up its allunir \\\r and C'«m*iann-

auainst its am irnt rnrnnrs thr Hoinrntrs. and thor allir* thr

I'arthians and Persians Thr kinmlom ^rew apace, and lu u e it o%rr-

\rahia; and not until thr latrr Mohammedan conquests

64

us power broken and its people shut up in their mountains, there to preserve, for hundreds of years unknown to the outside world, their Monophysite Christianity.

The Alnssinian Chronicles make /. scales a: the time of the IVriplus, the sue* esx..t <>f a lonu line of kiii'js at .\\uni. It is probable iahashat had frequented the oumm t->r arrnturx bet

Mirypt receded. Init as i..|.»nists railu-r than state-builders, until driven from Arabia, and that most «>t /..scales' predn

ualrlucfs and not tribal kin^s. The final migration G places not far from the Christian era.

The Abymnians were converted to Chriitianit] al>out 330 \ I)

Before that time then I outside iiitluenre may ha\e been

Buddhism. Janu-- History of Architfctut, , I, 142-S ; notes

Monoliths at Axuin

that the great monolith at Axum is of Indian inspiration; "the idea Egyptian, but the details Indian. An Indian nine-storied p., translated in Egyptian in the first century of the Christian era!" He notes its likeness to such Indian temples as Uodh-( iaya, and represents **that curious marriage of Indian with Kiryptian art which we would expect to find in the spot where the two people ( aim- in

and enlisted architecture r«, %ymbojtw il,

A us to thr advantage of (hr Hindu iradm. Mi- I ' o flopped thnr \r«eb af Oorfis on ikr Arabian iiioti

• lYnplus, -.iking their tarv-.r^ ihnu • ,,i by caravan;

wai a new power that all.. \\.-.i dirtn t.. trj.ir t.. \\jlnr%and utui rxrii (*> m.r h •>-. rrlami and takr (hnr v%arr» In EfFpt I ! lUiarukarha. \\utn and Alexandria H •

( lie fine and second Chriitian ccntuhc%. Mid

t Bodh-Gaya, India, dttinff from early m

the Mh rrntury

»scr\cr i»f the early relations Urtxveen Buddhism and ChradaniQr

may find along this frequented route greater evidence of mutual innV

MJ the relatively obstructed overland route* through

Parth ;>hesus. By the third ceniun. with the

•he u'r«»\\th «.f AntnHh and Byzantium, and the fall

^ai-id »l\r)ast>', «ne teudeiu-y would be the »nher

66

Scr GUser: Dif Abcstintfi •••:/•</. Munich, 1895. (A

masterly marshaling of inscriptions in support of his thesis. ibOTC Miimnati/ciM Pmtt MM./ .; :tflirn Rcichr, Berlin, 1899; fo nnJ

G*9grafihif Arahimi, Berlin, 1890 ; Dillinai

in Kon. PrrusN. ALul. il !in, 1880. 1 <.r the inter

I Buililhi.Mn aiul cat!

'miiuls: BuitJh'nt an./ C.hrntnin (!o.i/>f/.< n>. '" il.ulrlphu I 4th edition , 1908.

4. Alalaei Isl.uuU. I fiete preserve th«- name. lu-in<j called

Dahalak. Thc\ lir at thr entrance to Anncslcv !

5. Bay of the Opsian stone. \\\\^ is uh-rmhnl with

Mauakil »a> , north of Ras I lanhlah. I4U 44' V , 4<l I lanfilah"

IN Ainphila, the Jntipluli Portu* of Artrmulorus.

• Ph: \\.\\ I. ' the ol>M;ui >tonc .is lie sprlU

it of Acthiopia \\.is \rr\ dark, soiiR-tinu-s transparent, hut dull to the M'jht. and reriei'ted the shadow rather than the ima-je. It \\ as used in his da\ for i«'\velr\ and for statues and \oti\e oflerinus.

It \\.is used by the Kmperor Doniitian to face a poituo, s«i that from the refections on the polished surface IK- ini'jht detect am one approaehinn from behind.

It seems to ha\ e been a \nlfank- ulass, feldspar in a inor. pure state, and the same as our obsidian.

It was found also, anordinu to Pliny, in India, at Samnium in ItaK, and in Portugal; and it was extensively imitated in j_'lass.

Henry Salt ( A I'rjyagf into Jhyssinia, pp. 190-4 f, describes his \isit to the Bay of the Opsian stone, which was marked h\ a hill, near which he "was delighted with the siirht of a urcat many pieces <>! .1 black substance, bearing a \ery hiyh polish, much resembling that lay scattered about on the uround at a short distance from the sea; and I collected nearly a hundred specimens of it, most of uhich were <\\o. three, or four inches in diameter. ( )ne of the natives told me that a few miles farther in the interior, pieces arc- found of much dimensions. This substance has been air.ily/cd since- m\ return to Kivjlaml and found to be tnu- obsidian."

5. Coast Subject tO ZoSCaleS. — Col. Me nr\ Yule m his

/Wo, II. tlic- 10th ccntui) at least, the \\hole

»)iintr\ of the Red .Sea. from near Herbera probably to Suakin.

• !.. \b\ssmia. At this time u c- hear only of 'Mus.i!-

man families' residing in '/eila and the ..ther ports and tributan to the

C'hristians " ..I-. Mas' udi. Ill, 34.)

5. ZoSCaleS.- dt. 4hO-5 • identities this name with /a

Hakale, which appears in the AbyMiniafi Chronicles, The reinn i> said to ha\e lasted 1 < \ears, and Salt h\cs the date- \. I).

4f

Bur l.r ...im.K p 460) that "no great dgpand«nc» CM) be placed" upon thr Chronicles.

thr «rpatf," who rngnrd 400

year*, I \iuzaba, 200, /a^dar, 100; /axeta* IWd-

Zakawasya h Axum, 1 , /a ' ' "n. hrr 4ih year the went

hrr rrfiirn rrtu'iird 2S >r ;

Mrm followrd h\ IS ,.• month*. ir»«

Barti lia/rn. I'- \c-.its. "..ml m du- . hth year «•' ni«

" namc%, OK year*, uml /

rar» 4 rnont lix, and At/aru* ' rl Ahrcha ).

I/.IM.IS ' i«l HI thr I <th year

of th M iMlniiluir.l." MM

If /a Make-da uas tin- (Ji,« , >a who vwtrti kin^

.M in thr l'»tli .ciitir. I) ( ' lirnd', L'rrjf oniift-

/4 Bae«i I' t) i% xaui H-^un in K

ill ua% ..Mi/, (1 i.. n «M.IN aiul Sat/atu% from ihrir

places in thr t'hnmulr, .m.! t» ihrm 1 >»• \rarx, in order tu

them t.ilK \\ith tiinr \\tini .uul AiiuliN HIM rtptuxu, and lh« respondnuc kn..\\ n t<> I

man Imp and Conjcantiui I hrrrf«»rr /a Hakale'i

in thr list, in tin- rminu r\iciciur. ian lijrdlt

h\ thr daft- «»t thr IVriplns, ;»s prop, .M»: \l«irc pr<4iable

i> it that. .mas. he must Ixr advaiuc-d in the I'hrmr

U\ in..\inj him u]> thr< • in thr line hit

accession is hnui^lr I ) . .1 \ . ])rohahlr date.

Thr AlnsNiman C'hr..nul.- \v a> < • >mpo*rd lome titnr after the thr pi-.,p!r .irlirr portions are,

'Ms ..f it \%hi< h Salt examined t t.» that tuuml t.» differ maieriaUy.

M in thr Mrs? ("hi :ur\, as | Salt, arc at

Bat-si H.; >rars. »• in»nth>

.ttu,
	LO
>h.
	9
	in
	0
/., \1	».
/... HaLilr.	1 >
V-.nalu.	10
/a V	2

68

The 'La prefix, recalling the Dja of Glaser' s Arabian mscnpn. gives way in the 3d century to a long list beginning with /./, indu at inn perhaps a change of dynasty from the Habash stock T<> tin Sab;ean.

6. Egyptian cloth. — This was linen, made from

6. Arsinoe was at the head of the Hcroopolm (lull, corre- sponding to the modern Sue/, but now some distance inland owing to the recedence of the Gulf. It was named for the favorite \\ Ptolemy Philadelphus. At one time it was important commercially, as an entrepot for the Eastern trade; and while it soon lost tha: tion, it continued for centuries to be a leading industrial center, par- ticularly in textiles

6. Glass. — Pliny U/>. </'/. XXXVI, 65) says that glass-making originated in Phoenicia, and that the sand of the river Bclus \\as long the only known material suitable for the industry. He attributes the discovery for the process to the wreck of a ship laden with nitre on this shore, and the accidental subjection of nitre and sand to heat as the merchants set caldrons on the beach to cook their food. Later the Phoenicians applied themselves to the industry; and their experi- ments led to the use of manganese and other substances, and to an advanced stage of perfection in the product.

In Pliny's time a white sand at the mouth of the river Yolturnus was much used in glass-making. It was mixed with three parts u{ nitre and fused into a mass called hamm9-*itrum't which was sub- jected to fusion a second time, and then became pure white glass. Throughout Gaul and Spain a similar process was used, and th doubtless the process used in Egypt, as mentioned in the Periplus.

The color was added in the second fusion, after which th< was either blown, turned or engraved.

6. Murrhine. — See the note to § 49. It was probably a and carnelian from the Gulf of Cambay; but was extensively imitated in glass by the Phoenicians and Egxptians. The murrhine mentioned here was evidently a cheap trading product, probably colored .

6. Diospolis (City of God) was probably Thebes, the me- tropolis of the Egyptian Empire — the modern Karnak. This was its name under the Ptolemies and Romans. There was another Dios- polis in Egypt, mentioned by Strabo; it was in the Nile delta, abo\e the Sebennytic mouth; but it was not of great importance. Still another, known as Diospolis Parva, was on the Nile some distance below Coptos. The greater Diospolis — Diospolis Magna — was a center of commerce and industry, being no great way above Coptos, from which the caravans started for Berenice.

ft

As illustrating chc fume ..I th.

h her hundred Ka- lunidrrd Mint uith horses and ihariolS." pn.phrl Sahuin III.

•« ' u» capture by the Afttyr-

"populoiiN \ (,.,,1 that WM finHM

Fl, (>ut I. f..und ab«»ut K I -htupu

and I .rr strength, and it \\ ., \,i and l.ubmi

h> lu-Ip. was die carried away,

nt int.. . :>v! i Inldrrn abu were dashed in ;

1 the streets, and they cast lots f lonourable

and all her great n .-,d in * hains."

