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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. UNITED STATES GHOLOGICAL SURVEY. F. V. HAYDEN, U. 8. GEOLOGIST-IN-CHARGE.

FIRST ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

UNITED STATES

LOGICAL COMAHSSIO

z FoR / j f, / al / Ba -« } wy f L je i d /

wer THEH YEAR 1877

ENTOM

RELATING TO THE

ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST

AND

THE BEST METHODS OF PREVENTING ITS INJURIES AND OF GUARDING AGAINST ITs INVASIONS, IN PURSUANCE OF AN APPROPRIA- TION MADE BY CONGRESS FOR THIS PURPOSE.

WITH

MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS,

e

Pye Fes ree OFFICE OF

EXPERIMENT STATIONS

U. S. Department of Agriculture,

WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE.

1878.

~

- |

/

— Legend — E

EA Ss Bamana Region or Native Breeding,

Grounds, where the epedee 1a always toand

tn greater or less obandanve.

iEEE2s| Subpermunent Teyion which the Species frequently tnvudes, te which tt can pa petnite jhaelf tar several YOHs, hut trom which tt in tine Cisoppes.

Tinpwrory Region, that ody period teally visited ond tron which Ce Species geneity DAO Peres ‘witli w eure the etreme northean port partahes more. however, &# the Salpermeameat CGharaber

— banrne ff Slight trom Permanent Regen

Ttorurn (ght tron Temporary Keyion.

1

-

-—

7" I

DS

Safa mk

i ul he as

4%,

Mba Vy M4

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION.

be VAIGRATION, PERMANENT $* SUBPERMANENT

BREEDING GROUNDS

— or, —

AND REGION PERIODICALLY VISITED

BY THE

ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST, (CALOPTENUS SPRETUS).

Prepared by the

US ENTOMOLOGICAL, COMMISSION.

1877

TeArbeby hy ®). Bay CO NT EN BS:

Page. 1 fy) By Dd DDD RCO ARP Ree ASN OR A ee Ee crap ORG poeceodbeoed mead os XI

BETT HR OF (SUBMIED TAL ce cece secure sete teincale aeela sie aicineycejatse.clntalatal<! syaate XUL BLY BA OE ai- Seen eee ain ata ets an ee ere eas alla aiel efutn wi tall a feteteietaccrele tel cre Sisal XV

INTRODUCTORY: REMARKS Sou ue rtrriece och ao tslswaid aaicin aval ou ier epeiciere aitapacio nie < 1

Creation and organization of the Commission, 1—Division of labor, 1—Cir- culars sent out, 2-6—Area over which eggs were laid in 1876, 6—Outlook in spring in more Southern States, 7—Letter to Governor Anthony, of Kan- sas, on the condition of things in May, 8-10—State of things in Minnesota in spring, 11—Outlook in Nebraska in June, 13—Second meeting of the Commission, 14—Outlook in Iowa in June, 15—Visit to Colorado, Utah, and Montana in June, 17—Visit to Colorado in. July, 17-20—Third meet- ing of the Commission, 21—Trip to the Pacific Coast, 21—Trip to British America, 22—List of chapters, 23—Character and synopsis of chapters, 24— 29—Prospects for 1877, 29.

CHAPTER I.

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE: CHARACTERS OF THE SPECIES......-..-.- 13 Families of the Orthoptera, 32—Locust vs. Grasshopper, 33—Generic nomen- clature, 37—Generic diagnosis, 40—Species of the genus Caloptenus, 42— Full definition of Caloptenus spretus and of its nearest congeners, 43-52.

CHAPTER II.

CHRONOLOGICAL, HISTORY OF EOCUSE INJURIMS i224 .odelse cans siete barioeersn ae 53

Compared with locust ravages in the Eastern Hemisphere, 53—Injury in the Northwest early in the present century, 54—Brief reviews from 1820 to 1877, 54-56—Locust history in Texas, 57-62—in Indian Territory, 63—in Arkansas, 64—in Missouri, 64-68—in Kansas, 68-74—in Nebraska, 74-77— in Iowa, 77-80—in Minnesota, 80-87—in Dakota, 88-92—in Montana, 92- 96—in Idaho, 96—in Wyoming, 97—in Colorado, 99-102—in Utah, 102-104 —in New Mexico and Arizona, 105—in Nevada, 105—in Oregon and Wash- ington Territory, 106—in British North America, 108-112—Tabular view of locust years, 113.

CHAPTER III.

SP ATISTIC ROU REOS SHE $s i xlewe aaceints oe cel el asepy ean) sister) oa ae te eeu tn cian 114 Difficulty of obtaining reliable data, 114—Estimates in Kansas, 115—in Minnesota, 116—in Missouri, 117—Loss in Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Missouri in 1874, 118—Loss to different crops, 120—Loss to Missouri in 1875, 121—Total loss during the years 1874-1877, $200,000,000, 122. Itt

IV TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

AGRICULTURAL BEARING OF THE LOCUST PROBLEM -~22->-)- 22-2 222 eee Drawback to the settling of the West, 124—What is likely to be the effect in the future, 125—Modification and settlement of the Western plains, 129—Crops which suffer most, and those which suffer least, 130—Small grains not affected by invading swarms, 128 —Need of judgment in plant-

ing, 129.

CHAPTER V.

PERMANENT BREEDING-GROUNDS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST...-.....-.-. Permanent breeding-grounds, 131—Definition of the permanent region, 133— Its character and extent, 134—The Rocky Mountain locust a sub-boreal insect, 135—The Sub-permanent region, 136—The Temporary region, 136.

CHAPTER VI.

GEOGRAPHICAL ‘DISTRIBUTION «< ois <j. 5-300 Gehan c= ssng ee eee Eastern limits of spread, 137—Northern limits, 139—Western limits, 140— Southern limits, 141—Sub-permanent region, 142.

CHAPTER VII.

MIGRATIONS 2.2260 5-2 200 cc cobics, oe cece ceeade sae ee sonnei Classification of flights, 143—Invading swarms, 143—Returning swarms, 143—Local flights, 143—Height at which swarms move, 144—Effect of change of wind and weather on flights, 145—Flight at night, 147—Migra- tions previous to 1877 east of the Rocky Mountain plateau, 148—Direction of invading swarms prior to 1877, 149—Direction of flight in 1876, 151— Migrations within the permanent region, 153-158—in Montana, 153—in Wyoming, 156—in Colorado, 157—in Eastern Idaho and Utah, 158—in the lower Snake Valley, 158—Return migrations from the temporary region previous to 1877, 159-162—Return migrations in 1877, 162-165—Local flights in 1877, 165—Record of flights for July 3 and July 20, 1877, 165- 169—Summary of flights by States, 170-174—Southward flights in 1877, 175—Movemeats in different directions at one time, 176—Destination of return swarms, 177.

CHAPTER VIII.

TIABITS AND NATURAL HISTORY ....<- 225 2-6. < sce an ee en pee eee Destructive powers of locusts, 212-215—Stoppage of railroad trains, 215— Rate at which locust swarms move, 215—Velocity of flight, 216—Direction of invading swarms, 217—Time of appearance of invading swarms, 217— Flight at night, 218—Height of flight, 219—General habits at night, 219— Where the eggs are laid, 222—Manner in which the eggs are laid, 223— Philosophy of the egg-mass, 225—The female lays more than one egg-mass, 226—Interval between different egg-layings, 227—Number of eggs laid, 228—The hatching process, 228-231—Where and under what conditions of soil the young hatch most freely, 231—Time of hatching, 231—Habits of the young or unfledged locusts in the temporary region, 232—Directions in which the young travel, 234—Rate at which the young travel, 235— They reach but a few miles east of where they hatch, 235—Not led by kings and queens, 236—Time of year when wings are acquired, 237—Direction taken by swarms departing from the Temporary region, 238—Destination of departing swarms, 238—Do the return swarms breed? 289—Do return

131

136

143

212

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Vv

Page. HABITS AND NATURAL HISTORY.—Continued.

swarms from the Temporary region retrace their course? 240—The species essentially single-brooded, 240-243—Reasons why it cannot produce two generations annually, 243—The species cannot permanently dwell in the Temporary region, 244—The insects which hatch there do not remain, 246—Extensive and thick egg-laying seldom occurs twice consecutively in the same locality, 247—Reasons why it does not, 248—Causes of migra- tion, 249—Food-plants, 251—Crops and plants most liked and those least liked, 252-254—Unnecessary alarm caused by comparatively harmless species, 255. CHAPTER IX.

AN ATONGYS CAN D tM EE: SOLO G yes elate a ier eaiane toa elele area 3 acinar nals aiatelaeter arate 257

External anatomy, 257— Divisions of the body, 258—Sexual Hioroncest 259— Internal anatomy, 261—The digestive system, 262-264—The nervous sys- tem, 264—The heart, 266—The trachex and dilated air-sacs, 267—Mode of breathing, 269—The locust an aéronaut, 270—The male reproductive sys- tem, 270—The female reproductive system, 271—Organs of special sense, 272—The fine anatomy of the locust, 273—Embryology of the Rocky Mount- ain locust, 277—Different egg-layers, 278—How the embryo lies within the egg, 278—How it bursts the egg, 279.

CHAPTER X.

MirPTAWORPHOSHS ac. aja’ cube eee Dee ae aaitee ola seen cle ne ale mate etree eistc ore 279 The six stages of growth, 279—Variability i in the Sabot of coloring, 281— The process of molting, 281—Time required for it, 283—Differences in the im- mature stages between the Rocky Mountain, the Lesser, and the Red-legged locusts, 283.

CHAPTER XI.

IN VERTEBRATE, ENEMUNS 340s hoc ocmelats 6, sist cin Selmi na eee uEomanniene access 284

Value of the locust’s minute enemies, 284—Animals that destroy the eggs, 285 —The Anthomyia egg-parasite,285—The common flesh-fly, 289—Ground- beetles and their larvee, 289—Harpalus larve, 289—The egg-feeding Amara, 291—Blister-beetle larve, 292—Their character and locust-egg-feeding habits, 293—History of the oil-beetle, 294—History of Sitaris, 295—History of Hornia, 296—History of Epicauta, 297—Macrobasis and Henous, 301— Other meloid genera, 302—Soldier-beetle larve, 302—Asilid larvz, 303— Click-beetle larvz, 304—Miscellaneous species, 305—Chalcid-fly , 306—Ani- imals that prey on the locust after it is born, 306—The locust mite, 306— The efficacy of its work, 308—Its transformations, 309—Other mites, 312- 313—Ground-beetles, 313—Tiger-beetles, 314—Asilus-flies, 317—Digger- wasps, 317—Tachina-flies, 319—Their efficacy in destroying locusts, 321— Flesh-flies, 323—Ichneumon-flies, 324—Hair-worms, 326—Their curious life- history, 327-332—Insects attacked by hair-worms, 327—How hair-worms get into locusts, 332—Miscellaneous locust enemies, 334.

CHAPTER XII.

Dep ribe Tid eA at WONT WELIES eo a lere, cis iets a oat aie megan ial os ei vlal al simlal oeletal aetna aia rette whale eiy peri Good offices of birds probably underrated, 234—Experience of correspond- ents, 336—Some of the most useful birds, 338—Paper by Professor Aughey on the beneficial work of birds, 338—Enormous number of birds destroyed for market, 346—Damage done to insectivorous birds by birds of prey, 348—The English sparrow, 349—What public sentiment needs, 349,

VE TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIII

REMEDIES AND DEVICES FOR DESTRUCTION

Encouragement of natural agencies, 351—Destruction of the eggs, 351—Har- rowing in the autumn, 353—Experiments to test the effect of alternately freezing and thawing, 353—Experiments to test the effects of exposure to air, 354—Experience with harrowing, 355—Plowing, 356—Experiments to test the effects of buryiag at different depths, 356—Experience in plow- ing, 358—Irrigation, 359—Experiments to test the effects of moisture on the eggs, 359—Tramping, 361—Collecting, 361—Destruction of the young or unfledged locusts, 362—Burning, 363—The burning of prairies, 363—The Hetzel burning machine, 363—The Horner burning contrivance, 363— Hand burners, 364—The Atwood machine, 364—Use of wire and kerosene, 064—Crushing, 364—The Drum locust-crusher, 365—The Simpson locust- crusher, 366—The Hoos locust-crusher, 367—-The Hansberry locust-crusher, 368—The Kenworthy locust machine, 370—J. C. Melcher’s machine, 371— The Peteler machine, 371—The King suction-machine, 374—The Flory locust-machine, 376—Trapping locusts, 377—Nets and seines, 377—Ditch- ing and trenching, 378—Protection by barriers, 381—Coal-oil, 381—Coal- oil pans, 383—The Canfield pan, 384—The Adams pan, 385—The Anderson coal-oil contrivance, 386—Mr. Long’s contrivance, 3886—Mr. Watrous’s con- trivance, 387—Mr. Swearingen’s contrivance, 387—Use of coal-tar, 387— The Robbins’ pan, 388, 390—Use of coal-tar previous to 1877, 388—Other machines forthe use of coal-tar, 391—Catching and bagging, 391—Principles and facts to be borne in mind in catching locusts, 391—The Riley machine, 392—Mr. Thompson’s net, 392—The Elliot catcher, 394—The Wilson-Rhode catcher, 395—Contrivance for catching the pupz, 394—The Godard catch- ex, 395—The Benson catcher, 396—The Hutchins catcher, 396—The Syl- vester catcher, 397—The Hero ’hopper-catcher, 398—The Belt device, 398— Hand-nets, 399—Use of destructive agents, 399—Buhach or Persian insect- powder, 400—Veith’s insect-fluid, 400—Sulpho-carbonate of potassium, 401—Naphthaline, 401—Paris green, 401—The protection of fruit trees, 405—Destruetion of the winged insects, 404—Fumigation, 405—The effect of concussion, 405—Diversified agriculture, 406—Legislation, 407—Bounty laws, 409—Missouri locust act, 409—Kansas locust acts, 410—Minnesota locust acts, 412—Nebraska locust act, 413—Suggestions that may be of service, 414—More attention needed to the growth of root-crops, 415— The benefits of irrigation, 415—Hogs and poultry, 415—Non-planting, 415—Use of soldiers, 416—Preventive measures against the winged in- sects, 417—Further investigation needed, 417—Means that have been sug- gested against the winged insects, 418—Systematic burning of young, 418—Codperation with Dominion Government, 419—Protection by smoke, 419—Farmers should receive the locust probabilities, 420.