6. Brass. — 'M

IM.nv (* \\\l\ . 0 makes int., a h>l.rid. as

brass, a >rll..\\ .illoy, asdtstineui\hrd fr«>m purr copper

<>r tli alloys. Pliny describes it as an ore of copper lone in

hiuh ropiest, but sa had been found for a long time, the earth

been quite exhausted. It was used for the * .nd double

as, t1 ppcr brini: tliouu'ht UIKK! emMigh for the as.

ili h M-rnis t<> h.ivc been a n.»ti\r hras* obtained by tmcking uindant in /IIH . the Kmnan inrulluru)' did not di*fingui»h xinc as a separate n

\I ;iiLr MII h «>rcN \\rrr held in the hi^hot e«timatH>n, and

is deeply reuretted, as in the case of the "Corin-

thi.i But l.itci it \\.iv tound fn aiiident that the natite eanh,

•u-. an impure oxide added to molten copper, would

and this the Romans did without under-

i^ ului the earth u.l^, just a> they used native oxide of cobalt • without knouin^ the metal cobalt. . \\\\ II, 44, and Beckmann. Hntorj if /irvnttimt,

IMnl.. stratus ..t I.enuios, about 230 A I > . mentions a shnne in

Taxila in which were hunjr picti, >pper tablets representinc the

Mexander and Porus. ''The \anous Heum were portrayed

in a mosaic of orichakum, silver, gold, and oxidized copper, but the

• ns in irun The meiaU wtrt n in < niously worked into one

another that the pu tures \\huli uii were comparable to the

pnuliH tions of the most famous (Jreek artists" M t ruuilr 1*nt*t

-2). The > ,tuel> used by Oscar Wilde in his poem

the God of the Attyrisa,

Whotc wing», like stnmge tnuupveot tale, row high above kit tuwk-fccnd Piuntnl with silver and with rrd and ribbed with nxb of

70

6. Sheets of soft copper.— The text is 'honey-copper." That the metallurgy of Roman days included a fusion with honey or other organic substances. such as cow's blood, to produce greater ductility, has been asserted, but not proven. Miillcr makes a more -le suggestion, that this \\ as ductile copper in thin sheets, and was called "honey-copper" because the sheets were shaped like honey-cakes Ductile copper in Roman times generally meant an allo\ \\ith 5 to 10 per cent of lead.

6. Iron.— Phm XXXIV, <(<-4' speaks of iron as "the

most useful and most fatal instrument in the hand of man." The ore, he says, is found almost everywhere; "even in the Isle of Klha is worked like copper, and its quality depends somewhat on the water into which the red-hot metal is plunged. Bilhilis and TunasM> in Spain, and Comum in Italy, are distinguished for the use of their I in smoking. The best iron is that made by the Seres, "who send it to us with their tissues and skins " Next to this in quality is the Parthian iron. In all other kinds the metal is alloyed, that is, apparently, the ore is impure.

Coats of skin. The text is kaunahn. — Originally t1 were of rough skins with the hair left on; later they were imitated in -otamia by a hoaxy woolen fabric, suggesting the modern frie/e Mxcrooat, which \\as largeK exported. It is not known which is meant here.

6. Ariaca. — This is the northwest coast of India, especially around the Gulf of C'ambay; the modern Cutch, Kathiauar and Gujarat. As the name indicates, it was at the time of the Periplus one of the strongholds of the In do- Aryan races, and incidentally of Buddhism, the religion then dominant among them.

6. Indian iron and steel.— Marco Polo (Yule ed. I, 93)

Book I, chap. XVI I, mentions iron and ondanlquc in the markets of Kerman. Yule interprets this as the andante of Persian merchants visiting Venice, an especially fine steel for swords and mirrors, and derives it from hundwamy " Indian " steel.

Kenrick suggests that the "bright iron 'I /ekiel XXVI 1, 19, must have been the same.

Ctesias mentions two wonderful f such material which

he had from the King of Persia.

Probably this was also the ferrum candidum of which the Malli and Oxydraca? sent 100 talents' weight as a present to Alexander.

Ferrum indicum also appears in the lists of dutiable articles under Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.

Salmasius notes a Greek chemicaJ treatise " ( )n the tempering of In.

ifi says ' Hindu- the manufacture ol iron.

l>o woriuhopt wherein are forged the must

in ti>< mpoMiblc (o rind jnythin,

Cotton.— Sanscrit, karpju. Hebrew, .«4»i(

. I .rlanu — the - (i9tnp»itm ktrt*t*m a.

ttrfar, ' fa/uav*) lunxe in ln<lu. .mil woven into cloth by

I "t di.it .re (he (bun ..i hutory The facts

Mini: it li.ur )>rrn .idmirably Mated by Mr K II !!.• , in Tkt Cillon Plant, a report of the Is Department ..( A^ru uhurr, i«urd •.»n thread and cloth are repeatedly mentioned in the i'rofess..r \ H Sayce in h.% HMieft

( s sho\\s Around for the belief that it \\M exported by tea to the head of t> t in the 4th millennium I'. C , and K ftMind

its wa. Herodotu* describes it as a wool, better

f sheep, the fruit of trees u rowing wild in India.

c nuiui: iotton cloth was at its best in India until

r limes, and the fine Indian muslins were in great demand

• mmanded hi^h prices, both in the Roman 1 «i in

r industry was one of the mam factor* in the

nt India, and the transfer of that mdu tgbnd

< s, and the «. heapemng of the process by met rininu and weavinu. '> perhaps the unrated single factor in the -tir nu n :

I'linx and Pollux state that ruuun was gr. jypi in their

1st ami 2nd centuries A. I) sively is unknown.

the Permian (Jul d the IVnplus cottinm this .•HIM-.: 't -^ .»••! -«:t ;>ort from ( )mmana.

.dso to luxe hern -jmwn and

the ritx-r known to Josephusas <kt&n, 11

, km' n, (the same vumd appears in I'lm > and

Chalii- \ers states that the inhaixu

• • (I . >n made use of coiion. and that

the Ph.rnut.ins exported Syrian cotton cl<xh to Sabva.

n Uro\\m- in ura, and

says that it was m :li by the women of I'atnr; but tbt%

isi\e industry. It was quite certainty not during Roman day*.

\rabic kat'rn or ihe it reek

are mu.rrtam, because those- words urn applied also to flax, which was in very general use in all the Mediterranean coimti u -s

It is noteworthy that the word used in the Periplus is uniformly •tkonion, meaning simpK 'Yloth," hut usually cotton doth; while the Atmatismos, translated as "clothing," was very likely cloth in suitable lengths to be worn as tobe or toga.

6. Monache cloth. — Vincent says cloth "singularly fine," and for sagmatogrne would read "the sort used for stuffing" from ><isso, to stuff; sagnui, a saddle) being the down from the tree-cotton, Gossyfi- ium arboreum. But these words maybe Greek < omiptions of some Indian trade-names for different grades or dyes of cloth, as to the particulars of which we cannot determine.

Fabricius alters monai/ti to mrjlochini because of the occurrrm <• of the same word in the following line, and makes a similar alteration wherever the word appears in the text, but it is difficult to see just what is gained.

This "broad cloth' was no doubt used for garments sue h as the modern Somali "tobe," described by Burton (first /v//j///>.», p. 29) : " It is a cotton sheet eight cubits long, and two breadths srun together. It is worn in many ways; sometimes the right arm is bared; in cold weather the whole person is muffled up, and in sum- mer it is allowed to fall below the waist. Generally it is passed In-hind the back, rests upon the left shoulder, is carried forward over the breast, surrounds the body, and ends hanging on the left shoulder, where it displays a gaudy silk fringe of red and yellow This is the man's Tobe. The woman's dress is of similar material, but differ- ently worn; the edges are knotted generally over the right, sometimes over the left shoulder; it is girdled round the waist. In-low which hangs a lappet, which in cold weather can be brought like a hood over the head. Though highly becoming and picturesque as the Roman toga, the Somali Tohe is by no means the most decorous of dresses; women in the towns often prefer the Arab costume — a short- sleeved robe extending to the knee, and a Futah or loin-cloth under- neath."

McCrindle, Ancient India, p. 26, notes that India has two dis- tinct species of cotton, Gossypium herbacenm^ and Gossypium arh'jn uni or tree-cotton. The former only is made into cloth, while the latter yields a soft and silky texture, which is used for padding cushions, pillows, etc. Pliny says ( MX. 1 > that Upper Egypt also produces "a shrub bearing a nut from the inside of which wool is got, white and soft."

71

6. Molochine, or mallow cloth, was a coarse

h a preparation of a variety of the hibtscuf This purplish cloth must have corresponded closely to the

iinlls still in .ieman.l on this COMt

6. Lac.— McCnndle notes that the Sanscrit it l**tk«. a bapf form of rifJiA./, lonneited with the root rwj|/, to dye. The Praknt form is lakkku. It was used by women for dyeing the natlt and feet, also as a ti

I in- lac insect < 7W4*n£0 £4*01, Kerr) » native in India and

Still practualls confined to that countr\

Ai to Watt (Cwwm/nrW /Wurft if /*4w, pp 1<

ds two dt >ducts: a dye and a resin. The dye competed

vorable terms with the Mexican cochineal until fetch were div- placed by mamif.u lured aniline, \\hen "\. dla* again hfCHM

c important

1 'he resin is formed ar..und the young swarms as they adhere to res; the lac being a minute hemipterous inset t h\ ing on the plum-juices sucked up by a probost

The dye is taken from the bodies of the females, which assume a bright red color during the process of reproduction For a com- r account of the product and its uses see Watt.

Of somewhat similar nature to lac was the "kermes-berry" pro- duced on the Mediterranean holm-oak; whence the dye known as carmesin, cramoisi, crimson or carmine; mother derivation,

scarlet; or, referring to the pupa-stage of the insect, vermiculum or vermilion.

These insect dyes were used separately, or, associated with murex, as an element in the so-called * 'Tynan pun"

6. Tortoise-shell.— 1 his was a great article of commerce in • »man world, being used for small receptacles, ornaments, and for mla\mu' furniture and woodwork. It is one of the most fre- quently-mentioned commodities in the Periplus. The antiquity of the trade is uncertain, but this seems to be the "shell" brought from

and of Punt by Queen Hatshepsut's expedition in the ISth ceo-

B C.

6. Rhinoceros. — The horns and the teeth, and probably the skin, were exported from the coast of Abyssinia, where Bruce found the .: of this animal still a trade and described it < 7V*tr/t, ^ '\

Avalites is identified with the modern ZeiU, 11° 20' N., 43° 28' E. It is 79 miles from the straits of Bab-d-Mandeh I he ancient name is preserved by the village Ahalit, on the north shore of

the bay. The Somali tribes call the place Ausal, apparently perpetu- ating: the Ausan of the South A ..ist; which also at one time possessed much of the coast of East A died the "Ausanitir coast" in $ IS of the Periplus). Avalites is thought In Korster (His- ttrical Gtography of Arabia, \ '«»!. I ' natc the name of Ohal, son of Joktan < (Jen. IV ' whose name is almost unknown in Arabia; uhcating a very early migration of tins tribe to the Somali coast.

1 )hollah at the l.uphratcs mouth on

the Persian (Julf ; which \\as the t'hulu of the Assyrian inscriptions, and the Apol.