CHAPTER XIV.

INFLUENCE OF PRAIRIE FIRES ON LOCUST INCREASE..-...---- -2--20 .-c00 eee eee 421 Reasons given why prairie fires do not influence locust increase, 421—Possi- ble indirect connection in the past, 422.

CHAPTER XV. INFLUENCE OF WEATHER ON THE SPECIES .... <5. 2222s. 40225. 3USs0 4 eee 423

Meteorological conditions affecting the life of the locust, 423—Effects of weather on the young locusts, 424—Effects of weather on the eggs, 424— Possibility of predicting consequences upon meteorological grounds, 424— The temperature of the soil, 425—Thermal constant for the hatching of locust eggs, 426—Number of hours which eggs must be exposed to hatch at a temperature of 60° F., 431—Number of hours required in 1875.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XVI.

EFFECTS THAT GENERALLY FOLLOW SEVERE LOCUST INJURY ....-..----- <cee

Contrast between summer and autumn, 432—No evil without some compen-

sating good, 433—Changes that follow the locusts, 433—Sudden appear-

ance of plants and insects not ordinarily noticed, 434—The White-lined

Morning Sphinx, 435—Tame grasses permanently injured, wild grasses

not, 435—Permanent effects on different plants, 436—Injury to fruit trees, 436.

CHAPTER XVII.

WSES TOMWHIGHETOCUSTS. MAN. BE PURE ice 5 arsinct isin nol eelsjeeiciniaeiem sms =wiele bier Locusts as food for man, 438-441—As fish-bait, 441—Analysis of locust- juices, 442—They furnish a large quantity of formic acid, and a new oil,

442, 443—Locusts as manure, and as poultry food, 443.

CHAPTER XVIII.

RAVAGES OF OTHER LOCUSTS IN THE UNITED STATES ...... 2.2... 22-200 22-20 Ravages of locusts that are occasionally migratory in the Atlantic States, 443—Great destruction in past years in New Nngland, 444—The most com- mon species concerned in this work, 446—Locust flights in Illinois, 446— The species composing them, 447—The phenomenon exceptional, 447—Lo- custs ordinarily non-migratory, occasionally become so under favoring con- ditions, 448—Locust flights in Ohio, 449—Importance of discriminating be- tween species, 450—Geographical limits of species, 450—The migratory locusts of the Pacific, 451—Chronological account of their ravages, 451— Species concerned, 452—Late injuries in Southern California, 454—Tab- ular view of locust years, 456—Injury from other non-migratory locusts, 456—The species concerned, 459.

CHAPTER XIX.

RAVAGES OF LOCUSTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES ..----..---- Wid arta ae eles ate ete ec PeeTS Locust injuries in Central America, 460—Great destruction in Honduras and Guatemala, 462—The locusts in South America, 465—The locusts in the Old World, 467—Injuries in Germany, 468—Habits of the European spe- cies, 469—Injuries in Russia, 470—Different species affecting the Old World, 471—Geographical distribution of the European migratory locust, 472-476—Notes on Algerian locusts, 476—Injury in China, 477—In South-

ern Australia, 477.

APPENDICES.

APPENDIX I.

Mr. ALLEN WHITMAN’S REPORT FROM MINNESOTA..---.-- 2. 2200 cceccn ceccee State of things in spring, 4—-Exertions of farmers, [4]—Different means em- ployed to destroy the eggs, [4]—Effects of temperature and rain-fall on the eggs, [5]—Dates of hatching, [6]—Late hatching, [7 ]—Progress dur- ing spring, [8]—First winged, [10]— Statistics of damage, [11].

437

443:

460

Vill TABLE OF CONTENTS.

APPENDIX II.

AUGHEY ON LOCUST-FEEDING BIRDS .........-2--.---- ones See eee a eee ae [13] Letter of transmittal, [13]—Examinations of the contents of the stomachs of birds of Nebraska, giving the number of locusts, number of other insects, and number of seeds, of the different birds, considered in their proper classificatory position, [14]-[62].

APPENDIX III. TEXAS DATA WOR WST7c oo. oe ee eee eases Sees See oo ae [63] Report of Jacob Boll, special assistant, [62]—Reports from correspondents and other miscellaneous reports, chronologically arranged, [64]-[82].

APPENDIX IVY. MISSOURI DATA FOR 187722. e220 sob sens. 2 Aen - Sse eee ae Reports from correspondents, and other data, chronologically arranged, [83].

APPENDIX V. KANSAS DATA HOR 1877 . 2c do sccc eo: ae a eee a: ee eee [85] Report by George F. Gaumer, special assistant, [85]—Report by A. N. God- frey, special assistant, [88]—Reports from correspondents and miscellane- ous matter, chronologically arranged, [90]-[103].

APPENDIX VI. TOWA;DATA-FOR 1870 coe. ono mencie 2 kee eee ee ee [104] Detailed data from correspondents, and from other sources, chronologically arranged, [104]-[110]. APPENDIX VII. COLORADO (DATA FOR 1877.22 fio oseace 64 od eee cena cae eee [111] Report from William Holly, special assistant, [111]—Data from correspond- ents and from other sources, [113]-[116].

APPENDIX VIIL. INEBRASKA. DATA; ROR 1677). 222<0 esses 2. SS eee [116] Journal kept by Prof. Samuel Aughey, special assistant, [117]-[128 ]—Mis- cellaneous data from correspondents, chronologically arranged, segela [132]—Record kept by Hon. J. Sterling Morton, [132].

APPENDIX IX.

NARRATIVE OF THE FIRST JOURNEY MADE IN THE SUMMER OF 1877, BY MR. PACKARD « .c20c2 5-Snccntode hee deans oon eee [134] Diary notes through Kansas, Gulpenia. and Utah, | 135]—Observations in Montana, [137]—Results of the journey, [138].

APPENDIX X.

NARRATIVE OF A SECOND JOURNEY IN THE SUMMER OF 1877, BY Mr. PACKARD. [139] From Chicago to Utah, [139]—Observations in Oregon and Washington Ter- ritory, [140]—From Vancouver Island to California, [141]—Variations in Caloptenus spretus, atlanis, and femur-rubrum, [143].

APPENDIX XI. BRITISH-AMERICAN DATA’... os occ e ohn ee seee -- = ose cases aaa ee en [145] Characteristics and prevailing winds of Manitoba, [145]—Data from the Cypress Hills region, [146]—The locust breeds permanently in the third prairie steppe, [146]—No damage ever done in the Peace River country, [146]—Ravages in the Northwest in the early part of the century, [147]— Records by the Hon. Donald Gunn, [148].

TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX

APPENDIX XII.

APUNEN: HLIGH Tel IN: LO Cgh cee eee teehee wan ab tmrataue ean cielo roeerenense statin oa cia ee [150] Southward movements in Minnesota and Iowa, [150]—In Nebraska and Missouri, [151]—In Arkansas and Kansas, [152]—In Colorado and Texas, [155]. APPENDIX XIII. ERIGHTS AND UNIIGRA TIONG IN; LOamases eatace ie cre islciche ioteriaharel seal cebesictel osama eae [156] Locust movements in the more southern portion of the Temporary region, [156]-[164]—Flights in the more northern parts of the locust country, [164 ]-[197].

APPENDIX XIV.

ANSWERS TO THE QUESTION: DID ANY LOCUSTS REMAIN IN THE TEMPORARY REGION AFTER THE DEPARTURE OF THE RETURN SWARMS ? .......--2----- [198] Answers from Arkansas, Colorado, and Iowa, [198]—Answers from Kansas, _ [199]—Answers from Missouri, [200]—Answers from Minnesota, Nebraska, and Texas, [201].

APPENDIX XV.

PREVAILING DIRECTION IN WHICH THE YOUNG INSECTS TRAVEL .....--...---. [202] Movements of young in Iowa and Nebraska, [202 ]—Movements in Dakota, Minnesota, and elsewhere, [203].

APPENDIX XVI.

TIME OF YEAR WHEN THE BULK OF THE INSECTS BECOME WINGED .......---- - [205] Data from various States and Territories, [205 ]-[206].

APPENDIX XVII.

IABETS OR Lei INSHERS ATONIG HT) joe ats ncticic oso cch acces ae wee tents ei es ae [207 ] Nocturnal habits of locusts in Iowa, Dakota, and Nebraska, [207]—In Min- nesota and elsewhere, [208]-[210].

APPENDIX XVIII.

PAG ESBR EL AVING) TO: THM MGGS 2/5 ata mccerese aes a iy Seldo oats od esa aeenes [211] Data as to time of hatching of eggs, proportion destroyed, causes of destruc- tion, &c., in Colorado and Dakota, [211]—In Iowa and Kansas, [212 |—In Minnesota, [213]—In Missouri and Nebraska, [216]—In Texas and Utah, [217]. APPENDIX XIX,

UENO WHT U ORLON 2 alee coc ates sotin eke ane es ss ae cot ace atepermate ae [218] Means employed in Dakota and Nebraniea, [218]—In Iowa, [219]—In Min- nesota, {220 ]—Elsewhere, [221].

APPENDIX XX.

IgURY RC ROPSHARHMCTED oo. .6.3 step oes 28 oo oe Soe ba ee Cooly ae [222] Injury in the different States and Territories, [222]- [225].

APPENDIX XXI.

REnVIOUS. VISEEATIONS —AID OW ANIMALS +25 'Soececs sacccasene las seee sabe [226] Data from Nebraska and Iowa, [226]—From Minnesota, [227]—From Da- kota, [229].

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

APPENDIX XXII.

MINNESOTA DATA 32. 0cb.b -sIsebtese i scceecccas coee eet ae eee Se AC SEE [230] Early injury in Minnesota, [230]—Data for 1877, [231 ]-[235].

APPENDIX XXIII.

ARE THE EGGS EVER LAID THICKLY FOR TWO CONSECUTIVE YEARS IN THE SAME, GROUND ? .. 5. os502 scence Sebo ncace aoe ae eee [236] Answers to the above question from Arkansas, Colorado, and Iowa, [236]— From Kansas, [237]—From Missouri, [238]—From Minnesota, Nebraska, and Texas, [239].

APPENDIX XXIV.

MISCELLANEOUS DATAcH.Jso52nth Jn hssk oat see eee eee [240] From Minnesota and Nebraska, [240]—From Iowa, [241]—From Dakota, [242].

APPENDIX XXvV.

DaTa FROM Dakota, MONTANA, UTAH, AND NEW MEXICO .......---.------ [243] From Dakota, [243]-[247]—From Montana, [248]—From Utah, [253]— From New Mexico, [259].

APPENDIX XXVI.

IDTSie @1g (SO HMOs YIN ONS Reo eee ae a es ce ees sateen eee [261] In Arkansas, British America, and California, [261]—In Colorado and Da- — kota, [262]—In Idaho and Iowa, [263]—In Kansas, [264]—In Minnesota, [265]—In Missouri, [267 |—In Montana, [269]—In Nebraska, Nevada, and New Mexico, [270]—In Texas, Utah, and Washington Territory, [271]—In Wyoming, [272].

APPENDIX XXVII. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON THE LOCUSTS OF AMERICA... ...--.--+----+---------+---- [273].

PINDER S22. ee Sivas ab nee stn s Dawe ebine cobs biceesls ecfiee lanier [281] FIRRATA. gol ccc cock oacd Weccudcece cceetece bans Becca ee eee ee een

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE TERRITORIES, Washington, D. C., February 2, 1878.

Str: I have the honor, in behalf of the Commissioners, to transmit to you the first annual report of the United States Entomological Commission for the year 1877. This Commission, consisting of three skilled entomologists, was authorized by act of Con- gress approved March 3, 1877, to report upon the depredations of the Rocky Mountain locusts in the Western States and Territories, and the best practicable method of pre- venting their recurrence or guarding against their invasions, and was attached to the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories under my charge.

The Commissioners at once began their work upon receiving their appointments. Several thousand circulars asking for information were sent to persons in the locust area, and two bulletins in pamphlet form were issued, one containing full information

regarding the preventive measures and direct remedies then known against the young locusts, for immediate use by farmers; the second containing an account of vie habits of the locust, so far as then known, sith numerous illustrations.

The field work was so subdivided as best to promote the end in view. It was carried on from early in April until the early part of November.

Mr. Riley was in the field and among the farmers in the more southern portions of the locust region, at those seasons when his services and observations were of most benefit. He went in April to Texas, and devoted most of the month of May to Southwest Mis- souri and Kansas. He visited Iowa in June, examining parts of Northwest Missouri and portions of Kansas and Nebraska. The month of July was spent by him in Colo- rado, and most of August and part of September in British America. In October he again spent some time in Kansas, and again visited Texas in November.

Mr. Packard, late in May, started for Wyoming and Utah, spending a few days in Colorado, and in June passed through Idaho and Montana, from Franklin to Fort Benton, thence down the Missouri River to Bismarck, and through Dakota to Saint Paul, Minn. He was, in August and September, in the Western Territories, and was in Utah and Nevada at the time when the people were suffering from the locusts, and afterward made a journey through Northern California, Eastern Oregon, and Wash- ington Territory, so as to ascertain the western limits of the distribution of the Rocky Mountain locust. He, also, with the aid of observers in California, determined, with tolerable certainty, the species which have, for two centuries past, locally ravaged Oregon and California.

Mr. Thomas investigated the ravages and migrations of the locust in Iowa, Nebraska, and Minnesota, making three different trips to thes3 sections for this purpose.

The great practical importance of an exhaustive study of this destructive insect throughout all the immense extent of the locust area, which lies between the 94th and 120th meridian, embracing nearly two million square miles, may be realized from the fact that on a careful estimate from all the data obtainable the States and Territories lying west of the Mississippi and east of the great plains suffered by the depredations of the locusts an aggregate loss, in the destruction of crops alone, during the years 1874~77, of 100,000,000, to say nothing of the indirect loss by stoppage of business and various enterprises, which must have been fully as much more, thus making the direct and indirect loss not less than $200,000,000. In addition to all this we must include as

XI

XII LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

a part of the effect of locust injuries the checking of immigration and the depreciation in the value of lands. So depressing, in fact, was this result in some regions as to par- alyze trade, put a stop to all new enterprises, and dishearten the communities where the suffering was greatest. I have every evidence that the work of the Commission already done has directly saved the small amount originally appropriated more than a hundred fold. Besides this it was indirectly beneficial by its encouraging predictions as to the future, which were fully verified, and by the recommendations made, which restored a good degree of confidence and had much to do in inducing emigration west- ward. The very encouraging conclusions of the Commission as to the prospects the present year and for some years to come will also continue to exert a most beneficial effect on the West. The predictions of the Commission, which are on record in the introduction to the report, were verified to a remarkable degree, as the events of the year proved.

When we remember that to this day comparatively little is known of the source, movements, and management of the locusts that have for ages devastated the countries of the Old World, our government may well feel proud of the light that in a single year has been thrown on all these questions so far as our own destructive species is concerned.

Still, much remains to be done by the Commission. Further surveys need to be made of the permanent breeding-grounds in the Northwestern Territories ; more facts are needed to perfect our knowledge of the migrations in this area; the co-operation of our government with Canada is needed to work up the subject properly in the lo- cust region north of the United States boundary-line, and some other problems remain to be solved. When this is accomplished I believe that it will be possible at least to greatly modify or lessen these invasions and diminish the losses resulting therefrom, if not entirely prevent them.

The Commission therefore ask for another appropriation of $18,000 in order to com- plete this special investigation and to present to Congress a second and final report that shall evince the wisdom and economy of the national government in causing the investigation to be made, and shall bear practical results commensurate with the in- terests to the agriculture of the West involved. Itis also contemplated to spend a portion of the time, when not in the locust area, in studying the habits and ravages of the cotton-worm of the Southern States. This can be done without interfering with the locust work, provided the full amount of the appropriation asked for be made.

It is believed that all such investigations of our more injurious insects will result in the saving of a large proportion of the annual losses to the country from insect pests, which are estimated to amount annually to $200,000,000; and it seems prudent and wise to take such steps as shall result in an abatement of the evil.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant, F. V. HAYDEN, United States Geologist. Hon. CARL SCHURZ, Secretary of the Interior.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

WASHINGTON, D. C., February 1, 1878.

Dear SiR: We herewith submit our first Report, to be by you transmitted to the Secretary of the Interior. As the Report shows, the larger part of the summer season was spent in active field-work; yet this formed but a small part of the labor of the Commission, each member of which was much engaged in attending to an extensive correspondence, and in conveying information to individuals seeking it. Aside from the experiments made and recorded in different parts of the Report, we have studied the transformations, from the egg to the adult, of quite a number of the more common locusts that occur east of the Mississippi. ‘The results of these studies, as also of the more elaborate researches on the embryology of the locust, have been excluded from the present volume, in order not to delay its publication, and because they may more appropriately be given in special memoirs.

The creation of this special commission was but an expression of the public demand for more light on the locust problem, which was to a great degree involved in dark- ness and mystery. Investigation was called for because it was felt how little of a definite and satisfactory nature was generally known on the subject.

Entering the field with a full sense of the magnitude of the work, and with some misgivings as to the final outcome of our investigations, the difficulties that at first seemed insurmountable have either dwindled or entirely disappearcd; and we point with some pride to the facts and discoveries embodied in our Report.

A year has not yet passed since receiving our appointments ; yet within that time we have been able to establish the more important laws by which the insect is gov- erned, and to bound, with a degree of accuracy that we had scarcely dared hope for, the permanent breeding-grounds whence the disastrous swarms emanate, and which before were almost unknown.

The danger of total destruction to crops that threatened the West at the time the Commission was appointed was safely passed, and in the event of its recurrence we have faith that, as a record of what has been and a guide to what may be done in future, this Report will, if judiciously distributed, enable the farmers to brave it again.

The young insects as they occur in the more fertile States affected can be mastered, as the Report will, we hope, abundantly prove. We point out the way, also, which we have every reason to believe will prove feasible and practicable, to prevent future incursions of the winged swarms.

While it has been the object of the Commission to cover as much ground as possible, so as to make this annual report as full and reliable as the time would permit, there yet remain several important subjects that it has so far been impossible to properly and exhaustively study.

The territory affected is so vast, embracing about 2,000,000 square miles, that much of it was imperfectly explored, especially in the Northwest. Mr. Riley had to cut short his investigations in British America both for want of time and want of funds. For similar reasons, and on account of Indian troubles, Montana, Wyoming, and Dakota have been but superficially explored.

The year 1877 was an abnormal year, 7. ¢., the winged insects had the previous year overrun and laid eggs in a large section of country in which the species is not indige- nous, and a numerous progeny hatched in such country the past spring. This was most fortunate for many reasons, and it enabled the Commission to carefully study the

xr

XIV LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

insects in this their unnatural condition, and to carry on experiments with a view of learning how best to control them. Much of the work of the Commission was with these young insects. The losses sustained through the devastations of the pest by a young and struggling frontier population, ill able to bear them, were immense, and there was so much discouragement that hundreds and thousands of persons were on the point of abandoning their new homes. At this juncture the Commission went into the field, and, by its encouraging predictions and recommendations, did much to inspire the people with hope and confidence, and greatly helped to draw westward again the emigration that had stopped.

All this work, however, interfered with needed investigation into the proper range and native home and breeding-grounds, and some other important questions which can only be properly studied during a normal year, i. é€., one in which the insect is con- fined to its native or permanent breeding-grounds. Such a year will be the present (1878), for from our investigations we are able to state with confidence that the people of the more fertile country west of the Mississippi, occasionally termed the border States, will not be troubled with the young insects next spring and summer, and probably not for several years to come.

It is therefore quite important that the investigations be continued until every ques- tion is settled that human investigation can settle.

For the proper settlement of some of the questions, the co-operation of the Domin- ion Government is desirable, and has been promised. The work shouid be made so thorough as to obviate any necessity in future years of creating another commission for the same purpose, and we are desirous of making it thus thorough.

There are various other insects of national importance of which much has yet to be learned, and, in addition to completing the locust investigation, the Commission pro- pose, during the coming year, with proper aid from Congress, to study and report on some of these worst enemies of our agriculture. They are especially desirous of report- ing on the Cotton Worm and other cotton insects of the South, which, though often so disastrous to the cotton crop, have never been fully studied, and as to the mere natural history of which there are yet many mysteries and conflicting theories.

Much has yet to be done in giving practical form to the conclusions arrived at and plans proposed by the Commission, to enable the work already done to bear proper fruit. To bring about the needed co-operation of the two governments, to cause proper laws to be enacted in all the States interested, and to inculcate the truths that alone will make the farmer master of the situation, is largely the work of the future.

In concluding this brief letter, permit us to sincerely thank you for your hearty co- operation and aid, without which we should have lost much valuable time in neces- sary work at Washington, and to which we are largely indebted for whatever success has crowned our efforts.

We have the honor to remain, yours, respectfully, C. V. RILEY. A. §. PACKARD, JR.

CYRUS THOMAS. To Dr. F. V. HAYDEN,

United States Geologist.

PREFACE.

This report is the more immediate result of the first year’s work of the Commission, and is respectfully submitted for the benefit of the farmers of the West, who have so sorely suffered from the injuries inflicted by the insect of which it treats. The Commissioners hope and believe that it will form an invaluable record, for fature reference and use, of all that is at present known of so important a subject.

Our work was ordered primarily for the benefit of the farmers of the locust-stricken country, and we have endeavored to present with great- est prominence those features of the subject most important from the practical and economic stand-point. There is, however, matter of a more or less scientific and technical nature invariably connected with investigations like that we are charged with, and the report would, in our judgment, be incomplete were such matter omitted. In order to better enable the reader who cares little or nothing for such technical details to pass over them, they are printed in smaller type than the text.

We have divided the locust area into three regions, which we have called, respectively, the Permanent, the Subpermanent, and the Temporary. As these terms will be frequently used for the sake of precision and conciseness in the body of the Report, we here call the attention of the reader to Map 1, on which they are represented.

In order to prevent the volume from becoming too bulky, we have been obliged to shorten some of the concluding chapters, and to omit entirely an elaborate bibliography of locust literature in other countries, prepared for us by Mr. B. P. Mann, of Cambridge, Mass., as also a de- Scriptive paper on the locusts of the Pacific slope, by Mr. S. H. Scudder.

Much interesting material in the form of classified replies to circulars, detailed data used in making up the Report, and the work of special assistants, is relegated to a series of appendices at the end of the volume. These are paginated separately in brackets, with a view of hastening the printing of the Report, and they are arranged numerically to facili- tate reference, as the different parts will frequently be alluded to in the body of the work by means of corresponding numbers in parentheses. In these appendices will also be found a list of correspondents (App. 26), who have, in one way or another, assisted the Commission. These are given by States, with the post-office addresses arranged alphabetically, in order to avoid the constant repetition of full names in the different classified replies to circulars. The insect drawings for the woodcuts have been made from life, many of them by Mr. Riley, some of them by

XV

XVI PRETACE.

Mr. J. H. Emerton, of Salem, Mass., and a few by Mr. J. S. Kingsley, of the same place. They are generally larger than life, but the natural size is indicated by hair-line or outline, except with such more highly mag- nified details of special parts as have the natural size already indicated by the other figures. The anatomical drawings were made by Mr. Em- erton from preparations by Mr. Packard, and the histological illustra- tions by Mr. C.S. Minot. The lithographic plates (I to IV) were either drawn by Mr. Riley, or by Mr. Emerton under his direction. The dimen- sions are expressed either in inches and the fractional parts of an inch, or (of the more minute objects) in millimeters—1 millimeter (1™) not quite equaling 0.25 inch. Thesign ¢, wherever used, is an abbreviation for the word ‘‘ male,” and the sign ? for ‘‘female.” The three maps were prepared by Mr. Packard.

The Commissioners take this occasion to thank the numerous corre- spondents and others who have aided in the work, and to acknowledge their indebtedness to the managers of the following railroads for the favor of passes over their respective lines :

Southern Michigan and Lake Shore; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul; Western Union; North- ern Pacific; Saint Paul and Sioux City; First Division Saint Paul and Pacific; Saint Paul and Pacific; Missouri, lowa and Nebraska; Sioux City and Pacific; Chicago and Northwestern ; Keokuk and Des Moines; Des Moines and Fort Dodge; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Central Railroad of lowa; Kansas Pacific; Kansas City, Saint Joseph and Coun- cil Bluffs; Missouri River, Fort Scott and Gulf; Saint Joseph and Den- ver; Missonri, Kansas and Texas; Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé; Burlington and Missouri River, in Nebraska; Denver and Rio Grande; Texas and Pacific; Saint Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern ; Inter- national and Great Northern; Missouri Pacific; Saint Louis and San Francisco; Saint Louis, Vandalia, Terre Haute and Indianapolis; Ohio and Mississippi; Dlinois Central; Galveston, Harrisburg and San An- tonio; Leavenworth, Lawrence and Galveston; Denver Pacific ; Union Pacific; Atchison and Nebraska.

They also take this means of acknowledging the courtesy and encour- agement received from the executives of the several Western States more particularly concerned, and the assistance given by the Signal Bureau; also the good services of the several special assistants em- ployed, and particularly to Mr. Allen Whitman, of Saint Paul, Minn., to Prof. Samuel Aughey, of Lincoln, Nebr., and to Mr. Theo. Pergande, who faithfully assisted in office-work at the headquarters.

INTRODUCTION.

The injury by the Rocky Mountain locust to the agriculture, and, as a consequence, to the general welfare of the States and Territories west of the Mississippi, had been so great during the years 1873, 1874, 1875, and 1876, as to create a very general feeling among the people that ; steps should be taken by Congress looking to a mitigation of an evil which had assumed national importance. This feeling found expres- sion, during the year last mentioned, in various memorials to Congress, one of the most important and cogent of which was that from a confer- ence of the governors of various Western States and Territories, held at Omaha, Nebr., on the 25th and 26th of October, 1876. This memorial prayed for the creation of a commission of five experts to thoroughly investigate the subject, and an appropriation of $25,000.

The United States Entomological Commission was created in pursu- ance of an act of Congress appropriating $18,000 to pay the expenses of three skilled entomologists to be attached to Dr. F. V. Hayden’s United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories, and to report upon Rocky Mountain locusts, with a special view as to the best practicable method of preventing the injuries from: these insects, and of guarding against their invasions. The Secretary of the Interior appointed Mr. Charles V. Riley, of Saint Louis, Mo., as chief, Mr, Cyrus Thomas, of Carbondale, lll., as disbursing-agent, and Mr. A. S. Pack- ard, jr., of Salem, Mass., as secretary. Upon receiving their appoint- ments, the Commissioners at once met in Washington for the purpose of organization. The following record from the minutes of this first meet- ing indicates the scope of the work undertaken by the Commission, and the field which each member thereof was more particularly to occupy:

Division of labor.—Voted that the locust-area be divided into three regions, to each of which:a Com- missioner be assigned, as follows:

To C.V. Riley, the region east of the Rocky Mountains and south of the 40th parallel, the western half of Iowa, and, conjointly with Mr. Packard, Biitish America west of the 94th meridian.