Of '/eila, Ibn Batuta, writing in the 14th centun, said: "I then went from Aden by sea, and after four days came to the city of '/eila. v a settlement of the Berbers, a people of Sudan, of the Shafia sect. Their country is a desert of two months' extent; the first part is termed Zeila, the last Makdashu. The greatest number of the in- habitants, however, are of the Ratizah sect. Their food is mostly camel's flesh and fish. The- stench of the country is extreme, as IB

H tilth, from the stink of the fish and the blood of the camels which are slaughtered in it

Zeila is described by Burton ' First Footsteps in East Africa, p. 14) as "the normal African port — a strip of sulphur-yellow sand, with a deep blue dome above, and a foreground of the darkest indigo. The buildings, raised by refraction, rise high, and apparently from the bosom of the deep. . . . No craft larger than a canoe can ride near Zeila. After bumping once or twice against the coral reefs, it was considered advisable for our ship to anchor. My companions put me into a cockboat, and wading through the water, shoved it to shore. The situation is a low and level spit of sand, which high tides make almost an island. There is no harbor; a vessel of 250 tons cannot approach within a mile of the landing-place; the open road- stead is exposed to the terrible north wind, and when gales blow from the west and south it is almost unapproachable. Kvery ebb leaves a sandy flat, extending half a mile seaward from the town; the reefy anchorage is difficult of entrance after sunset, and the coraline bottom renders wading painful."

ila, the nearest port to Harrar in the interior, had, when Bur- ton wrote, lost the caravan trade to Berbera, owing to the feuds of its rulers; so that the chara< f its people had not (hanged

from the account given in § 7 of the Periplus

At that time the exports from /eila were slaxes. ivory, hides, honey, antelope horns, clarified butter, and gums. The coast abounded in sponge, coral, and small pearls. In the harbor were about twenty

.rge and »maJI, they traded with llcrbcra. Arabia. and Imiiu, and were navigated by "Rajput" or Hindu Burton (<p. tii.t i 1 ' *ys a*;

"I rrpeatedU heard at /rib and ac Harrar thai traders had

srxrn months j country of paean*

ing v:«»ldeii hraielrts, till they rrai hrd the Suit Va upon * hit h Frank*

sail in ship*. I once saw a traveler descending ihr th a store

of nuggets, bracelets and gold rine% similar to thine uird ai money

t'\ thr an. . pnans Mr k .,pl relates a tile current in Abyt-

trut (here i> u rrnuunt of thr ^Lxr trade Kefween

(iuim-h the GlMMft OOMt) Hid Shot. C'« uinn tion between tae CMI

Jllil urst ' rxistrtl. in thr tlinr of Jcijo |, the P«»nU|fur%r

«m tin- :i C'nnuo Irurnril thr rxistnu r of the AbytMMM

: \\ ( -xtrrn Afrua asvcn thut I akihx or prir%i%,

\\hri MIMU thr piltzninaue, pass from thr \ rlbtah muniry

through Abys&inia to thr i oast ot thr Rr.i v .• AIM! it has btri.

;>rn fr.Mii th<- /.m/ihar i «a»l In licnL'urU

Thr !«>rr^oing, wrinrn hrforr mndrrii «: had altered the

trade - 4 the samr mmimon ax that (-\i>ti:,- m ancient

a urll-rstaMished trade to Kir\pt and Nuith Arabia, cnming

-nhr to tnhr through the heart of Afru • dioancr*

• and South.

The **Far-Milc cCM8t. — Aci-ording to Hunon >f> .

mali tribe> railed thnr i-oiintr> the Btirr tl .Irum, uhuh he .,trs .is "barbarian land, " but gors on t.» explain that 1iam mean* V.ib. just as among Kgyntian* and (treelu **bar- banan" meant all nations not of their iountr\

The name seems to apply to the migration and trade from South », thr mtx-s who had crossed the -julf at Aden at various periods history brini: rrtrrrr*! to In their i»mntr>mrn as lho«e "of the nirh our author has rendered into (Jrrek asjwrvftJM

Juice of sour grapes. -Thr trxt is •/;../ \ll ).nphai-ium is a kind of oil obtained from thr

ic — the formrr is prodm rd by pressing t hr nhteuhile II white; the laner from the Amina-an grape, when the u*e of a :k-pea, just before the rising of thr Dog-star. The %r into ranhrn \essrU, and then stored in vessels of Cyprian copper. best is reddish, acrid, and drv to the taste Also tbe unnpe grape pounded in a mortar, dried in the sun, and then divided into

The Amiiuean grape he deM.nbr> m MY, 4: alto a

76

woolly grape — "so that we not be surprised at the wool-bearing trees of the Seres or the Indians." These latter were cotton; the former \\ere mulberry trees with silkworm cocoons bred on them. ,/! Virgil,

. , 11. i:i

" Velleraque ut foliis depectant tenuia Seres."

Pliny (XXIII, 4) says again: "Omphacium heals uK erations ot the humid parts of the body, such as the mouth, tonsilla;\ -Jamls. Thr powerful action of omphacium is modified In the admixture of honey or raisin wine. It is very useful, too, for dysentery, spitunu of blood, and quinsy."

And in XXIII, 39: "The most useful of all kinds of oil other than olive) is omphacium. It is tr<>«>d for the gums, and if kept from time to time in the mouth, there is nothing better as a presc!\.m\e of the whiteness of the teeth. It checks profuse perspiration.

7. \Vheat. — Triticum vu/gare, Yillars, order (innnini,/ The cultivation of wheat, says De Candolle, is prehistoric It is older than the most ancient languages, each of which has independent and definite names for the grain. The Chinese grew it 270(1 H ('. It was grown by the Swiss lake-dwellers about 1500 U. ('., and has been found in a brick of one of the Egyptian pyramids dating from about 3350 B. C.

Originally it was doubtless a wild grass which under cultivation assumed varying forms. In the early Roman Empire vast quantities of wheat were raised in Sicily, Gaul, North Africa, and particularly Egypt, for shipment to Rome. Later a great wheat area was opened up in what is now Southern Russia, which finally supplanted Egypt in the markets of Constantinople, after Alexandria and Antioch fell into Saracen hands. The trade in wheat as described in the Periplus is interesting. It shows that South Arabia, Socotra and East Africa had wheat not only from Egypt but also from India, which has not usually been considered as a wheat country at that time. \\ att (op. fit. p. 1082) thinks wild rice (Oryza coarctata) may have been intended, but the Periplus distinguishes between wheat and rice as coming from India. The Hindus might certainly have had the seed from Egypt and cultivated it, but Watt notes the complete absence, so far as known, of wild wheat in modern India.

7. Wine. — The fermented juice of t'itis rinifem, Linn., order I'itacta. The culture of the vine seems to have begun in Asia Minor and Syria, but within the period of written history it is almost uni- versal. It introduction was ascribed to the gods: by the Greeks to Dionysos, the Romans to Bacchus, the Egyptians to Osiris; or in the case of the Hebrews, to the patriarch Noah. The vine and the

77

iuirint: loniinurd cultivation from fear to year,

• nomadic coftdkiont, and die product

•li Industrie* appears in commerce from ihe eariicft time*.

I h.- alley wat an important export MI the

tnnr ,,f l-./rku-l \\\ II. 1 - . ,,i the Greek winet ihr be* were

•hi- \«- ',-.,:. inlands and the Asiatic coast near Kphc*u» <£rabo,

\l\ , 1 > carried the vine to Spain, and the

eks to southein (iaul It \\as unknown in early Italy, but fostered hv tin- Roman irpuhiit . u ln> h restricted imports of

•hs, and Mum ,>orts by restricting viticukurc in the pro*-

In ihr valleys <>f thr Seme and Moselle wine wat not : until the later days of the Roman l.mpire

At the tune ..? thr IVnplus. thr popular taste demanded a wine \\ith extraneous substances, such as myrrh and other gums, i -intuition and salt.

i'enplus tells us that Italian and laodicean wines were im-

: into .V the Somali I' oast, East Africa, South Arabia,

ami h-.. V,.'>:.m \Nine was also carried to India; this may have

UK lulled grape ncn (§ 24) but was principally date-

.in (iuir ?i.<6>. Italian wine was preferretl t..

all ot) • • I his was from the plain of Campania, in the

vuimtN ot the modern Naples, whence Strabo tells us \, VI.

"the Romans procured their H nest wines, the Kalerman, the Slatanian,

and the t'alenun I h.f ->t Surrentum is now esteemed equal to

these, it havini: hern lateK disr..\rrrd that it can be kept I* » r

1 mentions a Falernian wine which had tpeneil !

Ihe . in ume was from l^xlicca on thr Syrian coast,

50 milc-s the modern Latakia. Strabo < \\ I,

11. '' nyi H is a \er\ well-built cit>. with a good harbor; the ter-

its fernliu m «>ther respects, abounds with \%i.- \\huh the greater part is exported to Alexandria. The whole moun- .mu'mu the i it\ is planted almost to its summit with vines.*'

1 in.- Hebrew, Mi, >anscnt, k+itktr*.

ttannum This metal, the product of (Jaluu and Cornwall,

was utili/rd iiulustnallv at a comparatively late, period, having been

introduced after u«>M. silver, i tipper, iron, lead, and mercury. It

made its appearance in the Mediterranean world soon after the migra-

t the 1'h.rm. Syrii I "he Phoenician traders ma> ha%r

found it fust on the Hlack Sea coast, coming overland from tribe to

v soon they discovered the Spanish tin and traced it to in

I finally that of Cornwall. The vahie of tin in hardening

78.

H soon understood, and tin- tnuk \\.is monopoli/.ed tor ccn- h\ the Phu-mcians ami then descendants, tin- C'anlia«iinians.

Ho\s carefull\ thc\ guarded the lecrei «>t its production appears in

Scrabo's story (III, V, 11' of tin- Phu-nician captain who, finding himself followed by a Roman \ esscl «»n the Atlantic' o.-M of S|>am, ran his ship ashore rather than divulge his destination, ami collected the damage from his government on returning home.

There is much ronfusion in the earl\ references to this metal,

M the Hebrew Mr/ (meaning "the departed") was also applied

to the metallic residue from silver-smelting — a mixture «»f silver, lead,

and occasionally copper and mcrcur\. The same comparison applies

to kauitfrot and stannum. Pliny, for example, distinguishes ft lunihuni

•'., lead, and plumbum uindidum, stannum. \Vithout any definite iusis for determining metals, appearance \\as otten the only unide.

Suetonius (////•//. \'I, \()1 ' says that the Kmperor Vitellius took away all the gold and silver from the temples, o9 A. D. ) and sub- stituted tiurii/iakum and stannum. This stannum could not have been pure tin, but rather an alloy of lead, like pewter.

The letters from the King of Alashia C yprus), in the Tell-el- Amarna tablets, indicate the possibility of the use of tin there in the 15th century H. C., and of the shipment of the resultant bron/e to l.'j\pt; and tin, as a separate metal, is thrice mentioned in the Pupyrm M/rm, under Rameses 111 « 1 1(>S-1 16" 11. C. ). This confirms the mention of tin in Numbers \\.\I, 12. By the time of 1 vckiel \\\ II, \1 it was, of course, well known; here it appears with silver, iron, and lead, as coming from Spain. The stela of Tanutamon de- scribes a hall for the god Amon, build by the Pharaoh Taharka at N. i pata (688-663 B. C.), of stone ornamented with m>ld, with a tablet of cedar incensed with myrrh of Punt, and double doors of elect rum with bolts of tin. C Breasted, .Indent Records of Egypt, Vol. IV).

By the Greeks the true tin was understood and extensively used, and the establishment of their colony of \lassiliawaslanrelydueto the discovery of the British metal coming overland to the mouth of the Rhone. The Romans ultimately conquered both (Jalicia and Corn- wall, and then controlled the trade; but to jud«re from Pliny's ac- count, their understanding of it was vague.