To A.S. Packard, jr., Western Wyoming, Montana, Utah, Idaho, and the Pacific coast.

To Cyrus Thomas the portion north of Riley’s region, including the eastern-half of Wyoming, North- ern Colorado, the southern and eastern part of Dakota, Nebraska, eastern half of Iowa, and Min- nesota. [Northwestern Iowa was subsequently added.]

To My. Riley were assigned Biology, or Natural History, Invertebrate Enemies and Parasites (Insects, &c.), Remedies and Devices for the Destruction of the Locust.

To Mr. Packard, Anatomy and Embryology.

To Mr. Thomas, Geographical Distribution, Enemies not Entomological, Agricultural Bearings of the Subject.

To Packard and Thomas conjointly, Connection of Meteorological Phenomena with the Migrations.

It was also decided that the publications should consist of circulars, bulletins, memoirs, and the annual report of doings and results of the

work of the Commission, and that Mr. Kiley should at once prepare the 1G

€ 2 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

bulletins, to contain a digest of the habits and best means of destroying the locust, for immediate circulation. It was also agreed that by inter- change of data collected and consideration of each others’ work by the Commission as a whole, the publications be made, as far as possible, conjoint.

On the 22d of March, 1877, the preliminary plan of action was submitted to the Secretary of the Interior, and, as it met with his approval, the members separated to begin work in the field as quickly as possible, since the young locusts were already hatching and doing damage in Texas and southerly regions. It was decided to have a merely nominal office at Washington, and that the headquarters of the Commission should be at Saint Louis, on account of the more central location of this city, and its greater proximity to the locust-region.

The following circulars, issued a few days afterward, explain them-

selves: CIRCULAR No. 1.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION, P] 7 187

Mr. ——— ———.

DeEaR Sir: The Commissioners are desirous of collecting, as soon as possible, all as- certainable facts in reference to the migrations of the Rocky Mountain locust (Calop- tenus spretus), and also regarding its appearance, habits, and devastations in your sec- tion.

We present below a series of topics upon which we shall be glad to receive data from your locality. We expect you to dwell only on those topics upon which you have positive information, and shall be glad to receive any facts or views not suggested by this circular. Some of the subjects cannot be reported on till toward the approach of winter, while others can be considered earlier. In responding, therefore, we ask our correspondents to couple their answers with the number of the circular and of the inquiry.

We shall be glad to receive and will determine any of the different species of lo- custs that occur in your locality, and particularly specimens of their different para- sites and natural enemies. These are best forwarded by mail, packed in cotton, moist- ened with alcohol, and placed in secure tin or wooden boxes. Living specimens may be sent in tin boxes, and are preferred, where they will not be too long on the way.

The inquiries have reference more particularly to the present year 1877, and when facts are communicated that have reference to other years, correspondents will please be careful to specify the particular year.

The Commissioners will refund whatever expense may be incurred for postage in re- plying to this circular, or in forwarding specimens, should correspondents so desire.

Copies of documents published by the Commission will be sent to correspondents who forward data in accordance with this request. Communications may be sent to either of the Commissioners.

; CHAS. V. RILEY. A. S. PACKARD, JR. CYRUS THOMAS.

TOPICS ON WHICH DATA ARE REQUESTED. 1. Date and time of day of the arrival of swarms. la. Direction and force of the wind at the time. 1b. Temperature and character of the weather at the time (clear or cloudy). le. Direction of the flight, density, height, and extent of the swarms.

~% ao

ORGANIZATION OF THE COMMISSION. o

2. Date and time of day of the departure of swarms.

2a. Direction and force of the wind at the time.

2b. Temperature and character of the weather at the time.

2c. Direction of the flight, density, and extent of the swarns. Date when the first eggs, if any, were deposited the present year.

. Date when the eggs were most numerously hatching the present year.

Om Ww

. Date when the eggs were most numerously hatching in previous years. 6. Proportion of eggs that failed to hatch the present year, and probable causes of such failure. 7. Nature of the soil and situations in which the eggs were most largely deposited. 8. Nature of the soil and situations in which the youny were mcst numerously hatched. 9. Date at which the first insect acquired full wings. 10. Date when the winged insects first began to migrate. 11. Estimate the injury done in your county and State. 12. Crops which suffered most. 13. Crops most easily protected. 14. Crops which suffered least. i 15. The prevailing direction in which the young insects traveled, and any cther facts in relation to the marching of the young. 16. The means employed in your section for the destruction of the unfledged insec's, or to protect crops from their ravages, and how far these proved satisfactory. 17. The means employed in your section for the destruction of the winged insects, or to protect crops from their ravages, and how far these have proved satisfactory.

18. Descriptions, and, if possible, figures of such mechanical contrivances as have proved useful in your locality for the destruction of either the young or the winged insects.

19. If your section was not visited in 1876, please state this fact. 20. If visited any previous years, please give the dates.

21. To what extent have birds, domestic fowls, and other animals, domestic or wild, been useful in destroying these insects.

22. State the ratio of prairie to timber in your section or in your county.

23. State all you know about the habits of the young or full-grown insects during the night, and especially whether you have ever known them to march or continue to fly after the sun is down, and if so, how long into the night.

24. The amount of damage to fruit and shade trees, and the most satisfactory means employed in your section to protect them.

CIRCULAR No. 2.

Saint Louis, Mo., Peon.

Mr. DeEAR Sir: With a view of securing co-operation, and of obtaining data in the par-

ticular divisions of the subject assigned to me, I beg leave to call your attention more

particularly to the following topics, and ask your careful consideration of the same:

I. NaturAL History.—The natural history of the species has been already pretty thoroughly studied, so far as the development from the egg to the mature insect is con- cerned. Yet I shall be glad to have you communicate any facts or observations in your possession that you believe to ke new or unrecorded. As to the habits of the species, there is more room for fresh observations, as the habits vary somewhat with locality, and my own studies have been mostly made in Missouri and Kansas. I would direct

4 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

your attention, therefore, under this head, more particularly to topics 12, 13, 14, and 15, of Circular No. 1, or, crops which suffer most ; crops most easily protected ; crops which suffer least ; and the prevailing direction in which the young insects travel in your section, or any other facts in relation to the marching of the young. Also, I desire all observations that are at all reliable as to the habits of both the young and the winged insects during the night, especially as to whether the latter have ever been known to continue flying after dark.

While there may be little to add to what is now known of the natural history and

habits of the Rocky Mountain locust (Caloptenus spretus Thomas), with which the Commission is more particularly concerned, there is much of interest yet to learn of the other species of locusts that are indigenous in your locality, and are often con- founded with the spretus. Any facts as to the habits, time and mode of depositing eggs, state in which the winter is passed, time of acquiring wings, or, in short, any observations upon the native species, and more particularly those that are injurious, are earnestly desired by me. The observations should, as far as possible, be accompanied by speci- mens, and, indeed, I shall be glad to receive specimens of the different locusts or ‘* orasshoppers ” from your locality in different stages of growth. They may be killed either by dipping in hot water, by means of a little chloroform, or by throwing in alco- hol; and should be mailed to me in stout wooden or tin boxes, packed in coarse saw- dust or cotton previously moistened with alcohol. Living specimens, which are pre. ferred, are best sent in tight tin boxes along with a small amount of appropriate food.

II. INSECT ENEMIES AND PARASITES.—These will differ also, according to locality,

and I shall be glad to receive specimens of all invertebrate animals that may be found preying either internally or externally on the locusts. Such specimens, when soft or small, are best preserved in alcohol, and mailed between two layers of cotton thor- oughly saturated with alcohol, in a small and tight tin box. When larger they may be mailed as already indicated above. I respectfully solicit answers to the following " questions:

1. What invertebrate animals are known to attack the locust-eggs in your locality, and to what extent have they destroyed the same?

2. What insect enemies attack, first, the young; second, the winged locusts; and what percentage of these have been destroyed by them ?

3. State any facts that you know about the habits and transformations of the diff-r- ent parasites or other enemies observed.

III. RemMED1IeEs.—Under this head I desire general reports ou topics 16 and 17 of Cir- cular No.1. First,as to the means employed in your section for the destruction of the unfledged insects, or to protect crops from their ravages, and how far such means have

proved satisfactory ; second, the means employed against the winged insects, and how far they have proved satisfactory.

I would more particularly call your attention to the following points:

4, Has any application, either in powder or liquid, been used that protected special plants from locust ravages without injuring the plant?

5. Has harrowing of the eggs in the fall been resorted to, and with what effect; or have any other means been employed to expose or break open the egg-masses ?

6. Where satisfactory results have followed the plowing under of the eggs, state the time of year of such plowing, the depth, and the nature of the soil.

7. Where ditching has been resorted to to protect fields from the inroads of the un- fledged locusts, state the measure of success, the nature of the soil, and the character, particularly as to the depth and width, of the ditch.

If any measures not recommended by the Commission in its bulletins are or have been adopted, please specify them.

If you desire to test any special measure involving expense, where such test seems warranted by possible practical results, please correspond with me for further advice and instruction.

IY. DEVICES FOR DESTRUCTION.—Under this head I desire reports as to the efficiency

CIRCULARS SENT OUT. 5

and usefulness of such machines or other mechanical contrivances as have been tried and used in your section. Where any machine has proved useful I desire to obtain full plans and description of the same, and, where possible, illustrations. Where such have not already been drawn up or made, I will co-operate with inventors in getting the work done where it is thought desirable. So far as time will permit, I shall en- deavor to personally examine and test such contrivances, and wiil assist to a full trial of them any inventor who communicates his plans.

Copies of documents published by the Commission will be sent to correspondents who forward data in accordance with these requests.

I have the honor to be, yours, respectfully,

CHAS. V. RILEY.

Some additional questions were sent out with Circular No. 1 by Mr. Thomas, and among them the following:

Furnish copies of all the records you can obtain, which were made at the time of the visitations of the grasshoppers, whether written or printed.

State all you may know in reference to eggs hatching in the fall.

What plants, cultivated or wild, appear to be preferred by the young, and what by the full-grown insects?

What plants, cultivated or wild, appear to be least relished ?

State to what extent the invading swarms have been observed to injure the native grasses, and to what extent the young have been observed to injure them.

What animals, such as quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, have been obvserved feeding upon the young or full-grown insects or their eggs?

State what measures for destroying the eggs have been tried, and how far they have proved effectual.

State the ratio of prairie to timber in your section.

State all you know in reference to the habits of the young or grown insects during the night; where they remain, whether they ever march, continue to fly, eat, &c.

At what rate do swarms move during flight?

Mr. Packard also issued a special circular, requesting, in addition to the information sought by Circular No. 1, special information west of the mountains, as follows:

CIRCULAR No. 3. SALEM, Mass., May 15, 1877.

DEAR Sir: In behalf of the United States Entomological Commission I ask your aid in studying the habits, distribution, and extent of damage done, in past years as well as the present, by the locust or destructive grasshopper, in the department of the locust- area assigned to me,i. e., Montana, Idaho, Western Wyoming, Utah, Oregon, Washing- ton Territory, and California.

The main breeding-places of the locusts visiting the border States are situated in the Northwest. Information is especially desired concerning the breeding of locusts in the plains lying around the Black Hills, especially to the east and north; also in the val- leys of the Platte, Yellowstone, Upper Missouri, Snake, and Columbia Rivers, and especially the treeless plains of Eastern Oregon and the eastern portion of Washing- ton Territory. The locusts invading Utah in former years are supposed to have come from the Saake Valley to the northwest and north.

The said Territories, particularly Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Eastern Washing- ton and Oregon, are so thinly settled that it will be difficult for me to obtain the post- office address of those who might be willing to co-operate with the Commission if they could receive our circulars and bulletins. These and other publications of the Com- mission will be sent to those answering in part or wholly the questions appended to this circular. Postmasters and others receiving this circular are respectfully requested

6 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

to send the address of any one who they think would thus co-operate with the Com- mission. i

While locusts have not seriously ravaged the Pacific coast since 1855, it is very desir- able for the Commission to ascertain whether it is the Rocky Mountain locust or some other species of grasshopper which has periodically devastated the coast for nearly two centuries past. For this purpose specimens from all parts of the States of Cali- fornia, Nevada, and Oregon, and Arizona aud Washington Territories, are earnestly desired.

Please, therefore, send me specimens of any destructive grasshopper, as well as samples of ail the different kinds of grasshoppers and crickets, their eggs, young, and parasites, in your town or county, so that I may be sure which species is referred to in your communication. They may be killed by hot water or soaked in alcohol a few hours, dried and packed between papers, in cotton or sawdust, in strong wooden or tin boxes, and mailed to me at Salem, Mass. It would be well also to keep a bottle of alcohol or whisky on hand into which specimens could be thrown from time to time. The bottle could be carefully packed and sent, at the end of the season, by express, to the headquarters of the Commission at Saint Louis, Mo.

Please inclose in all parcels and bottles a label giving date, town, county, and State or Territory, the name of collector, written with a black-lead pencil on stout letter- paper. Postage will, of course, be refunded, if desired. Trusting to receive your hearty co-operation in the objects of the Commission,

I remain, your obedient servant, A. 8. PACKARD, JR., “Secretary United States Entomological Commission.

Has your section ever been visited by invading swarms of grasshoppers? Ifso, name , tre years.

Please furnish copies of all the records you can obtain which were made at the time of the visitations of the grasshoppers, whether written or printed.

As will be seen by the classified replies in the appeadix, much valuable information was obtained by means of the first general circular, but scarcely any on the special points in the others. This was to be ex-

ected, as the average farmer is in no position to carry out special investigations, which for their satisfactory completion require time, training, and proper appliances.