Accordinir to the Periplus, tin was shipped from Ku\pt to both Somaliland and India.

La-ssen ( Indische Alterthumskundc, I, J4'> ami ( )ppert. aii'intm from the similarity between the Sanscrit kasthlra and the (ireck kassi- tfm, would transfer the earliest tin trade to India and Malacca; but it seems probable that the Sanscrit word was a late addition to the

.n»r, bornmril from (l>« ;« nh (hr nirlal U»rlf, uh

In thr lVnp!u> IM Si 49 uml Se,, t amr !,, |i»du ' we*.

l""-rs. / \'..| III, Itr. kmaitn, * .•/ , 11,

Malao .s ii.. i HrilH-ra, i- , 4S1 S K ltt%

now (lit- ItMiiuiL' J...JT ..i (ln% nusi, ihe capital of Hniuh .mil the i enter of (he caravan trade to the

B F: K U K K A II

^

•

From Burton: ffr// F**tj*r}> i* F.** j/Htm.

< .

p. 19b) \viuilti identit) it with Hulhar. about SU miles farther west; hut the description of the "sheltering spit running «>ut from tin- cast" • hexond doubt at Berhera, which has just such a spit, while Ilulhar is on the open heach.

Uurton ( ftp. .//., pp. 407-4 IS give* a detailed description of the town and harbor, of the stream «»t sweet water flowing into it. and of the interior trade and the great periodical fair, frequented by caravans from the interior and by sailing \cssels from ^S Vmen, the South Arabian COMt, MnM.it. Uahrein and Kassora, and beyond . inbay; the same trade as that described in £ 14.

S. "Far-Side" frankincense.— Coiu-ernin«r frankineense ID genera I, see under .- Somali frankin- :. res in the trade

of Kgypt at the time of the Punt expeditions, and probably much earlier. It uas different from, and often superior to, the Arabian. It is. indeed, possible that the true frankincense //'/.«,-(•/•///,/ ;/, was native here, and that the Arabian \arieties (Boswellia serrtitu, etc. > were a later cultivation. ^ < t 1 .ibru ius p. 124 ' in curious di^' of the text, thinks the Malao frankincense was imported from Arabia!

8. Duaca is identified by Cilaser ( Mzz/-, 197 ) with duakli, which appears in several Arabic inscriptions as a variety of frankincense; duka^ he says, is a trade-name in modern Aden for a certain quality of frankincen-

liurton (op. <•/'/., p. 416) describes the range of mountains run- ninir parallel with this coast, some .$0 miles inland from Merbera, "4000 to 6000 feet, thickly covered with i_ri'm-arabic and frankincense trees, the wild rt^ and the Somali pine."

8. Indian COpal. — The text is kankanidnt which is mentioned by Pliny as a dye (probably in confusion with lac1; by I )iosi orides as the exudation of a wood like myrrh, and used for incense. Pliny XII, 44 ) says that it came ' from the country that produces cinna- mon, through the Nabataean Troglodyte, a colony of the Nabat.i i Glaser ( Skhnu-, 196) is positive that it is no Arabian product. Henry Yule identifies it with Indian copal. Malabar tallow, or white dammar, the gum exuded from I'atfria Indun, Linn., order />//>/,•/•*- carp**; which is described by Watt ( */>. «•//., p. 1105,) as a "large evergreen of the forests at the foot of the Western Ghats from Kanara to Travancorc, ascending to 4000 f< This gum or resin dissolves

in turpentine or drying oils, and, like copal, is chiefly used for making varnishes. The bark is also very astringent, rich in tannin, and i- used to control fermentation.

8. Macir is mentioned by Dioscorides as an aromatic bark. Pliny (XII, 16) says that it was brought from India, being a red bark

tl

ng upon a large root, bearing the name of the irer thai produced

it Hr was ignorant <-r itvelf A decoction of (hi* hark.

mi\'-,i -A ith hones, was used in medicine as a specific foe dy»r» • . *.•: , HI, M identifier it wilh mutant, a feme u

of the root-lurk r nallte i. ll lltr MUI-: a-

coast, i-ut he does not ulrntifx tlir r

I his "....- \\.«s tloulxless !l,r i,,,.t i-.tr, ,.; H^rrkfHH autumn*. Wall , order JfHryiMx.r , de* nhrd !>> \\j-r as "a small den.! uml th:..p/h..ui India and Burma,

linn the louet lliin.ii.i\.i tn ono t< ,r. .mil tn a »imibr altitude on the hills of Southern ln«lu lioth hark and M--

are am«M>/ the most nnp.irt.int inc. in me s in thr Hindu maltrui ms&4. H\ the Portuguese this was i allrii Jitrka nttiJalmniii, (ming t<i it% great merit in thr trratinrn' ., thc-\ h.txin^ found it on the

m I ' 'Iv in thr form ..f a solid or

hi|uiii n, is astringent, antidysenteric and

anthelnnntu I he sc-eds \M-|. 1 a fi\. .1 ml, and the vv<»od-ash is used in vKemu I d • much used for caning, furniture and

turn*

9. Muiullls prohahK the- m...!ern liandar HaJS, 10° N., 46° S< ) u..u!d identif> it utth lierhera hut the text < >r three da>>' sail" hetueco MaLaoand Mundus. altogether I.MI miu h f«»r the So miles, more or levs, he1 hulhar ami hcrbera. And just as the "sheltering spit" identifies

Malao, s, lie "island rlu*c to shore- " identify flats

ax Mundus. Vivien de Saint-Manm h A/W tU t * dfnqtu 4ant

uiti Rrttqut ft nmiiinft ; :es4-rihes a small island pron

this little harbor, and says it ua> much frequented by Arab and Somali •

\lullrrs identiru-aiioM uith Burnt Ubnd(ll° IS' \ . 17 IS' ^ less probable because that island i> too far from shore to afford •vtion to small

MoCfOtU was probably a hiuh urraiie ,,f frankmi ensr ( ilaSCT (Skhsu, 199-201 note s that the Arabic name tor the bem %-ar mghnirot, or in Mahn, m^nur . and that the same word appears m Somaliland as mMr \ : m this to the (ireek of the text the change is negligible.

10. Mosyllum is placed by most commentators at Ras Mantara, (11° 28* N?., 49° 35*1 I Ras Kham/.r < 10 S> \ 4S° SO' E.) many miles farther west I he text Ln\es no help m the

'tion. It is noteworthy that Pliny says the Atlantic Ocean begins here; ignoring not only the coast of A/anu. as

82

:>ed in >i 15, but the Cap? of Spu-rs itself. \Ius\llum \\aspmha- hl\, therefore, rather a prominent headland on the roast, altoorther xiu-h .is Rax Hantara.

This, by the u.iv. \\as reputed to have been the eastward limit of thr conquests of Ptolemy Kuenjetes. King of Ki:\pt, in the 3d century B. C.

in Cinnamon.- 1 h<- text . from Hebrew kezia

\\ \. ,x. I /,-K \\\ II. 19, \\\. 24), the modern cassia. This meant usually, in Roman tunes, the wood split lengthwise, as dis- tinguished from the flower-tips and tender bark, which rolled up into small pipes and was called kinnamomon, from Hebrew klinieh^ a pipe; khmtm '. I xod. XXX, 21, Pn.x. VII. 1", Cant. IV, 14-; Latin (ttfina, French canntllf.

Cinnamon and cassia are the flmver-tips. hark, and wood of .d varieties of laurel native in India, Tibet, Burma and China. Kngler and Prantl, Die Natur/ic/un Pjiamnfamil'nn, classify them as follows:

Laurace*

Persoideae :

Cinnamomeae:

1. Cinnamomum

Sect. 1. Malabathrum

including: C. javaneum

C. xeylanicum C. culilawan C'. tamala C'. iners Sect. 2. Camphora

including C. camphora

C'. partiienoxxlnn

Cinnamon is mentioned as one of the ingredients of the sacred

anointing oil of the Hebrew priests ( Exod. XXX). The Kuyptian

inscriptions of Queen Hatshepsut's expedition, in the I 5th century

, mention cinnamon wood as one of the "marvels of the

country of Punt" which were brought back to K<:\pt.

Cinnamon was familiar to both the ( ireeks and Romans, and was used as an incense, and as a flavor in oils and salves. It is men- tioned by Hippocrates, Theophrastus, and Pliny. Dioscorides gives a long description of it. He says it **grows in Arabia; the best sort is red, of a fine color, almost like coral; straight, long, and pip\ , and it bites on the palate with a slight sensation of heat. The best sort is

II

that called zigir, with a scent like a rate. . . . The

many names, from the different placet where it grows. But the hetl

that whu h is like the \|o%yllum, and thit cinnamon it

callc-tl \l«»s\llinc, as well a»theca»v And this cinnamon, he says,

"\\iim he-di, in its greatest perfection, i% of a dark color, tomethinf

' n the , v me and a dark ash, like a small twig or spray

full of knots, and \cr> frat;

Roman untcrs distinguish l>ctwrrn true imumon mil rtiliij

mrr was valued at 1500 denarii (about $<25) the pound; thr

.cm I he Penplus nukes no distim tion , "caaua" it

nu-ntious.it Mosyllum and O pone, and the "harder cassia" at Mabo.

Ciniunion, under the I "oluhK meant the tender fthoots and

tips of the tree, whu h were reserved for the emperor* and p*-

>. and distributed by them on solemn occasions. Cassia was

.tnd mi lu. led the hark, the split wood, and the

root. The Romans could not distinguish between species, and their classification was according to the appearance of the product as it i ante to them.

As to the ->f origin, Herodotus (book III) states that

cassia was from Arabia ; naturally so, as the Phoenicians brought it

theme. He distinguishes » nni.ini-n, and gives a fabulous Story of It*

••om the nests of great birds "in those countries in which

Bacchus was nursed," which in (Jreek legend meant India. The

IVnplus says that it was pr<»iiucd in .Soinalibnd, to whuh Strabo and

other Roman writers refer as the rtg io i innamtmiftra in the same belief.

Hut there is no sign of a cinnamon tree in that region at present,

where the requisite conditions ,.f sml and climate do not exist. P1in>

\ I. 2(' indicates that it was merely trans-shipped there. Strabo

\\ I. l\ , 14) N.IVS that it came from the "far interior" of thi»

K ^I»M, and that nearer the coast only the "false cassia*' grew. Pliny

\\l, 42) sa\ came from Aethiopia and was brought

acts of sea" N by the Troglodytes, who took five yean

in making the round trip. Here are indications that the true cmiu- mon was brought from India and the Far Kast to the Somali coast, and there mixed with bark from the laurel-groves mentioned in $ 1 1 and by Strabo, and taken th< \rabia and l-.gvpt The Penplu*

•he "larger ships" required at M.»s\llum for the cinnamon trade This was probably the very midst of the "1-ind of Punt" whence th« brought cinnamon 15 centuries

befon

In India various barks and twigs are sold as castia and cinnamon.

and according to Watt («p. «'/., p. SIS' it is still almost impossible to

M

uish them. Cassia hark *> Of Cassia lignta ) was his-

torically the first to be known, and the best qualities came from China, •rdcd first about 27d(l IV C. The Malabar bark was

left valuable. Persian tecords iman.ibU refer t<. i mnamon as / )./•

Chini, "Chinese bvk;" and between the 3d and 6th centuriei V I)

was an a-trade in this article, in Chinese ships, from

China to Persia.

Marco Polo describes i miumon as growing in Malabar, Ceylon, and Tibet. The British Last India Compam's records show that it came usually from China; and Millhurn mm. 1H1S, 11, Sd'ii

describes both bark and buds, and warns trade ^t the "c<

dark and badly packet!" product of Malabar.

ice the later years of the iSth century the variety C. zsyiannnm has been e\tensi\cl\ culmatcd in Ceylon; but the best quality is still shipped from Canton, being from C. Cassia, native throughout Assam. Burma, and Southern China. It seems altogether probable that the true cinnamon of the ancient K-jvptian and Hebrew records, <»t Herodotus and Pliny, reached the Mediterranean nations from no nearer place than Burma, and perhaps through the Straits of Malacca from China itself Many, indeed, must ha\e been the hands through which it passed on its long journex to Rome.

The maldhathrum of the Romans, which they bought in India while still unable to obtain cinnamon there, was the leaves of three varieties: that of the Malabar mountains from (J. 2>v/tf >//</////, and that of the Himalayas from (.'. himala, with a little from C. iners.

These trees are all of fairly large growth, evergreen, risin about 6000 feet altitude. The tree flowers in January, the fruit ripens in April, and the bark is full of sap in May and June, when it is stripped off and forms the best grade of cinnamon. The strippings of later months are not so delicate and are less valued.

Watt, of>. <•//., pp. .-MO-SB; Lasscn, */>. <-/'/., I, 2~V-2S5, II, 555-561; Vincent, II, 130, 701-16; Fluckigcr and Hanbury, Pfiannacographia, 519-527; Marco Polo, Yule l.d.. II, 49, 5o, 315, 389; and for malabatkritm M folium indicum, see Garcia de Orta, Coll., \\III; also comment by Ball in Roy. Ir. Acad., 3d icrv, I, 409; also Linschoten, Yoy. K. Ind. < Kd. Hakl. Soc . II. L3I

11. Little Nile River. — The text is NfilopotarnioH, perha|>s a reflection of Kgyptian (ireek settlement. Another reading is \, /'//>- ptobmaiw, which might also suggest a connection with one of the Ptolemies. But in Kgyptian records there is no mention of settlement or c< mquest so far

Muller identities this river with the Tokwina (11° Mf N., 49°

ss

) which empties below a mountain, Jrhcl Haima, 3800 feel

high; there are ancient ruin* here The "uiull (aurrl gnnr places at Bandar Muriyeh (11° 4U* N., SO0 J .clow the

Muriych, 4000 feet high

11. Cape Elephant t.. IK- thr m.Nirrii RJU el r

1 ih.k It .« a prornontury 800 fort h*h, about

40 miles west of Cape (iuardafm Thr -.< >% wild aHo iu

mean "elephant," and the »hapr ..f thr headland %ugge*i* the

•ipnes into the gulf just rast .•! thr promontory (£tiucr, 199) think> this is too far ea*t, and prefer* Ra% Hadadeh (48° -^ I I .;>h.i«it Rivrr he idrnnhe* uith the I )j^ui. 4'. |

or the Tokwiiui '49° S -rom w hu h thr u.»dcrn fttmt frank-

iiuense is hnutuht t«» Aden. But l>\ plui in-/ \l«mllum at Ra» Khatn- .isrt is rnlireK !•».) t.ir west t«. admit nf ni\eriiit; tlir rntMindrr i>f this oust in two da\s' journry, as stated in ?: 11. And the "»outh- erKtrriul" «>t the i n.ist just Ix-furc ( iuuniafui, nu-ntn >nn\ in *5 I.' « .it Kas el HI.

(Il.isc-1 • the relatively shtirt two day*' *u\ between Ras

Hantara and Ciuardafui; hut he t.uU to takr IM'.I aiouuit the pre\ailn / i alms mirth «>( thr i ape-, u hu h umild jusiifx a shorter da-, that Nuimi\ than farther uest. \\hrrr thr \\:nds are st

Salt («/>. <•//., 97-8) s varceU hail • •und the cape

'(iuardafm1 \\hen the wind deadened. At daylight we found that we had made si-an rl\ an\ progress. The same marks on the shore remained the \vh<>l< day abreast <>f

11 Acannae is uirntihrd with Bandar I'lulah. 1 . \

50° 42' K. McCrindle notes that Captain Saris, an English navi- gator, railed here in 1611, and reported a n\rr, empmni' into a bay, offering safe anchorage for three ships abreast. Set eral sorts of gums, • in burning, were still purchased by Indian ships from the Gulf of Camba\. whuh touched here for that purpose on their voyage •- \l.»cha.

i: The Cape Of Spices is »>f o»ur>r. the modem Cape Guardafui, or Ras Asir, 11° So" N., Sl° Ma'r.ndlr

s it as "a bluff point, 2SOO feet high, as perpendicular a% if it scarped. The current comes round it out of the (Ju Ailrn with siu-h \iolence that it is not to be stemmed without a brisk wimi. and during tin s \\ m«msoon the moment you are past the Cape to the north there is a stark calm with insufferable

From Salt: A Voyage into Ahyssinia.

This is the "Southern Horn" of Straho, \\hosa\s XVI. IV, .iftcr doubling this cape toward the south, we have no more dc- si nptions of harbors or places, ho ause nothing' is kno\\n of th< coast beyond this point. "

Pliny prefers the account of King Juba of Maurctania, compiled from earlier information, in which the end of the continent is placed at Mosyllum; so that if he had before him this lYnplus, he ignored completely the account it gives of this coast.

The Market of Spices is identified by Glaser (Mazy, II. with the modern Olok, on the N. W. side of the Cape.

Strabo's description if a* f ollowi \\1. IV. 14): "Next is the country which produces frankincense; it has a promontory and a temple with a grove of poplars. In the inland parts is a tract along the banks of a river bearing the name of I sis, and another that of Nilus, both of which produce myrrh and frankincense. Also a lagoon filled with water from the mountains; next the watchpost of the Lion, and the port of Pythangelus. The next tract bears the false cassia, There are many tracts in succession on the sides of rivers on which frankincense grows, an(j rjvers extending to the cinnamon country. The river which bounds this tract produces rushes in abundance. Then follows another river, and the port of Daphmis, and a \alley called Apollo's, which bears, besides frankincense, myrrh and cinna- mon. The latter is more abundant in places far in the interior. Next is the mountain Klephas projecting into the sea, and a (reck; then the large harbor of Psyumus, a watering-place tailed that of the Cynoccphali, and the last promontory of this coast, Notu Ceras the Southern Horn

12. Tabae is placed by Muller at the Ras C'hcnarif, 11° 5 V Cilaser (Sk'nau^ 201 > thinks the distance from Olok too great, and places Tabae just behind the eastern point of the cape.

1< Pano ahU ka* H.m,a, 11° 12* N.SlTK Phew

isamo.lcrn village on the north snir, .» little we»t of the point, affortis %li< n the > V

I < Opone i> rlu rrmarkahle headland now ki> KAS

Hafun. I" \ ! Hnit'KJ llu|r, M,,vv (-.,,„. «

(I User rinds a en -hesc naim -%, Pano and ( >j»

,:ypiian " ';-.,.-. the isLn.l I'a^mk «.f the

uns (Sococra '. the m. <4«//<i of Virgil ' GWr.

s l'.uu liuu PIIILMIIH ut ..ul the I'uni ..r

I'h.r: lu- thinks, dixulnl .» thrir limnr in the

Persian (lull «thr islamis <>t KIM/ I i\rliru% in the %tory quoted b>

• tie branch u«»ini: to the coast* of S\ru. the other to

South Arabia and r^ist Africa.

l> Cinnamon produced.™ A Imcr from \lr K I Drake-

MM, I / ^ . \ EL G 'lammalt if &.

w,//:/i/W, and now at \\ »/m//' /7«n;) dated licrbera, January 7,

"llu- 'Mom . w.is kn«.\\:i t , die Roman* at the rvgw

mrtmtt .in.-nn: ••? the lar^e quantines of myrrh that were

exported. The country abounds \\\ thr \ an ou* species of the acacia*, produce gums of var>*int; commercial value, alv> certain trees

reM "I have so far c across any trees of the cinnamon group,

I heard of their existence.

"The -(luciiiii myrrh, or maimal as it is known to the

IS, is ulled farrtn; but «>uin<: t" thr .utixitus ' the Mullah I

n able to penetrate the southern Dholbanta and ' rnrs where it irrn

,\ .itiam. M. I have never heard of the exportation of

cinnamon from thiN p.irr of Africa It IN just possible that there

nuuht be some species of laurels in the Dholbanta country and south of it. tnit it is not possible t<> \rnture so far oumu <<» (he hosblit)' of the Mullah."

If there was any aromatic bark produced near Cape (tuardafui ami not merely trans-shipped there, it seems almost certain that it was ati .t.lulterant added thr re :.. the true cinnamon, that came from India

U Ships from Ariaca.— The amiquit) of Hindu trade

in I isl \' id IN asserted by Soeke t />i*wrr %f tkt Sntnf if tkt

I \ . \ I he Puranas described the Mountains of

loon and the Nyanza lakes, and mentioned as the source of thr Nile the "country of Amara. wrmh IN the native name of the district north ot . \\anza. A map based on this description.

88

:!. \Vilford, was printed in the Vol.

III.

•hing was ever written concerning then Country of the \I«»on, as far as we know, until the Hindus, who traded with the >ast of Africa, opened commercial dealings with its people in f, possibly some time prior to the birth of our Saxiour, when, associated with their name, Men of the Moon, sprang into existence the Mountains of the Moon. These Men of the M-.on arc hereditarily the greatest traders in Africa, and are the only people, who. f«>r love of barter and change, will leave their own country as porters and go to the coast, and they do so with as much /est as our country-folk go to a fair. As far back as we can trace they ha\e done tins, and they still do it as heretofore.

"The Hindu traders had a firm basis to stand upon, from their intercourse with the Abyssimans — through whom they must have heard of the country of Amara, which they applied to the Nyan/.a - and with the U'tinyamuau or Men of the Moon, from whom they heard of the Tanganyika and Karague mountains. Two church missionaries, Rebmann and Erhardt, without the smallest knowledge of the Hindus' map, constructed a map of their own, deduced from in/.ibar traders, something on the same scale, by Mending the Victoria Nyanza, Tanganyika, and Nyassa into one; whilst to their triuned lake they gave the name of Moon, because the Men of the Moon happened to live in front of the central lake.' '

This trading-voyage of the first century by Indian vessels, although less extended, was in other respects similar to that of the Arab traders of a century ago as described by Salt ( op. <-/'/., p. 103) :

"The common track pursued by the Arab traders is as follows: they depart from the Red Sea in August (before which it is dangerous to venture out of the gulf', then proceed to Muscat, and thence to the coast of Malabar. In December they cross over to the coast of Africa, visit Mogdishu, Merka, Barawa, Lamu, Malindi, and the Ouerimbo Islands; they then direct their course to the Comoro Islands, and the northern ports of Madagascar, or sometimes stretch down southward as far as Sofala; this occupies them until after April, when they run up into the Red Sea, where they arrive in time to refit and prepare a fresh cargo for the following year."