It is our intention, in this connection, to give a brief history of our field-work and of the locust phenomena of the season, but for full details regarding the year’s occurrences in the different States the reader is referred to the chapter on chronology and to the appendices.

As will appear in the chapter just referred to, locust-eggs had been laid in 1876 over an extensive area, roughly defined by drawing a line from Breckenridge to Cheyenne, thence to the Taos Valley, thence to Houston, thence to Saint Paul, the eastern line deflecting westward in Missouri and Kansas. They were most thickly laid east of the 100th meridian, and the gravest apprehensions were naturally felt as to the injury that would result in the spring of 1877. The examination of eggs from time to time during the winter, from different parts of the area just defined, made it quite certain, as spring approached, that the ma- jority of them would hatch; and as already intimated, the young insects were doing much injury in southerly regions by the time the Commission was created. Mr. Riley visited Texas in April, when the

OUTLOOK IN SPRING IN TEXAS, ARKANSAS, MISSOURI. 1

locusts were doing their greatest damage, or just as the bulk of them were reaching the pupa state around Denison and Dallas, and the winged insects had commenced to fly from the more southern parts. About Houston considerable damage was done to yeung cotton, but here and about Galveston the country is devoted largely to grazing and was not so seriously affected. About Hutchins the farmers despaired of saving anything, and many fine settlements along the Texas Central and along the Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio Railways suffered severely. Around San Antonio large numbers of the insects were found by Mr. J. Boll, of Dallas, whom we employed as special assistant, and whose reports, with other details from this State, will be found in the appendix. (App. 3.)

Having during the winter, as entomologist of the State, thoroughly familiarized himself with the extent and condition of the eggs in South- west Missouri, he spent but a brief period there early in the month; and while there was slight damage “in spots,” the country suffered far less from the young insects than it had the previous autumn from their winged parents. (See App. 4.) The only counties in which the insects hatched at all in Missouri were: 1st, Atchison and Holt, and the western half of Nodaway and Andrew, in the extreme northwest corner. 2d, McDonald, Barry, Jasper, Lawrence, Barton, Dade, Newton, Cedar, Vernon, more particularly in the southwest half; Polk in the northwest third; and Hickory in the southwest third.

What is true of Missouri is also true of the limited area in the north- west corner of Arkansas; and while Mr. Riley had no time to visit Benton County, where the eggs had been most thickly laid, reports showed that the injury from the young insects was trifling. In passing through Indian Territory, along the M., K. & T. Railroad, no damage was noticed; and though the winged insects were thick enough in the Territory to render travel on horseback disagreeable the previous autumn, wild prairie and timber and grazing land so predominate over the cultivated area that the damage can never be great.

During the end of April and tie early part of May, Mr. Riley was in the field in Kansas, traveling over the southeastern counties with Governor Anthony and Mr. A. 8. Johnson of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railroad. He found the people determined to resist the enemy, and in many cases well prepared and organized to do so. He appointed, with the co-operation of the governor, who partly de- frayed their expenses, two assistants in this State, viz, Mr. A. N. God- frey, of Manhattan, and Mr. G. I’. Gaumer, of Lawrence. Their reports, with other data (App. 5), together with the following letters, will convey a correct idea of the condition of things in this State at the time:

STATE OF KANSAS, EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT, Topeka, May 5, 1877. Sir: It is now impossible for me to join you in your tour of observation through the

State, as promised. I feel a deep interest in the results of your examination, and have to urge upon you the importance of passing over as great a breadth of territory as

8 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

possible in the time you can give to this State. I desire from you, for publication, a statement of the true condition and prospects as you find them.

I have feared that the reports of addled eggs and disappearing insects are based ou hope instead of facts. If so, they cannot fail to work injury by quieting the people with belief in a false security. If the eggs in the soil are still unhatched and ina condition to produce in destructive numbers when the weather is propitious, it is far better that the people know the worst and prepare for it without delay.

I am satisfied that a determined and systematic effort will exterminate the locust and save our growing crops, even if the worst be true as to the present hatching. An organization under the township law, or unanimity of volunteer action, with the means now known to be effective in the destruction of ihese insects, cannot fail of substantial success.

To this end I hope you will favor me with a full report of your tour of observation. together with such suggestions as to mode and time of destroying the locust, as your observation and experience shall warrant. This statement from you will be accepted as authentic by the great majority of our people, and will allay fear if there is no danger, and awaken to action if a pending peril exists.

Very respectfully, Grecia tee JAD NY,

Governor of Kansas. PnrorsG. V. RILEY,

Chief of United States Entomological Commission, Emporia, Kans.

SaLtna, Kans., Way 10, 1877.

My Dear Sir: Your favor of the 5th instant is before me. I am entirely of your opinion as to the importance of getting at the real facts and prospects in connection with locust injury. The dispatches to our papers are so often colored in the interest of land-owners, and loan and real-estate agents, that the ccmmunity at large places but small reliance on them. It is, moreover, the avowed policy of many journals to sup- press the truth about locust troubles, under the mistaken notion that such suppression benefits; whereas no policy is more injurious to a community in the end.

In the present instance the favorable reports are,in the main, warranted; and there is no doubt in my mind that throughout the larger part of Kansas the battle is already fought, and the future injury must be comparatively trifling. For nearly three weeks I have been traveling and observing in Texas and Southeastern Kansas, and feel safe in making the above statement for that part of your State which I have visited. Throughout the locust-area of the State south of the Kansas Pacific Railroad—which area includes most of the region bounded on the east by a line running from a little west of Lawrence toward Fort Scott, and on the west by another passing up through Hutchinson and Ellsworth—the eggs are laid in sufficient quantities to have given birth to locusts enough to have eaten everything green by the time they attained full growth, under con- ditions favorable to them. Many of the eggs were destroyed by the Anthomyia egg-par- asite, and the other enemies described in my writings. Some of them hatched in the Fall, and many more during the warm weather of the latter part of January and fore part of February. The insects thus hatched perished. The bulk of the eggs hatched during the last week of March and the early part of April. Tbe young insects were very thick then; they commenced to do injury and begat general fear. The farmers for the most part fought them with energy. Then followed, from the middle of April on, a period of cold and wet weather. The enemy rapidly weakened and was from all quarters reported as disappearing.

DISAPPEARANCE OF THE YOUNG.

In every part of the State which I have visited, and where I have examined carefully the condition of things, the young locusts have very largely, in some instances totally, disappeared; and I now have no doubt whatever that the reports of such disappear- ance that are so general throughout the entire portion of the State that was threat- ened, have their foundation in fact. This disappearance is generally attributed to

STATE OF THINGS IN KANSAS IN MAY. 9

death and dissolution from the cold and wet weather that followed the principal hatch- ing. That this weather has been largely instrumental in causing death among the hopping pests I have no doubt, because there are always a certain portion just hatched or just molting, which are particularly tender and susceptible to the injurious effects of cold, drenching rains. But they have been dying and are now dying fast during the present warm and sunny weather, and these dead insects are not parasitized, but simply diseased—sick. In my last (ninth) report made to the State of Missouri, in stating the causes that might diminish the prospective injury, I wrote: .

We may therefore expect that,as compared with 1875,a larger proportion of the young that will hatch in 1876 will be weakly and soon perish. * * * There is a bare possibility that, after the bulk of the young have hatched, and before they have commenced to do serious harm, we may have such unseasonably cold and wet weather as to kill them by myriads, and effectually weaken their power for injury.

Both possibilities have become actualities.

It is asingular fact, however, that notwithstanding the large numbers which hatched, no one has been able to discover the dead carcasses of these disappearing locusts in anything like the numbers necessary to account for the disappearance; and, in most instances where dead insects have been reported to me, an examination at once showed that the parties had mistaken therefor the exuviz or empty skins of those which had molted; which skins are always abundant under straw or weeds, or at tbe base of a wheat-stool, where the young insects congregate when undergoing their molts.

The young locusts possess remarkable tenacity of life, and the fact that the bulk of those remaining are in the third stage (i. e., have molted twice) and must have hatched before the unfavorable weather set in, is in itself enough to show that other factors than those meteorological have entered largely into the problem of disappearance. The principal of these I will briefly enumerate, because, unlike meteorological or climatic influences, they may, most of them, be relied upon in future, are largely within man’s control,and may even be rendered still more eff ctive. They are,in short, elements of certainty in the problem of locust destruction.

First. The natural Enemies of the Locust.—These consist in the present instance (the parasites not affecting it till it gets older) of the vertebrate animals which are known to feed upon it,such as snakes, gophers, field-mice, &c.,and birds., These last have been more efficient than most of us imagine, and I never saw blackbirds, plover, &c., so numerous. Their dung often whitens the fields where the lucusts were once thick, and they have been the principal cause of the latter’s disappearance. The prolonged cold and wet retarded the development of the insects, benefited the wheat,and gave our feathered friends an excellent opportunity to check them. We should employ all means to encourage the multiplication of the birds.

Second. The Farmers.—In most parts of the State I have traversed, the farmers had determined from the beginning to make war, and they did make war, and so success- fully that the insects were pretty effectually destroyed before the cold and wet oc- curred. The means employed were mostly kerosene-pans and burning—over 700 kero- sene-pans having been made at Salina alone.

Third. The Weather.—The continued cold after the principal hatching had the effect, as already stated, to kill mavy that were just hatching or molting. The heavy rains washed many away into tbe streams, and in some instances in soils which contain sand and lime, and which are liable to crack when dry, the rains doubtless covered up and killed such as were sheltering in such fissures.

Fourth. Climate—The fact that the insects, especially after the second and third moltings, are dying,is simply confirmatcry of the views I have always held and ad- vanced, that the species is out of its natural habitat, and can never permanently thrive here. These views I need not now repeat at length. While the number that have thus become sickly and died have not so far begun to compare with those which have perished in the other three ways mentioned, it will doubtless continue to increase as the insects get larger, for already they show a tendency to unnaturally group together during the heat of the day, and feed much less ravenously than when in perfect health.

10 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

EXTENT OF THE FAVORABLE STATE OF THINGS.

Sach are the generally favorable conditions throughout the area which I have al- ready mentioned, and of which alone I can speak with assurance. How far the same conditions prevail north of the Kansas Pacific, and in the other States threatened, I cannot positively tell yet ; but similar reports of disappearance are very gencral, and I am strongly of the opinion that we shall have a repetition of the comparative harm- lessness of 1867.

VIGILANCE STILL NECESSARY.

I am the last to desire that this favorable report should lull your farmers into an undue sense of security. The security against injury will depend altogether on the proportion of eggs which have hatched. Thus in the more sandy belt west of a line roughly drawn through Junction City and Florence, not one per cent. of the eggs re- main unhatched ; while east of that line, where the eggs were laid later and the soil is mostly colder and more tenacious, from one-half to three-fourths of them are yet un- hatched, and, with few exceptions,sound. In the former area a few fields may suffer, especially along the river-courses, but there will be no general destruction; in the lat- ter the injury may yet be great, and should be provided against.

REMEDIES.

[Here followed a summary of remedies. ]

CONCLUSION.

I have endeavored in the above hurried notes to comply with yeur request, and have necessarily left much of interest unsaid. Altogether, the prospect is much brighter than I had dared to hope. There is some apprehension from the winged insects that have been for some time leaving Texas, where little was done to fight the pest, and where much injury has cccurred in spots, particularly from Denison southwest- wardly. But in passing from the south, the injury done by the winged insects is never materiaily felt. They are unhealthy and less voracious, and the crops are well ad- vanced. They also pass mostly over the western part of your State. Permit me to remark, iu conclusion, that I have met with few persons who do not feel that if taken in time the young insects are easily mastered and need cause little alarm in fature— a fact which I have long since insisted on, and which is generally admitted by all who have had experience. When the locust-scourge is fully understood, and the farmers unite in determined effort to counteract it, it will cease to beso much of a bugbear, and no longer interfere with the settlement of the beautiful and productive western plains which it visits at irregular intervals.

I have the honor to remain, yours, truly. C. V. RILEY.

GEO. T. ANTHONY,

Governor of the State of Kansas.

We are under sincere obligations not only to Governcr Anthony who so materially assisted us, but, among many others, to Mr. Alfred Gray, secretary of the State board of agriculture, for repeated favors and co- operatiou.

During the latter half of April and first part of May Mr. Thomas visited Minnesota, Northwestern Iowa, and Nebraska, devoting his attention at this time chiefly to an examination of the egg-deposits, the condition of the eggs, and the indications where the young were then hatching out. He also at this time made arrangements throughout the various sections of these States and Dakota with local observers, who were to note all important facts in their respective sections relating to the locusts, and report from time totime. Mr. Allen Whitman, of Saint

STATE OF THINGS IN MINNESOTA. 11

Paul, who had previously been employed by the State of Minnesota to report upon the history, habits, and injuries of the Rocky Mountain locust in that State, was engaged as assistant for that portion of the district. Prof. Samuel Aughey, of the State University at Lincoln, was engaged as assistant for that portion of the district. The valuable aid furnished by these two assistants will be shown by reference to their reports which will be found partly in the appendix (Apps. 1, 2 and 8) and partly incorporated in the text. }

While in Minnesota Mr. Thomas prepared and issued the additional questions heretofore alluded to. He was also calied upon to give his opinion in reference to the prospects of the season, and, gloomy as these appeared at the time, he did not hesitate to state as his conviction in various publications that the end of the trouble was drawing near. The executive of this State, Governor Pillsbury, entered heartily into the work of the Commission, giving it every encouragement and assistance in his power.