14. The products of their own places. — For a discussion of the products of India imported into the Somali ports, see later, under 8 41. The important thing to be noted here is that these ag- ricultural products were regularly shipped, in Indian vessels, from the Gulf of Cambay ; that these vessels exchanged their cargoes at Cape

99

Guardafm ami preceded along ihr i oast, tome MHithuard, hut mart

ami that, ai i ordifi<; to $ 2S, ( hells, at the entrant c to fhc

!<«••! Sea, was their terminus, the A:ah% i • Ixddin;; them to trade

Imiia and Cape (niardaS. they apparently enjoyed

ilk of the trade, shared t» MIMIC rxtri.t l>, Arabian thippinff and quite rci-rntl) In (Jrcck ships from I L'N pi . ••» 'hr N.nuli I«M>

i the trade ID an im idcntal \\ as , an.! i! Cargor clis and shared imnr «»f the 1'

the Arabs ..f N c-mm had iiiiiM.i|»<.li/rd, IHJI in ihe dtyt

.ins had !art;rl\ (ak-

the IVripiiis, *t\\\n\i to the i<nu|iirsf .,! l^»ypc by

thr K-itiuMs, t! tin- \\trinfr KiM.fdiMii. and a irnJed

MI Rome o| iiiltxatiMi: ilireit » ..MHIHMIU at um \% ith In.iia. ihit

nu'. <>r ailiatur. luturen Arahia and htdu

\\huh had existed i ertainly fur 2001) \car* and pn*Kal>lv

shoxxn to k- at the point of cv hucstillt-.be

siniMU enough for the Romans to kn<>\\ t .»n-baik only 99 a

product i >f the Arab; hdc the • i-lcaf,

a later artule of i -onnneri e. thrv kn. -idrr the name

of nuiltibat/trum, as a product of India and Tibet.

( l.mfieil butter.- Ihe text is 4t«/rr»w. Some of the i Lassen and fat>rum\ • ^|><

.\oiild he "ver\ wrOOf

to suppose tliat butter could have been brought from India, in this hot ilimatr. to the eastern coast o! Therefore they propose

substitutes, as noti-d under ?5 41.

'I'hc xoyage from India to Africa by the \ I monsoon may have .1 \s shown under fi 41. clarified butter

will keep in the tropics not onl\ for \ears, but for centuries; but the

:r$t footttfps, pp. 1.^6 and 24" shows that

is take it for trips , • si\ \sreksorniore. under the same

h*>t «. ; .md Lieut C'ruttenden. in hu descnplion

of the llcrbcra Fair, trlls of modern Cambay ships laden with ghee

> oinahland for trade elsewhere, probably along the

in ioast. That is, the Somali had learned the art of ilariKun*

butter, ami exported it in the P'th icntury b> the same class of ships

iiad hrouuht it to them from India in the 1 st tent

\lungo Park found the same product cntcnn-j int.. the i ..nuiirri e

of the much more humid Senegal coast - a:

the milk chiefly as an article of diet, and that not until it is sour. The cream which it affords is \cn th

rtcd into butter In stirring 't \iolcntl\ in a lar-r » a la bash. This

90

butter, when melted over a gend< ul heed tn»m

•xnl in small rarthrn pots, ami forms a part in most of their

dixhcs. it sc-rxrs likruisi- to anoint thru heads, anil is best. .\\ ed \e:\ liberally on their faces and arms." /•... f .r.( |.,>ii-

il..n: 1799. Chap. l\

14. Honey from the reed called sacchari is the tirxt nu-n-

tion in the histor\ of tlu- European uorlil ot su^ar .i> an artu lc of commerce. It was known to Pliny as a medicine. Sniihari ix t lie- Prakrit torm of the Sanscrit i<uk<ini, Arabic tukkar^ Latin ..„•,.//,//•/////.

Grinding su^ar in Western India

The modern languages rerlect the Arabic form — Porn, Spanish tnuitir, French sutrf, German %nckit\ Kntrlish sugar. The suu'ar is derived from Saa'/tarum officinnrum, Linn., order Grtimhn-tc. It uas produced in India, Burma, Anam and Southern China, long before it found its way to Rome, and seems to have lu-cn cultivated and crushed first in India.

14. Exchange their cargoes. — This trade of the Indian ships at Opone and elsewhere, is so like that described on the same

91

coast t>. Lieut C'ruttenden in 184H, that his account deserve* iu be

i in full:

the quotation b from Button,

"the pUr u dewned \., » -%thr

season ihari.-.- (dun (In- mlaiui tnU > move down toward the coaet, anil prepare- their huts t"i their ex;

• have in opportune <»f j>un haaing

the full could arrive, hastened across, followed two

••r tin 11 MuiCU, Sur. and Has

el Kh\ MM, ami th< :hted 4«fa4rj from Bahrein, liattora,

l.a>tl and \vealth> Bunun trader* from Pore-

bandar, Mandavi atui B<>mlu>, mllcd acron in their clumsy M§tw anil \\ npt>' gher j «i\rr chc quancn

oi their \t-NsrU, ellxmeii thnnsel\es into a permanent position in the the IMI :>,.-. and l>\ their superior capitaJ, cunning, un»l i i;>etiton.

the fair there is a perfect Babel, in con-

n lanuiM^es. DI. .u kti'>\\ Ic-tl-rii, and the cuaHNBt

I are the laws «»f the plai e. Disputes between the in-

lutul tnhes daily arise, and are settled by the spear and dagger, the

N retiring to the beach at a short ilutaiue from the town, in

:!ui du-\ in.i\ n..r disturb the trade. Ixing strings of cameisare

-.\* and depaninu day and niuht, escorted generally by women

i; and an occasional group of

dusty and • MiUlren marks the arrival of the slave-caravan

the intei

inali or (ialla slave merchant meets his cone*

sora, Bagdad or Bandar Abbas; and the safaaje

with Ins head tastefully ornamented with a scarlet sheep-

: lien of a \\ig, is seen peacefully bartering his ostrich feathers

and gums with (he smooth-spoken Banian tmm Porehandar, who,

: on board his ark, and locking up his puggaree, which

infallibly be knocked ofl the instant he was seen wearing it,

•rum of his wares at a time, under a miserable

-pread • >n the heai h

the end "t Man h the fair is nearly at an end, and craft of all kinds, deeply laden, and sailing generally in parties of thr-

e their homeward journey By the first week in April :ain deserted, and nothing «> If ft to mark the sm taming 20,000 inhabitants, beyond bones of slaughtered

92

camels ami sheep, and the hameuork of a few huts, which is carefully piled on the beach in readiness tor the ensu;:

15. The Bluffs of Azania are the rugged coast known as II

ll.i/m. emlm... * Rft* d K>1. "° 44' N., 49° -

IS. The Small and great beach is the >ii el I. mil <>r "i,.\\ coast," ending at R.i> .Wad, 4 M? \ . 47° 55' I. ; Inn this is actually a lunger course than the bluffs, \\hereas the IVnplus rates them both as six days' jounu \

IS. The Courses Of Azania are the strips of desert tending below the equator. The Arabs divide this coast into UNO sections, the first called Barr Ajjtin ' prcscrx ing the ancient name , the sriond Bcnadir, or "coast of harbors" apion may he the

modern Mogdishu, 2° 5' N., 45° IS' K. Nicon is, perhaps, the modern Barawa, 1° 10' N., 44° 5' K. The "rivers and anchor are along the modern El Djt-snir or "mast of islands

•ncerning the name A'/ania, R. N. I>yne, in his '/jin-uh<ir in Contfntpon, . and C'ol. Henry Yule, in his edition of Marco

Polo, have much of interest The name survives in the modern /..m- /ibar 'the Portuguese form of '/anuhihar , which Marco Polo applied not only to the island, but to the whole coast, and it is popularlx derived from bar^ coast, and zang, black: "land of the blacks Hut the name seems to be older, and to refer to the ancient Arabic and Persian division of the world into three sections, Hind, Sind and /in], wherefrom even Kuropean geographers in medi;r\al times c 1. East Africa as one of the Indies, and Marco Polo located Abyssinia

Middle India." Cosmas Indicopleustes, writing in the nth cen- tury A. D., indicates that the whole "Zingi" coast, to a point cer- tainly below Mogdishu, was subject to the Abyssinian Kingdom. Yule notes that the Japanese Encyclopaedia describes a 'country 01 the Tsengu in the S. W. ocean, where there is a bird called plung, which in its flight eclipses the sun. It can swallow a camel, and its quills are used for water t. This is doubtless the '/aixjhihar

. the name and legend reaching Japan through the Arabs

The lack of distinction in ancient geography between Asia and L"»es back to the dawn of letters. Hecataeus in the 6th century divided the world into two equal continents — Kurope, north of the Mediterranean; Asia, south of it. Around them ran the ocean stream. The distinction is supposed to have been based on temper- ature. ~l*azer( History of dm isn t Geography, p. 69) refers it to ancient Assyria, a$u (sunrise) and irib (darkness) frequently occurring in in- scriptions there.

n

94

IS. The Pyralaae Islands arc evidcntU Patta, Manila, and Lamu, back of which there is a thoroughfare, tin- only protected waterway on the whole coast. 'I'his is the "channel;" several rivefl empty >"'° •». *»<' tncrc 's a passage to the ocean between Manila ami |,4mu, 2° 18' S., 40° 50' 1 Vincent's identification <>t the :u-l" with Mombasa, on account of a canal no\\ kno\\n t<» ha\e been due the-e mm h later, is impossible.

15. AusanitlC Coast. — Ausan was a district ot Katahan in South Arabia, u Inch had been absorbed b\ Himyar shortly before the time of the Periplus; hence the natural result, that a dependency of the conquered state should be exploited for the advantage of the H.imerite port, Mir/a.

15. Menuthias. — 'I'his whole passage is corrupt, and there are probably material omissions. The first island south of Manda is Pemba 'at about 5° S. ). But the topographic description is perhaps truer to /an/ibar ' about 6° S. ), and the name seems perpetuated in the modern Monfiyeh (about 8° S. ). Our author was possibly un- acquainted with this coast, and included in his work hearsay reports from some seafaring acquaintance, in which he may have lumped the three islands into one; or if he is describing places he has vi.sited ( which is suggested by the mention of the local fishing-baskets and the like), some scribe may have omitted a whole section of the text.

16. Rhapta. — This location depends on the condition of the preceding text regarding the island Menuthias. If that be Pemba, Rhapta would be the modern Pangani (5° 25' S., 38° 59' K , at the m«»uth of the river of the same name; if Zanzibar, it would b< near Bagamoyo (6° M' S., 38° 50' K. ); if Monfiyeh, the modern Kilwa ''8 - I . Vincent's insistence upon KiKva is very likely well grounded, from the suggestion of the ancient name; that is, if the text is a mutilated description of three islands kno\\ n to exist in close proximity, the "last market-town of the continent" would naturally be below the southernmost island, Monfiyeh. Hut the distances given by Ptolemy between Rhapta and IVasum su

for the former a location near Bagamoyo, perhaps I)ar-es-Salaam, (6° 42' S., 39° 5' K. •. The Prasum of Ptolemy, the farthest point in Africa known to him, is evidently Cape Del 40° .<' i The later identification of Menuthias with Mad.,

was due to the discoveries of the Saracens, and is impossible for Ro- man times.

Rhapta, (ilaser notes, has its name from an Arabian word nd.

•

96

16. Great in stature.— I 'he uii..u- s\stem «»f sla\cholding by the Arabs in Africa, or rather on the coast «u .it /an/ibar, i- ex- ceedingly strange, tor the slaves, both in indixidual strength ami in numbers, are so superior to the Arab foreigners, that if the\ chose to rebel. ihr\ might send the Arabs thing out of the land. It happens, •hat thcv arc spell-bound, not knowing tlu-ir strength any than domestic animals, and they seem to consider that they uoulti be dishonest if they ran away after being purchased, a<.d so brought pecuniary loss on their o\\ IK eke, '•!>.

liuition

Sovereignty of the state that is become first in

Arabia. — A \i\ul picture is here given us of the earls policies of the Arabs Prevented by superior force from expanding nortlmard. hut useful commercially to their stronger neighbors, they were : exploit Africa. The early Egyptian records bear testimom to their <s m the second millennium B. C., if not earlier. The- "Au- samtu l'oast" mentioned in $ 1-5 was probably a possession of Ausan when that state was independent, which was not later than the 7th century B. C. Later the coast became Katabanic, then Salxran, then Homente from the ,*d to the 6th centuries A. I)., according to the Adulis inscription and Cosmas Indicopleustes, it was Al\vssinian. In Mohammedan times it returned to the Arab allegiance, and until bar and the adjacent coast accepted the Knglish protectorate they were dependencies of the Sultan of Muscat

Cilaser has well expressed this undoubted f \-ab dominion

(Sknzs, II, 209): "We must finally abandon the idea that Moham- med was the first to bring Arabia into a leading position in the world's histon in as Rome and Persia and I vjxpt and Babylon !

retained their power, the Arabs could expand in Africa only, lint as si M in as these states became exhausted, then Arabia hurst forth irresistibly and overflowed the northern world." also Punt und

.Jaratiuhtn AY/,//,, 20-..

Previous translators of the Periplus have much misunderstood the meaning of this passage in the text.

Arab captains who know the whole coast.— The

discovery by Carl Mauch in 1871, of strange temple-like structures in northern Rhodesia, led to a great deal of wild assumption as to their hist«,r\ The ruins are loosely-built stone enclosures, some of them irregularly elliptical in form, having conical pillars within, and ap- parently facing North, Kast and West. The largest of them were situated somewhat South of the present Salisbury-Beira railway line, near the upper waters of the Sabi River and w ithin reach of the trade

97

Mia, known to ha\e h. ucntcd by Arab traders in medi-

nirs it was at once aaMimed thai it >jK*-*n or

rti'ti: .mint ;MI-.U ur.t.,jt,i!'. The Mjbjrci *a» toJumiii-

ous|\ hut Htm up See for ...Nfji

by Hall ami .... IVM. l/«*«iwA0«, I

I,....: ,,„ ./' M**k»*l*m*. by

I I lir.it, l.omion.

ure* suggerted tbc form of am

.n temples, and the localit) \\us at once identified with the ubiquitous "fond ol ( >plm • N.lomon't voyage*. Profew»r

j , II. 20 a resemblance be*

rntulmc endow ..r,d ihr trmplr

at M.inl), ilu- upiral «.f the a: .luran kingdom of Southern

'll>f irumrnt was of course pure aawmption, as

:i ancient literature to any knowledge of the M M\ hundreii miles of the port of Sofala I ) . Randall- \Iav i\r- in.nic .1 careful iiurstigjlion of the ru .uul p* Is in Ins amount of that work, Mdunml

ia% London, 1906, that the sin. e the work of negroes,

Kaflirs, i»f the so-called kingdom of Monomofapa. A piete nkin clu I period, found in the

•he structures, showed that they could not dale

earlier than the 14th or 1 Sth century. They were enclosures for de- mit of loose stone, and their supposed orientation was found to be inexact and probably accidental.

It done by Dr. \l.n href in disprotini: the antujur

this Kaffir kraal did not, however, need to be supplemented h> his the prol-. Arabian trade far down this coot

.i.T The Periplus mentions Rhapta, some distance south of tl -he last settlement on the coast; and

Pluler l)elirad«». I )r. \lau\er ma\ ha\e knou

Periplus only through the a^ ven b\ ( iuillam in I«S». [)**-

-,ir rhiititrt, la ffefrap/i/f ft It cvmmtnt de f.Jfrii ut OntntaU . hut ;.t a' I i >res the detailed account i»i\en in K»th tho>c v

and in the IVnplus the statement is definitely, made that thi* uhole coast (to about 10° S. ) was • under some ancient right \

sovereignly of the power which held the primacy in Arabia;** that is, in the If] A D the right was still st> ancient as to be beyond

.,ti«»n of the merchant who desi rihed it The coast was ships in command of Arab captains \\ho knew the language of the natives and intermarried with

This condition is corroborated by the known Arab infusion in the negro peoples on the whole coast, whirh is of far earlier origin than the Mohammedan t olom/ation.

\\|»M xsere the natives and what ua> then language, as men- tioned in the IVriplus: Re\ .1 1'orrcnd. S. J., in a papci

the Rhodesia Si icntihV Ass, .nation, included in its Proceedings

'. Buluxvaxo, 1905), analyzes the languages of the coast ami hiuls a striking similarity belween the speech of the Tana Rixcr, which empties beloxs the island of Lamu ahout 2" 4<l' S.,and that of the nU xi IX°-19° S. ). He gives a long comparative list of words in these so-called Pokomo and Ci/imha tongu«--, evidently identical He (juotes Dr. Krapf and other German philologists as sax inu thai the Pokomo is the aboriginal language- <>f the coast, and that the modern Swahili is derived from it; and he himself heliexes that the C'l/imha is ex en more primitive, and that it gives the kex to most of the modern dialects of the southern coast. lather ml, full of the Sofala-Ophir theor>-, argues that the language W9» brought from the Tana River to the /amhesi, not by land because the modern tribes are of peaceful disposition, but rather by sea, and par- ticularly by sea-traders, assuming such to haxe come from Arabia. The assumption is certainly far-fetched, as it is hardK likely that any traffic, however busy, would have brought this negro language and transplanted it 1500 miles down the coast to a different tribe. I he >non is rather that this branch of the Bantu race migrated south- ward within historical times, through the African rift-valley, and that the modern tribes of the lower Zambesi, said to be speaking to-day the most primitive language, are their descendants, while those who re- mained on the Tana have had their speech modified more notably by later contact with the outside world.

The name C'nimha, borne by the modern dialect, suggests the Afn\mba of the Roman geographers; which x\as known to them through the report of an adventurous \outh, Julius Matemus, who marched for four months southward from the (Jaramantes • I \ /./an , and brought back word of a region abounding in rhinoceros, inhabited by negroes and bearing that name Ptolemy, I, 8, 5 >. It seems not an unreasonable assumption that he did reach the head-waters of the Nile and found somewhere in that great rift-valley the ancestors of this Bantu tribe which later migrated southward and formed, among other confederations, the so-called A/wowo/afta of the media -\al raphere.

This rift-valley of Kast Africa is a striking feature of its topog- raphy, and must have had a great bearing on its early trade. A good

99

' It is a natural depretuon br^ni...^ an thr lower

,.f the Red .Sf.i !>. UtfOWa ami the fctrjlU, faking « fOUfh-

.,;h Abyvuma t., thr Itrituh an<

in possessions, im ludmi; lakes Ru. 1 4i.-um.kj and

^4, and running almost to thr /.nnlu \ c it t% n.

that this \alle\ \\as me unclrr thr i .,tttro| of am Ana bun

• •hahle tii.it thr tnt>c > inhabiti. T in more or

left regular mmmeuial i«-|.,ti,,:is uith the N<.rtli, ..;,.! that II Wit A

'•f trade than the fCS-coasC with its broad un-

hr.ilth\ S\\.IIII;»N 1 1 IN miirrd cjuite possihle lint the Mjthunalaiid U»iKl, uhuh l.i> .it M" ^r< at ilistuiur viulh of thr \j||e\, nn^ht t«. extnit h.ivr toumi its u..\ .il-m-j this natural iradc-nmtc by r \ihan-jr •id it is entirely unnciTHsan. in ili%pn*\inu »he antit|uit> of ihc Mashunalaml ruins, in attempt • xe the m..

ah influence and infusion alon^ tin ican CoaJC

it necessary to uVm t! '. infikntKNI «•' r .»•!•, Arabian

i-ulturr in ' | from the heail-uatrrs of thr Nur. southuur^i

iln\\n the ntt-\ ti westward throuuh the Sudan toward th<

•.it sprc.ni <>( tulturr. ' 'Ik-lore ami religious Fl and pr.t> well attested to admit of denial

1" Palm oil. — The word in the text, >/,//,/>//«>, isior- narfi/iost a word which appears in modified forms in other < geographers. arikda^ nariktra, Praknt narft.\

.Kid the appearance of the word on the Zanzibar coast is of course a mnnimatmn <>f Indian trade there. «N I «

. !'(.>, hi.\t whence the ad jcctixe 4Mofii»-

pAoro), it from which the Periplu-.

adjective koukinw.

This palm oil was from Cocos ;/.v - • .. l.inn., order Palm**. probahl) nati\r in the Indian archipelago, and carried by natural causes .is \\rll as Hindu ;uti\ityto most of the tropical world. It is one of the most useful plants known, providing timber for houses an. I slnps, K.ues for thatch and fiber for binding and weaving, aside from the food value of the nut, fresh and dried, and the oil. As a medicine also it was of importance to the Hindus, the pulp of the ripe fruit being mixed with i laritied butter, coriander, cumin, carda- m»n^ n their m//7>f£r-440*4r, aspei ih\ ? >r dyspepsia and

consumption. The nut was described by Cosmas Indicopleustes in the 6th century' as <///«•///««. and by Marco Polo in the Hth century (I, 10:. II, :<'>. 248) as Indian nut. (Sec also Watt, if 349-3

100

101

Unexplored ocean.— Thi* refects the settled M*t of

was *ur rounded by die ocean JIM! • -»dd be

<. it < mnnaiigated. Herodocu* gives an account, by no mcam imp***-

MH-dilh.i,. under tr

uhu h did NO about 600 B. C , returning i.. I g>pt in the third year of (lint jour .itosthrne* and Scran* i placed ihr MMJthern occw

v Mow Cape Guardafm, I'lmy thought it began r

Moss\luni ucsl • .r (iiiardafui; our author shift* it tn thr /uMJohar

Channel, .uid Ptolemy carried it as far a> the M iflafiirii

The actual southern extrusion •>! Aim .1 wa» n«* kmm 'peant

until thr I'ltrtuguefe diicovrncs in the ISth*

«-d it in the (*th «»r loth irntur>. hut thrir kmmlrdi:r did not reach I >ra coart was kn-

part to • and KHIII.UIS. .uid they supposed that it

uni dur rastwurd aiul thus joiiic-<i thr link,

' on Sea."