The following extract from a letter of Mr. Thomas’s, published at the time in the Chicago Inter- Ocean, will give an idea of the locust-status as understood at that time in Minnesota and Dakota:

I have just visited the southwestern part of Minnesota, spending a short time in making inquiries and examinations in a few of the counties supposed to contain the heaviest deposits of eggs. In some localities, where the eggs were observed in great numbers last fall, but few were to be found in these places, asa general rule. I ob- served in considerable numbers certain coleopterous, hymenopterous, and dipterous larve, known as locust-egg destroyers. In other places, but a few miles distant, eggs were found in abundance, and mostly sound. The information, so far as ascertained in reference to this portion of Minnesota, agrees in the main with these observations, and thus explains the apparently conflicting reports received. These facts render it probable that, while it is true as a general rule that the locusts will hatch out over the greater portion of Southwestern Minnesota, yet many localities will be compara- tively free from the young; in other words, the hatching will be uneven throughout this section, and will not be in proportion to the number of eggs deposited.

The bounty law will probably prove inoperative in the worst-infested counties, as the citizens of these counties feel certain it will entail a debt upon them which will require years to pay ; hence they will not avail themselves of its provisions.

Hatching has already commenced as far north as Nicollet County, in the warmer sit- uations, and as I passed southwest on the Saint Paul and Sioux City Road, I noticed the prairies in every direction were burning, for the purpose of destroying the young *hoppers.

Several of the counties of this section lying near and along the western boundary of the State will probably escape serious injury, as but few eggs have been deposited in them. The young have hatched out in considerable numbers around Sioux City, but how far this extends northwest and southeast in this area I am unable tosay from positive information. Some have appeared in the extreme southeast of Dakota, but from all I can learn this Territory is not likely to have any considerable portion of its area infested.

During Mr. Thomas’s visit to Nebraska the severe cold storm of the latter part of April occurred, and he was enabled to note carefully its effect upon the eggs and young which were then hatching out quite numerously.

12 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

His second visit was in June, at which time the insects had advanced in some sections of his district to the pupa state, and at what may be Gesignated as the critical period so far as this section was concerned.

The result of Mr. Thomas’s visit to Nebraska at this time will be best shown by the following report made by him and Professor Aughey to the executive of that State, Governor Garber, to whom we are likewise greatly indebied for aid and encouragement in our work in Nebraska. We quote from the Omaha Republican of June 16, 1877, in which the report was first published:

In response to the request of Governor Garber and a number of citizens of Nebraska, Professors Thomas and Aughey have prepared a statement giving the results of their personal examinations of those portions of Nebraska in which the grasshoppers depos- ited their eggs last fall. The statement embraces information covering every such lo- cality; and in their letter to Governor Garber, transmitting their report, Professors Thomas and Aughey state as their general conclusion that “although the locusts re- main in limited areas in the eastern counties, the prospects in Nebraska are even more flattering than the most hopeful of your citizens anticipated a month ago.”

THE REPORT.

Our examinations cover the greater part of the settled portion of the State, and have been made over quite an extensive area in person. From the other sections, which we have not been able to visit, we have obtained, within the last few days, direct and positive information which we are satisfied is correct. We have made it a point to visit in person the areas supposed to be the worst infested, and have not contented our- selves with inquiries at these points, but have gone out on the farms in order to see for ourselves the actual condition of affairs in this respect. Before mentioning any of the details we may state, as

THE GENERAL RESULT OF OUR EXAMINATIONS,

First. That the eggs have been nearly or quite all hatched out; at least, so few re- main unhatched that it is wholly unnecessary to consider them in this report.

Secondly. That the locusts which hatched out in the sections west of the meridian of Lincoln have died off to such an extent that but few remain, not enough at any po nt, so far as we have observed or could ascertain, to do any injury to the crops.

Thirdly. The only section in which we find them in numbers sufficient to give any uneasiness is the eastern tier of counties lying along or near the Missouri River; and although found somewhat numerously in certain areas in this section, their numbers are much less than the most hopeful of your citizens anticipated a few weeks ago. Even these have done but little injury to crops up to the present time, and seem to have lost their usual ravenous appetites and vitality. In fact, scarcely an injured field can be cbserved in a day’s ride through the sections where they are considered most numerous. We have traveled through these areas with persons from States east of the Mississippi, visiting Nebraska with a view of locating here or examining the lands, and without exception they have expressed surprise at the uninjured condition of the crops after the alarming reports they have heard.

Fourthly. In those sections wkere they yet remain, not only are they far less active than usual, but as a rule they are confined to very small areas irregularly distributed; or, as generally and correctly expressed by the farmers, “they are in spots.” In such places the farmers are generally fighting them vigorously and with every prospect of success, and we are glad to say that they are, with few exceptions, hopeful and confi- dent that they will suffer but little loss. As a general rule, we find the farmers confi- dent that in the future they will be fully able to cope with the young. In some places precautionary and defensive measures have been neglected until the locusts have ad- vanced to a size at which it is more difficult to destroy them. A few of the early hatch- ing, where any of them remain, are already entering the winged state.

OUTLOOK IN NEBRASKA IN JUNE. 13

In looking over the State, theref re, a3 a whole, we feel fully warranted in saying that, so far as the young locusts hatched out this season are concerned, the danger has passed, and the citizens need not remain in uncertainty any longer. We are satisfied that the loss from their depredations, as compared with the whole crop, will be so small that its effect upon the State will not be felt. This opinion we believe will be fully borne out by the summary of facts hereafter stated.

* * * * *% * *

THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION.

Although the locusts hatched out quite numerously in various localities, as far west as the west line of the egg-deposit, they have almost entirely disappeared from all parts west of the meridian of Lincoln; and even east of that there are large areas in which there are none to be found, or at least so few that the farmers apprehend no danger whatever from them. Even in the sections where they are considered the most numerous, up to the present they have been limited to isolated spots. An examination made at one of the worst infested spots showed that the number of acres over which they then spread as compared with the number of acres in cultivation was so limited that it was evident that, with a reasonable effort, their destruction might be rendered certain. It is true that enough might hatch out on five acres to overrun and destroy the crops on one hundred and sixty acres if the season should favor them, and no effort be made to destroy them; but, at the same time, it is equally true that if all on the five acres are destroyed before they spread, the rest of the one hundred and sixty acres, at least, will be saved.

MIGRATING SWARMS FROM THE SOUTH.

That a few swarms from the south have recently passed over the western part of the State, going north, is undoubtedly true. So far but few, if any, have come down in the settled districts, and have done no injury whatever. Heretofore the swarms moving from the south northward toward their native habitat have not, so far as we are aware, done any injury in this State. We do not apprehend any damage from them; in fact, this is precisely what the commission anticipated and predicted, and is one of the strongest possible corroborations of the theory that they can never become permanent residents of this part of the Mississippi Valley. And we may as well reaffirm in this connection our oft-repeated conviction, from what we know of the history and habits of this species, that it is impossible for it ever to become a permanent resident of these border States, and hence that the race must run out here, and that it can only be continued by repeated invasions from its native habitat in the far northwest or Rocky Mountain region. This disposition to return also confirms our repeated assertions that it can never progress eastward as did the potato-beetle; that its line of eastern progress is as firmly fixed by climatic and physical causes as though its way were barred by some insurmountable barrier. We therefore maintain that the people of these States ought to confide in these conclusions of science which have been so signally borne out by the facts.

* * * * % # * CONCLUSION.

In concluding this brief and hasty report, we have only to repeat what we have already said—that we consider the danger from the young which have batched out this season in Nebraska over, and that this part of the problem is solved. We alse believe that the long series of visitations has come to a close. There may be, and doubtless will be, at irregular periods, visitations by migrating swarms, but it is not at all likely that the present generation will witness another such a series as that which has just passed. We append hereto,as a part of this report, a brief account of the means of destroying the young and unfledged locusts which we have just issued in the form of a special bulletin for Nebraska.

Very respectfully, CYRUS THOMAS. SAMUEL AUGHEY.

14 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

At this time a special ‘bulletin for Nebraska,” giving a condensed account how to deal with the insect, was issued and distributed not only in that State, but also in Northern Iowa. .

From May 26th to the 28th the Commission met at Saint Louis for the - transaction of business and the perfecting of plans for the future.

During the month of June Mr. Riley was most of the time in the field in the southern part of Lowa, touching also points in Nebraska and Kan- sas meanwhile. He would here acknowledge his obligations to the ex- ecutive of the State, and to the professors at the agricultural college at Ames, for aid and encouragement.

The following letter will prove a record of the situation in this State up to the time it was written, while later occurrences are given else- where (Chapter 1, App. 6):

ATCHISON, KAns., June 20, 1877.

Srz: In accordance with your request and my promise, I herewith transmit a brief summary of my examinations, during the past fortnight, in reference to locust injury ja the western part of Iowa, south of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway.

The rains, during most of the time, have been so severe and heavy as to render travel across the country often unpleasant and difficult ; yet I have managed to examine the condition of things at many points along the Chicago and Northwestern from Council Bluffs to the eastern limit of the locust region in Story County; thence across to the Chicago and Rock Island ; thence along the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, and across the country from Malvern in Mills County, southwardly. Stopping at these points and pushing out to those farms where the insects were reported most numerous, and having reports from many points not visited, my conclusions are drawn with assur- ance, and, though favorable, are, if anything, not sufficiently so.

PURPOSE OF THE VISIT.

My examinations were partly in furtherance of the plan of the Commission to visit personally and collect the varied experiences of every State and Territory within the locust range ; partly to ascertain the real prospects, and to encourage the farmers and disseminate information among them, where such work was necessary.

NO MORE EGGS TO HATCH.

A few straggling eggs were hatched as late as a week ago; but none now remain to hatch except a few from indigenous species.

DISAPPEARANCE OF THE YOUNG.

As elsewhere over the threatened region, the eggs were exceedingly numerous, and the young locusts hatched in April in such numbers, and began their work of destrac- tion with such vigor, that the greatest apprehension was felt. They soon began to dis- appear, however, and this disapp earance was due to the same causes enumerated some five weeks ago in my letter to Governor Anthony, of Kansas, reviewing the condition and prospects at that time in that State. Summarized, they may be stated as follows:

The weather.—The continued cold and heavy rains after the principal hatching de- stroyed immense numbers. JI have known them washed into the Des Moines River so as to form a putrefying scum two inches thick. The farmer owes the salvation of his crops largely to this cause.

Climate.—An inherent tendency to disease in the species when in this part of the country has made it most susceptible to the adverse weather, and carried off a large proportion. This is an exemplification of the views constantly urged by me.

Natural enemics.—It is a general law that in proportion as a species becomes unduly and excessively multiplied its natural enemies correspondingly increase. The abund-

OUTLOOK IN IOWA IN JUNE. 15

ance of the locust and of its eggs during the last few years east of the Rocky Mountains has given all locust-feeding animals a bountiful supply of food. They have, therefore, not only thriven and multiplied, but many which do not normally feed upon the insect have acquired the habit. In Iowa, as elsewhere, these natural enemies—especially in- sectivorous birds—have done exceptionally good work ; a work furthered by the weather, which retarded and rendered very irregular the development of the insect.

The farmers.—W ho have been better organized and more determined to make war, and who have used better means and methods than in former years.

GENERAL SURVEY OF THE FIELD.

As you are probably aware, the locusts reached the farthest east along the line of the Chicago and Northwestern, and the egg-deposit receded from Story County southwest- wardly. Throughout the northern and eastern portion of this area the damage has been so trifling that it is scarcely worth mentioning. The corn, from too much cold and wet, is backward, and the weeds have on all low land got an unfavorable start of the cultivator; much of it also rotted and necessitated replanting; but the spring wheat (Fall wheat is too apt to spring-kill and is uncertain) and other small grain could not well look better. The greatest injury has been south and west, along the Missouri and along the Wahaboncey. Asa general thing, the injury has been greatest along streams, where the iusects hatched later and obtained greater protection from cold or storm. In these less-favored parts, however, there is no single farm that presents the desolate aspect so general two years ago. In restricted spots the insects are quite thick, and have done slight injury, but in a general way the prospects were seldom brighter.

WHAT WILL HAPPEN.

The insects have been getting wings in increasing numbers during the past week. These will rise from day to day, as the wind and weather permit, and fly away to the north and northwest. This, on account of the irregular hatching and the great diver- sity of size in the insects now here, will continue for the next wwo or three weeks, and the flights will consequently be so scattering as scarcely to be noticed. In the north- eastern counties visited the farmers are out of danger. The insects are not more numerous than indigenous species sometimes are in dry seasons east of the Mississippi, and the vegetation is so rank that they can make no appreciable effect upon it. In the southwest counties there will be greater injury, and you may expect to hear of a corn- field cleaned out here, and a wheat-field more or less damaged there, where no precau- tion is taken against such an occurrence. Yet here, also, the average loss will be slight—no greater than it has been in Texas and South Kansas, where generally excel- lent crops have been or are being harvested. In fact, very much the same conditions prevail in the counties bordering on the Missouri east as in those in Nebraska west— where Professors Thomas and Aughey, on behalf of the Commission, have been making exrended observations, and conclude that the loss from locust depredations will be so slight that its effect upon the State will scarcely be felt.

LESS FAVORABLE IN NORTHWESTERN IOWA.

Judging from numerous reports which reach me, the outlook is less favorable in the northwest counties. Indeed, from Humboldt and Kossuth Counties westward, the counties are far more gloomy. Professor Thomas has charge of that part of the State, and is now there. Much can be done to allay unnecessary alarm, and you may expect

to hear from him. SUGGESTIVE NOTES.

In passing through the magnificently fertile southwestern counties of your State, two things were particularly noticeable:

First. The want of diversity in culture. Corn is too supremely king. Some town- ships are one vast corn-field ; and while the farmer generally instinctively plants that which pays him the best, he often does so from habit and imitation. In a country

16 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

subject to locust ravages disaster is averted by greater diversity. Without discussing the advantage of a diversity of crops, the advisability of growing more stock must be obvious: first, to consume the corn at home; secondly, to avoid sweeping disaster. Had the season been less unfavorable to the locusts, they might have cleaned out the grain-fields, and, as is their wont, left untouched the wild prairie meadows. Verbum sat sapienti.

Secondly. In every community there are those who persist in doing nothing to pre- vent locust injury. These individuals frequently bring ruin not only upon themselves, but upon more persevering neighbors. There is need of more organization, and Iowa needs some such law as her sister States north and west passed last winter—a law that will oblige every able-bodied man to work one or more days, either in the Fall in destroying the eggs, or in the spring in destroying the young insects, whenever the township trustees, at the request of a given number of citizens of the township, may call them to such work under special provisions similar to those of existing road-laws.

_ [Here followed some practical suggestions that are given in Chapter 13.]

Sundry devices for the use of both coal-oil and coal-tar haye been patented, and the

patentees in some instances charge an exorbitant and unreasonable royalty. I would

advise farmers to SAVE THEIR MONEY.

The principle of destruction cannot be patented, since coal-oil and coal-tar for the destruction of locusts have been used in former years, and extensively in Colorado. Their use against insects is a public privilege and possession.

The particular construction of the machine is immaterial. Farmers will thank manufacturers who sell at a decent profit, but should give no encouragement to those who charge thrice what a machine is worth because of a patent.

PROSPECTIVE DAMAGE.

There is some apprehension from swarms from the south, and from fresh flights later in the season from the northwest. I think there is little danger of either. The return swarms in summer from the country south are never very disastrous. The insects have been flying north and northwest for about six weeks, but so scattered that, as I anticipated five weeks ago, no serious injury has followed their settling. They fly mostly west of Iowa, and when they do injury it is generally near the British-American line. That there will be no fresh visitation of a widespread character later in the year from the northwest there is every reason to hope. The native breeding-grounds must have been measurably depleted last year, and the return migration has been so far, and doubtless will be, slight. This reasoning applies to the section of your S-ate which I have visited. It will apply to all the country south and east of the forty- fourth parallel and one hundredth meridian, but will hold less and less true as we go north and west of those limits. Altogether the outlook is favorable. From excessive wet, and for other reasons, the ordinary grain pests, like the chinch-bug, will be harm- less, and with favorable weather henceforth there is very reason to feel encouraged.

I have the honor to remain, yours, respectfully, C. V. BEEBE His Excellency Gov. J. G. NEWBOLD,

Des Moines, Iowa.

Mr. Packard started west after the Saint Louis meeting, and reached Denver, Colo., on the first of June. He spent several days at Morrison and Greeley, collecting facts about the young and return migration from the southward. May 29 and 30, he made observations at Jules- burg and vicinity; June 7-11, at Salt Lake, Farmington, &c.; June 12-24, he passed through Idaho into Montana, stopping at Virginia City, Bozeman, Helena, and Fort Benton. From here he passed down

VISIT TO UTAH AND NORTHWEST. 17

the Missouri River June 24-27, and through Dakota to Saint Paul and home, reaching Salem July 5.

As the result of this journey, the Commission was able to confirm the belief it had previously announced, that there were no unfledged locusts in a very extensive region of the Northwest, comprising large portions of Montana, Dakota, and also British America, for about two hundred and fifty miles north of the Missouri River, a region bounded on the north by the Saskatchewan River. As this region, together with the Yellowstone Valley, is usually the great breeding-ground of the Rocky Mountain locust, the Commission felt more confidently enabled, from the state of things there and in Wyoming and Colorado, to predict that there would be no serious invasion of the border States from Texas to Minnesota in the summer and autumn, which would insure an immu- nity from the attacks of young locusts, at least in 1878. It was also ascertained that the tracts of country in Colorado, Utah, and Idaho, where eggs were laid the year previous, and unfledged locusts were ob- served in greater or less numbers, that the cold, heavy rains of April and May, and the parasites, had, as in the Mississippi border States, so materially reduced their number as to render them powerless to do ma- terial harm, except in Cache and Malade Valleys, in Northern Utah, while serious local damage was committed by them in Bitter Root Val- ley, Montana. Much information was also obtained during this trip regarding locust occurrences in the Territories and in British America. (App. 9.)

During the first week in July, Mr. Riley took the field in Colorado, and the foliowing letter, written just before his return, together with data subsequently obtained (Chapter I, App. 7), will form a summary of the state of things:

To the editor of the Colorado Farmer :

Dear Sir: Upon my arrival in Denver, three weeks ago, you requested me to fur- nish you with a brief account of my intended observations in Colorado before my de- parture. I can find time for but a few hurried jottings.

OBJECT OF VISIT.

As you are already aware, my visit has been in furtherance of the work of the United States Entomological Commission, and my investigations have had reference to the Rocky Mountain locust, or grasshopper. It gives me great pleasure to state that all whom I have met with in Colorado, from the State officers down to the humblest farmer, have generously assisted in my efforts, and expressed a hearty sympathy with the work of the Commission. After visiting Greeley, Golden, Boulder, and other points north of Denver, and some of the ranches lying along the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, I found very little that wes instructive beyond what intelligent correspond- ents had already communicated. Hence, I spent as much time as possible in the mount- ain passes and cafions, especially those within easy reach of the narrow-gauge road already mentioned, to the officers of which I am under special obligations for liberal aid. Mr. William Holly, of Del Norte, bas, on behalf of the Commission, visited most of the interesting poiits which I have had no time to reach, in Park, Lake, Gunnison, Fremont, Saguache, San Juan, Rio Grande, Conejos, and Costilla Counties.

2G

18 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

RETROSPECTIVE.

In all the States to the east invaded last year, the eggs of the locust were laid very thickly, and the gravest apprehensions as to injury existed as spring opened. Nor were these without warrant. Notwithstanding those eggs which were destroyed dur- ing the winter by enemies, and those which prematurely hatched in the fall and during the mild weather of February, enough hatched in April to cause consternation. Throughout the invaded country lying east of Colorado, already visited by the Com- mission—which includes all the States affected, from Texas to Minnesota—the insects have disappeared without, in a general way, doing any very serious injury. What with the increased number of birds and their other enemies, the more determined efforts made, and improved methods of warfare employed against them by farmers, the heavy, cold, and continued rains that followed the principal hatching, and the greater debility and tendency to disease among them everywhere noticeable, the young insects rapidly decreased in numbers, and those which survived to acquire wings rose and flew to the northwest in scattering swarms. Even in Northwest lowa and a few counties toward the southwest of Minnesota, where the injury was greatest, the insects have not remained to deposit as they did in past years. They continued to die off, and finally left, or are now leaving, after doing more or less injury.

I have been much interested in finding how thoroughly the conditions above de- scribed have prevailed over all parts of Colorado having an altitude less than 7,000 feet above the sea-level. There were more eggs laid in Colorado last Fall than during any previous year that those whom I have conversed with remember. The principal hatching in April was followed by continued cold rains and snows, which would par- tially thaw during the day and freeze again at night, so that the young insects were alternately subjected to much slush and frost. In early summer there was by far the largest amount of rain-f:ll known for many years in the State. The insects were weak and died and disappeared. Birds were unusually serviceable in destroying them, and one little gray gregarious species, described to me as being abundant and efficient in February, and which is perhaps the horned shore-lark (Erimophila alpestris), I have not noticed to the east.

Very much the same condition of things occurred all over the State below the alti- tude stated, whether in the northern half or along the eastern base of the Sangre de Cristo and in the Cucharas Valley, where the insects hatched more thickly. Few years have been more favorable to the Colorado farmer. I have noticed a number of poor wheat-fields, resulting from defective irrigation or other causes, but the average yield will, I think, be from twenty to twenty-five bushels to the acre. A good deal of rye was so burnt out that it had to be prematurely cut and used for hay. Barley has yielded from twenty-five to thirty bushels per acre, and the yield of oats will be fair. Corn looks well, and stock of all kinds is in excellent condition. In Lake County, where there is an extensive area under cultivation along the Arkansas, and where the damage was great last year, few locusts hatched the present year. In Park County, mostly devoted to grazing, the injury has been slight The San Luis Valley, which is devoted to agriculture and stock-raising, has suffered little, and the beautiful Ute Valley has also, as is usually the case, been singularly free. In the Wett Mountain Valley, which is specially subject to injury, the farmers had to fight early in the sea- son, and the injury in the valley of the Costilla, where fields were cleaned out by the young locusts, was greater than in any other part of the State, The severe injury extended southward into New Mexico, where the valley of the Taos has been swept clean; yet, on the opposite side of the mountains, the president of the New Mexico Stock and Agricultural Association reports to Mr. Holly no injury occurred, the young insects having disappeared.

* CONDITIONS IN THE PARKS AND PASSES ABOVE THE ALTITUDE OF 7,000 FEET.

While in the lower plains and valley regions of the State the conditions have been so similar-to those awhich prevailed toward the Mississippi, they have been quite dif-

VISIT TO COLORADO. 19

ferent in the higher plateaus and parks. At altitudes of from 8,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea, the principal hatching occurred in May, and was later in proportion as we as- cended, until, in the places with an altitude of 12,000 to 13,000 feet, the insects are still hatching. At such great heights the mature dead are often to be found in large quantities under stones and other shelter, which they sought last fall when prema- turely overtaken by winter, and their young are hopping about in great numbers. As no agriculture is carried on in these parks and passes, no effort is made to destroy the insects.

THE LOCUST PROBLEM MORE COMPLICATED IN COLORADO THAN IN THE LOWER MIS- SISSIPPI VALLEY.

It is in consequence of the above facts that the locust question becomes so compli- cated in your State. Colorado combines within her limits the meteorological and cli- matic features of a dozen States. In the Mississippi Valley country, there are laws governing the Fall invasions from the northwest and the return migrations in summer on which to predicate with tolerable assurance. This is more particularly true south of the forty fourth parallel. Your most disastrous swarms also come from the north and northwest, and the insects which hatch out on your plains east of the mountains are largely governed by the same laws and instincts as those which hatch to the east ; on acquiring wings they leave, and those that rise before the second week in July will bear mostly to the north and northwest, This is more particularly the case south of the divide. After the middle of July the rains increase and the winds are more vari- able, prevailing, so far as I have yet ascertained, greatly from the east or south in the morning, but stronger from west or northwest in the afternoon. Swarms are liable, therefore, at almost any time after the middle of July, to swoop down from the parks and plateaus west of the range upon the valleys and plains to the east. These remain within your borders, or, if they pass beyond, bear southeastwardly toward Texas. From what light the Commission so far possesses, it becomes more and more plain that I have been correct in considering the species as boreal,* and in locating the breeding- grounds of the more disastrous swarms, like that of last year, in the plains regions of the extreme Northwest, where the summers are short and the winters long and severe, I find the exodus of the winged insects from that portion of your State lying east of the mountains less complete than in Kansas and Missouri, for instance, and of the earlier matured individuals that have not left, some commenced ovipositing a week or so since. The young from eggs laid thus early will prematurely hatch this summer or Fall, and inevitably perisu; just as those now hatching toward the snow-line will per- ish before attaining maturity. The insect is single-brooded, and the tendency to pro- duce two broods where the summers are too long, is as fatal to the perpetuation of the species as the want of time to properly mature a single generation where the summers are too short. Both extremes obtain within the limits of your State, as, also, the in- termediate conditions in which the species can thrive permanently; whereas in no part of the Mississippi Valley south of the forty-fourth parallel, and, probably, some de- grees farther north, can the species hold its own continuously, and, with few excep- tions, it seldom remains a single year.

PROSPECTIVE.

While the record in Colorado up to this time is so interesting, in comparison with that in other States, the probabilities during the rest of the season more deeply interest your people. “ What are the prospects?” This is the question put to me on every hand. The farmer who is just about harvesting his wheat is anxious to know whether the chances are that it will be suddenly ruined by the winged pests, as it has been in past years, or that it will be unmolested.

*We have in former writings designated the species as subalpine, but the term here used in its

zodlogical sense is more strictly correct, implying that region, as the Saskatchewan and Lake Superior areas, between the subarctic and north temperate.

20 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

From what I have said above, it follows that I cannot predicate with the same assur- ance that I have done in Texas, Missouri, Kansas, and Iowa; but, to be brief, the pros- pects are, in my opinion, quite favorable. * * *

Dr. Packard, of the Commission, who has been through Utah, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, confirms my conclusion that the Northwest must be measurably depleted, for he could not find a locust in Montana from the Idaho line up to Fort Benton or down the Missouri line to Bismarck. None are to beseen in the region south of South Saskatchewan, and there is an immense area free from them in their native home. There is very little danger, then, of injury from Fall swarms from the Northwest, unless they come from the Black llills country. There remains the chance of swarms from your own western parks and plateaus or from those of Utah; but I have gocd reasons for believing that they will prove no more injurious than the swarms which have been passing on several days since I have been in the State from said western hatching- grounds. There is a constant strugele for supremacy between the plant-feeder and its carnivorous enemies. The Rocky Mountain locust got the upper hand during the ex- cessively dry seasons of the early part of the present decade, and has been so numer- ous for the past three or four years that its enemies have rioted in plenty, and at last, in their turn, have increased inordinately. In all your parks the Tachina flies (which produce the parasitic maggots Known to infest the locust) are so numerous as to cause a constant buzzing like a swarm of bees, and to prove a positive nuisance to tourists. Every wirged locust that attempts to fly is pursued by three or four of them, and the locusts that are daily rising from said parks, whenever the breeze is favorable, are very generally parasitized and diseased in consequence. The same holds true, as I learn from reports, in Utah, and as the parasites will increase as the season advances there is no reason to believe that the later swarms from the west of you will prove more injurious than those that have already left. The same will also largely hold true of those which leave the Black Hills country, though I have less positive information from that region. Nature maintains her average in the long run, and a few seasons of drought and locust ravages are apt to be followed by a period of more rainy seasons and locust decrease.

REMEDIES.