I'hr i iirrrnt ideas of geography at thi> tnnr arc rrHcctrd by the

map according to Pomponius Mrla, about 44 A. D.

Thr >f the author of the IVnplus was to establish the

.1 ami India, t<> a distance nr\rr lx-t<.:r «m.

I <) the left. -This srctmn l>ej»in> tl" r of a tecond

voyage, from 1 r<> India.

\\'hiti- Vilhiyi- ,1 by most commenta-

tors at HI Haura, 25° 7' N., .C' .\\\n h lirs m a lu\ protected

by Husani island. The name Ha urn also means "uhitr. and the Arab name itself appears as Auarn^ in Ptolrrm The pbie is on the te that led, and still leads, from Aden to thr \Irdi-

Thr Muvsel Harbor." in the text, arr probably

• ni\ through an error in iupyinu. The distance and direction are more nearly right from Berenice, which is the <*arting-r»»iMt named at the beginning of this paragraph.

Petra N.. .<5C H I lay m thr \\ .4,u Mum,

• the \\ .».:> < i-Araha, the great \alley connci-tmi: the Dead Sea \\ith the (Julf of Akaba. It was the great trading i enti r <>f the nonhrrn Arai^s, and the junction of numerous important car

, runninu fr.un ^ emen northward, and fr»»m the Per*iai eastward. Thus it Controlled the Fastern trade (mm both directions, ami held r ijr until the results of Trajan's conquests trans-

ferred the overland trade to Palmyra; the sea-trade hating been already diverted to Alexandria.

I hi- district of Arabia Pctraca has MS name fr«»m this cit\. The native name, according t<. Joscphus ' Ant. Jn,< \\ . '. . 1 wu / referring to the- \ariegatcd color of the rocks in the \Vad\ Musa.

ltihlir.il name was \/<;. "l OQ «•» Edom" Isaiah. XVI, 1. Judges. I. 16) \7// (Arabic ,W means a "hollow

•en rocks," and Obadiah. \ apostr«>phi/< -s I "thou that

dwcllest in the clefts of the rocks, whose habitation is on high." Siraho (XVI, IV, -1 ' Myi "IVtra is situated on a spot which is R|T- rounded and fortified h\ a smooth and level n>, k, \\ hu h externally is abrupt and precipitous, hut within there are abundant springs of u.un both for domestic purposes and for watering gardens. Hc\ond the cm Insure the country is for the most part a desert, particularly tou.u.l Juda-a Athenodorus, my friend, who had been at Petra, used

to relate with surprise, that he found many Romans and also main other strangers residing the

itnianus Marcellinus XIV. <\ IS describes the place as "full of the most plenteous variety of merchandise, and studded with strong forts and castles, which the watchful solicitude of -its ancient inhabi- tants has erected in suitable defiles, in order to repress the inroads »-f the neighbor! nu nations'

The topography of Petra is well known through the descriptions of Flinders Petrie and others. It was a fertile bit of valley surrounded

•cipitous cliffs, with a long, narrow and winding entrance, and almost impregnable. It seems to have been, first, a place of and a safe storehouse for the myrrh, frankincense, sil\c miinu

from Yemen. The Biblical references show it as an Kdomite strong- hold; but, being abandoned when the Kdomites entered Palestine after the Babylonian captivity, it was taken by the Nabat.i-ans; \\hom Josephus makes the descendants of Nebaioth, son of Ishmael, while (Jlaser and others see rather Nabatu, an Aramaic tribe noted in an inscription of Tiglathpileser III -745-727 H. C. J, who migrated to the valley of Kdom probably in the 6th centun I1, i

Here the Nabat^-ans were at first nomadic and predatory, inxitmg attai k by land from Antigonus, and by sea on the Gulf of Akaha, from the Ptolemies Agatharchides, 88; Strabo, XVI, IV. Si»« in. however, they sen led down to orderly commerce and prospered exceeding, as the ruins of Petra testit\ One may suppose that a part, at least, of their trouble with Syria and Kgypt was due to their commercial aggressiveness rather than their predatory habits. They fought hard to maintain and control the caravan trade against the competition of Kgyptian shipping. In their dealings with Rome they tried to cam water on both shoulders; helping Titus against Jeru-

101

salem, but supporting (hr Parthian* again* Rome as occasion or This B "as terminated in H'S A |) ! rajan

••I thrill fa] I )io CaSfillft, I \\ III. U \"rr tiut

incd, thr ship ••! the desrrt \%a* Manketrd hv the fchip sea-, and when thr ..vnlaiid iracic revived, toward thr end of the 2tl irntur\, it was Palmvra whuh reaped the advanta,

19. Malichai.— The ,„<•„'„„, ,,» this k.i.r- ..( the Sahamm »

Mut in M\iii.' thr il.ttr of (hr t< :nurilv (he name might

rd as a tnuut-ripimn >u»lik— Hebcrw

mtUik, king, which appears in MM h llrt>rr\\ names a* "Abimr .uui "\lcli hi/* \\\\; ti> the \\r!ttn^s of Jovrphns, who

as a Jew would have bern likt-U t<> tiistmguiHh l>rtwrcn (he name and the title, • r kings having that name in what hr called (he

>f Arabia,' \\hi.h \\as certainly the tame as that of (he Nabatvans In his Antiquititi of tki 7ra , XIV. U, 1 tions M.iK IniN, King <»f Arabia. uh«. hail In-fricndcd Herod and

had loaned him tn»iu\ just before his case was taken up by

Antony, and the Roman Senate agreed to make him King of the Jews. This <» u the year 31 MIS «me

>aned cavalry to Julius Carsar for his siege of Alexandria Aulut M in ins, BtlL Alt*. I, '; and subsequent sent auxiliaries to Pacorus, the Parthian emperor, for which Mark Ant ;>elled

him t«> pay an indemn

I hiN Malchus can not, »t course, be the one mrntionrd in (he

Pcriplus. But Josephus (Jnvi$h War, III, 4, 2) mentions a King

of Arabia, Malchus, who sent a thousand horsemen and rive thousand

footmen to the assistance I in his attack upon Jerusalem. These

c in the year 7u A. 1)., and this King Malchus can hardly

irr than the \ mentioned in the text. See also Vogue,

Syrit Ctntrah, who quotes HIM nptions of this Malichas or Malik, and

father Aretas Philodemus. oi Hareth, a contemporan of IiJx-- and Caligula. 19. Small vessels from Arabia.— StraK \\ I l\ - has

account of this trade:

handise is conveyed from I < .e to Petrt, thence

Rhn n Phoenicia near Kgypt, and th >ther nations,

at present the greater part is transported by the Nile to Alexandria. fs brought from Arabia and India to Myos Hormus, and is then rd on camels t<> I'optus of the Thebais, situated on a canal of Nile, and to Alexaml

The policy of the Ptolcmus. m seeking to free Egypt from corn- rial dependence on Yemen, and to encourage dr munica-

104

tion with India, had been continued In Rome at the expense

The "small vessels" of > I1' from Mu/.i t.» the \ahat.ran port arc to be contrasted with the "large vetaehT1 of ?i 1" that traded from Mosyllum to l.gypt. The caravan trade could not In- reached in the same way, and along the Red Sea the i amel could alwavs com- pete with the ship. This remained m Arabian hands for another half- CCntur\. when the l.mpcror Trajan reduced the \ahat.ransiosuh- jection to Rome.

1*). Centurion. — Vincent assumes that this was a Roman officer, hut the text does not indicate it. At this time the kingdom of the \abat. rans was independent, powerful and prosperous; as it might well ha\e been, from the 25 per cent duty our author tells us it levied on the rich trade between Arabia and Rome- Arabia. — Two meanings are attached to this word in the n this £ ^l» and in S 49 it refers to the entire peninsula ; in every other instance it means Yemen, the Homerite-Sabaite kingdom as distinguished from the other kingdoms and political divisions of the peninsula

20. Differing in their speech.— In the north the V

t.tans spoke a dialect of the Aramaic; along the coast the "C/aniaitcs" spoke various Ishmaelite dialects, out of which has grown the modern Arabic; at the trading-posts of the true Minseans, their own lan- . allied to Hadramitic, was spoken; on reaching Yemen, the speech was Himvaritic.

1^. Similarly, that is, to the opposite coast below Berenice.

ibed at the beginning of the first voyage, in £ 2

20. Rascally men. — Compare the observations of other- writers concerning these same Beduin robbers:

"The oxen were plowing, and the asses feeding beside them : and the Sabeans fell upon them, and took them away; yea, they have slain the servants with the edge of the- sword/ ' Job I, 14-15. These are not the Saba?ans of Yemen, but men of Saba in CVntral Arabia, the "nation tall and smooth" of Isaiah XVIII.

"Th- Beduins have reduced robbery in all its branches to a complete and regular svstem, which offers many interesting details." ( Burckhardt

"Before we lightly condemn the robber we must reali/.e In need. According to Doughty and other travelers three-fourths of the Bedmns of northwest Arabia suffer continual famine. In the long summer drought when pastures fail and the gaunt camel-herds give no milk they are in a very sorry plight; then it is that the housewife cooks her slender mess of rice secretly, lest some would-be guest

its

should smell thr pot I hr h ,,..-> gnawing of the Arab » le**ened by the coffcc-cup ami chr ceaseless 'tobacco-drinking* from

4k* t

H shjlt cull his nuinr &*•*« bcCMMt /^ AW **/*

And he will In a wild nuui , hit hand will be

MM s I. .mil again* him, arid he thaJI dwell ...

the -present r of all hi* brrfli 'V|. 11- IJ

Curnaitea.— Thew- wild tribes are called in the ten (

win. h ».»ini..f i>r identified with any other contemporary record. unentators \\.-tilil * han^r the name t.. ( ... and Kafari-

tins, follow nirrr, substitutes ^.Wm;' 'laser's suggev

s<rzz/t 165-6). He thinks that thr n and r raed, makmu (:nrntm^ . Kama Ivrmg one of the north- cm srttlnnrnts of the am irnt kmL'«l«.in ..t the Min^-aiu, t-» which

ng Beduin tribes were nominally Mjhjrft IMiiu

-i l't..|«-m\ l>oth mention this place as a city of (he Muutaati

Tims desi ribcs as the oldest commercial people in Arabia,

a monopolv in the trade in nurrh and frankincen»e( througi

ontrol of the iara\an-routes from the producing regions. He

doubtfully to their legend of the relationship of Mirurmns and

.unsrans to Minos ..• ;ui hi*, brother Rhadamanthus.

IMitu m-i-ii n»t h.i\r doubted, and is to be thanked for prr«er\ing this

ice of early Arabian trade in the Mediterranean. Ptolemy adds

stimom to the wide extent of this earl\ Arabian trade, when

:de ralleil Rhamn.t \\ ho dwelt in the extreme

east near the banks of the Purali. and whi> planted their capital at a called Khamba« -\ Crete to the txirders of India was

u-an sphere of activity. Compare l./ekiel \XV1I, .

>tu bu and Raamah. tlu> \t<re thy merchants the> ied in thy fairs with i hief of all spices, and wkh all precious stones, and gold "

Sirabo also (XVI, III. 1 • dev .r Mm.r, in the part