As these have been quite fully given in the Commission’s bulletins, and are not par- ticulaily called for at this season, I will dismiss the subject with the remark that I have found no means employed in Colorado that are not employed in other States, ex- cept as your irrigating ditches permit of a peculiar and satisfactory use of coal-oil. I should, perhaps, except also one means employed in the Wet Mountain Valley, where, as the young insects pass from the ledges and benches where they hatch into the val- ley, they are so effectually rolled into a slush made by overflowing the ground, that a pestilence from their dead bodies is sometimes threatened. I think your farmers are not sufficiently appreciative of the dry ditch, which could ofien be used to great ad- vantage where other means fail.

* * * * * * *

The Commissioners consider it their duty not only to disseminate information already possessed, but to gather from all parts of the country the facts peculiar to each section, for experience differs immensely with latitude and surroundings. The flights of the winged insects—their direction and the direction and force of the wind at the time in Colorado during the rest of the season—will be of great interest, and the Commission will feel under obligations to any of your readers who will send me notes thereon.

Yours, very truly, C. V. RILEY.

Summit, La VETA Pass, July 28, 1877.

- Mr. William Holly, of Del Norte, as stated in the above letter, was employed as special assistant in this State, traveling extensively on horseback during June and July to collect information in the southern counties. His report, with other data, appears elsewhere. (App. 7.)

VISIT TO PACIFIC COAST. 21

Prof. O. S. Westcott, of Chicago, also made a trip for us to this State during the month of August, while Prof. R. L. Packard, of the Patent Office, visited the State earlier, in order to make some chemical experi- ments.

The Commissioners met and held a third meeting in Chicago, Ill, August 7-8, for consultation and the transaction of necessary business. After planning for field-work for August and September they separated, to meet again on the Ist of October. Mr. Packard started west, reaching Salt Lake August 12; thence he went through Nevada, obtaining new facts about fresh invasions of locusts from Idaho, stopping at Reno, and thence, by way of Lake Tahoe, where the species of locust destructive in California was observed, he went to Portland, Oreg., tracing in the Shasta Valley and about Portland the small form allied to the Rocky Mountain locust. Going up the Columbia River to The Dalles and to Wallula, information was obtained regarding the western limits of the Rocky Mountain locust and recent invasions in Eastern Oregon and Washington Territories of this locust.

Returning to San Francisco by way of Victoria, Vancouver’s Island, where collections were made of locusts allied closely to the Rocky - Mountain species, considerable information was received at Merced, Stockton, and places along the road to the Yosemite Valley, regarding the ravages of the Caloptenus atlanis, the destructive locust of Califor- nia, and, from observations made in the mountains, as well as on Mount Shasta, at the northern extremity of the Sierra Nevada, it was definitely ascertained that swarms of the Rocky Mountain locust have probably never flown over that range from the plains east, and that the damages done locally on the Pacific coast have been most probably committed by Caloptenus femur-rubrum and C. atlanis, conjointly or separately, both of these species conjointly causing similar losses in the Atiantic States. Mr. Packard returned to Salem on October 4.

The results of this journey may be summed up as follows: Definite information was obtained concerning the invasion of Northern Nevada and Eastern Oregon and Washington Territory by swarms of the genu- ine Rocky Mountain locust, and all of the swarms were traced with a good degree of accuracy to the Snake River Valley, in the vicinity of Boise City and northward and souteastwardly. The western limits of the Rocky Mountain locust were definitely ascertained to be near the meridian of 120°, extending along the limits of this line from latitude 58° to 87°. It is most probable that while this locust may occasionally, in Washington Territory and Oregon, fly to the eastern flank of the Cas- cade Range, and in California as far as the eastern flank of the Sierra Nevada, swarms never pass over those mountains. (For detailed notes of this journey, see App. 10.)

During the last days of August and first of September Mr. Thomas again visited the Northwest in order to consult with his assistants, bring together the data obtained, and arrange it in reference to the report. The meeting was held at Sioux City, Iowa, after which Mr. Thomas, ac-

22 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

companied by Mr. Whitman, visited various parts of Northern Iowa in order to gather specimens of those which had dropped from flying swarms, and to ascertain exactly the eastern limit of their extension in this latitude.

In addition to these visits, Mr. Whitman traveled extensively over the counties ra vaged by the locusts in Minnesota, and Professor Aughey over those of Nebraska. ;

Mr. Riley started, after the Chicago meeting, for Manitoba, remaining a few days on the way in Minnesota to ascertain the extreme eastern limit of flight in Hennepin and Ramsey Counties. Most of the month of August and part of September were spent in Manitoba, where he was fortunate in meeting the Hon. M. P. Mills, minister of the interior, and the Hon. Mr. C. A. P. Pelletier, minister of agriculture, of Canada, both of whom are strongly in sympathy with the work of the Com- mission. Indeed, Mr. Pelletier had our first circular reprinted and sent out by the Dominion council. While at Winnepeg he was under many ob- ligations to Bishop Taché, Governor A. Morris, many Hudson Bay fact- ors, aud other officers, but especially to Mr. J. W. Taylor, United States consul, whose uniform kindness and whose extensive knowledge of the Saskatchewan country materially helped to make his stay pleasant and profitable. This trip gave us much definite information regarding the destination of the early summer flights, and regarding the northern and eastern limits of the species’ spread and of its permanent breeding- grounds north of our boundary-line. These permanent breeding-grounds turn out to be much more clearly defined than we had reason to hope, and they are, in a broad way, coequal with the limit of what is known as the third prairie plateau or steppe, an immense plains region drained by the South Saskatchewan and the Red Deer River. We were also able to obtain evidence of great locust abundance in this country as far back as the very beginning of the present century. (See Chapter 1.)

A fourth meeting of the Commission was held in Chicago, October 1-2, for the further transaction of business and to complete the division of labor on the report. During this month Mr. Riley made a trip to Kan- sas, as far as Manhattan, with a view of ascertaining whether any of the insects that had hatched in the spring had remained in that section of the country (App. 14); while in November he made a brief trip as far as Dallas, Tex., for the same purpose and to get facts as to autumn flights.

The fifth meeting of the Commission was a protracted one, held in Washington during the latter part of January and early part of Feb- ruary, 1878, for the purpose of comparing and digesting the work done on the report and preparing the same for the printer. By comparing and interchanging notes the report has been made as much as possible a whole, and opinions expressed or conclusions drawn are those of the entire Commission, unless dissent therefrom by any one member be ex- pressed in a note. The chapters have been. severally prepared as fol- lows:

LIST OF CIIAPTERS. 23

Introduction. By Mr. Riley.

Chapter 1. Classification and Nomenclature: Characters of the Spe- cies. By Mr. Thomas.

Chapter 2. Chronological History. By Mr. Packard.

Chapter 3. Statistics of Losses. By Mr. Thomas.

Chapter 4. Agricultural Bearings of the Subject. By Mr. Thomas.

Chapter 5. Native or Permanent Breeding-Grounds. By Mr. Packard.

Chapter 6. Geographical Distribution. By Messrs. Thomas and Pack- ard.

Chapter 7. Migrations. By Messrs. Packard and Thomas.

Chapter 8. Habits and Natural History. By Mr. Riley.

Chapter 9. Anatomy and Embryology. By Mr. Packard.

Chapter 10. Metamorphoses. By Mr. Riley.

Chapter 11. Invertebrate Enemies (Insects, &c). By Mr. Rilev.

Chapter 12. Vertebrate Enemies (Birds, &c). By Mr. Thomas.

Chapter 13. Remedies and Devices for Destruction. By Mr. Riley.

Chapter 14. Influence of Prairie Fires on Locust Increase. Dy Mr. Riley.

Chapter 15. Influence of Weather on the Species. By Mr. Riley.

Chapter 16. Effects that generally follow severe Locust Injury. By Mr. Riley.

Chapter 17. Uses to which Locusts may be put. By Mr. Packard.

Chapter 18. Ravages of other Locusts in the United States. By Mr. Riley.

Chapter 19. Locust Ravages in other Countries. By Mr. Packard.

The first chapter relates to the classificatory position, name, and characters of the species, which, while belonging to the same family as the locusts of the Old World, is nevertheless purely an American insect, occurring on no other continent. For a correct and proper understand- ing of the whole subject, it is very essential that we discriminate be- tween certain closely allied species, which are easily confounded by the non-entomologist, and which yet have very different habits and instincts, By means of a large amount of material from all parts of the country. and by study of the immature stages, we have been able to accurately define the three forms most apt to be confounded, and they will be dis- tinguished throughout the report by the popular names of Rocky Mountain locust (Caloptenus spretus), Lesser locust (C. atlanis*), and the Red-legged locust ¢ (C. femur-rubrum). We consider them good species, as species go, and the plates will at once show their distinguishing char- acteristics. As is found to be the case with nearly all species when large material from widely different sections is studied, there are several varieties and races that may be grouped around each of these three typical forms, and which are intermediate between them; but it has

* Originally defined from specimens from the New England States, but subsequentiy found to have a very wide range and not to be confined to the east.

tLong known by this popular name on account of the red shanks (tibiz) which are not, however, con- fined to this species but are characteristic of all three under consideration.

24. REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

not been deemed necessary to confuse the ordinary reader by farther definitions in this chapter, since it is the intention to give in a separate memoir a synopsis of the genus, with descriptions of all the North Amer- ican species at present known.

In the second chapter we have given a chronological record of locust injury in this country, which shows it to be no modern occurrence; and if the injury appears to have increased of late years it is only because there is a larger cultivated area within the locust region, and the devas- tation is more noticeable. The impression that this insect is on the in- crease, and that its invasions are becoming more general and more fre- quent is wide-spread, but it is scarcely justified by the facts, which clearly indicate that the species has for centuries (and doubtless for centuries of centuries) been at times excessively abundant and injurious to the vegetation of the western plains. The history of 1877 is given rather fully in this chapter, and is interesting in that it differs from that of 1875, the year when the insects also hatched out in so large a part of the temporary region. In that year the hatching was more uniform, the young more vigorous, and, notwithstanding the spring and early sum- mer were aS wet and stormy as in 1877, the destruction of crops was complete. In 1877, though the eggs were more numerous, the hatehing was more irregular, the young insects more feebie and diseased, and the destruction, except in a few counties of Northwestern Iowa and Minne- sota, was trifling. The reasons for the difference in the two years are sufficiently obvious. The winter of 187£75 was severe and steady— more in keeping with the boreal country where the insect is at home— and the eggs were well preserved and hatched more uniformly ; more- over, they were laid by insects fresh from their northwest home. The eges laid in 1876 were largely from insects from the subpermanent coun- try ; they were subjected to much mild aud changeable winter weather, while the spring rains were cold and disastrous to the young. In addi- tion to these facts, the increase of natural enemies that inevitably fol- lowed the few years of locust abundance, and the greater effurts of the farmer, and better means of fighting, should be taken into account.

Chapter 3, in showing that the loss to the States between the Mis- sissippi and the Rocky Mountains from this insect between 1873—77 amounted to about $200,000,000, will serve to convey an idea to those not conversant with the facts of the vast importance of the question and the prominent role this tiny locust plays in the destiny of the country. When we reflect that these losses fell most heavily upon a {rontier population without wealth, we cease to wonder at the suffering and consternation that at times prevailed, and must admire the courage and fortitude with which the people have fought adversity. A means of arriving at these losses from two wholly different stand-points, and f-om entirely different data, has been employed, thereby rendering the one a check upon the other.

Chapter 4 treats of the effect of locust injury upon the agricultural

CHARACTER OF CHAPTERS. | 25

progress and development of the West; the crops most liable to and those most exempt from injury. It also discusses the best modes of cropping and the modeof farming that will give greatest security against locust ravages.

The facts brought Pore in considering the native or permanent breeding-grounds (Chapter 5) show tbis locust to be essentially boreal, and that, in its normal condition, it is contined to the more Hoititern plains. The area of its permanent abode lies principally east of the mountains, between latitude 37° and 52° and reaching to about the 102d meridian. West of the range the permanent breeding-grounds seem to be confined to more limited areas in the Snake River Valley and Cache and Malade Valley regions.

The chapter (6) on geographical distribution gives the limit of the range or spread of the species. The data obtained during the year fix the eastern limit along almost precisely the same line at which it had been previously established, broadly along the 94th meridian; but the northern, western, and southern boundaries are for the first time estab- lished with anything like definiteness. The exact eastern limit is given in the chapter. It is an interesting fact that both north and east the limit is, in the main, coequal with the timber-line. West of the mountains the line is in the neighborhood of the 118th meridian, the Cascade and Blue Mountain Ranges and the moisture beyond them appearing to be the most obvious barriers.

The Commission has made an especial effort to record all the move- ments of locusts during the year 1877, no less than 2,500 observations being recorded. The managers of each of the three lines across the country, viz, the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé, the Kansas Pacific, and the Union Pacific, assisted us by republishing our queries and in- structing their agents to report, so that we had three almost parallel lines checking each other.

The data in the chapter (7) on migrations and in the appendix (App. 12) show very clearly that the movements of the winged insects that hatch out in the temporary region is toward the north or the north- west early in summer, the direction being more and more due north toward the eastern limit. In other words, there is, as we first declared three years ago, a return migration toward the native breeding-grounds of the insects hatching in the temporary region. This return move- ment is very constant east of the plains and south of the 44th parallel, but less so north and west of those lines. Thus in Minnesota, from which the reports are very complete, the movements are much more irregular than in Iowa, and they are most regular in Texas. It is well established that there may be two contrary currents over considerable areas, while good evidence is produced to show that flight is not unfre- quently continued into the night, especially during fair, warm, and dry midsummer weather.

The observations in the extreme Northwest are meager, and while

26 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

flights from the south are recorded in July, passing over the Cypress _

Hills region in Northwest Territory, and reaching the North Saskatch- ewan at a few points, and even passing some distance north of Fort Carleton, yet from the want of data in the intermediate country we cannot say positively that these were continuations from our side the boundary-line, though the probability is that they were. The evidence —and it is very complete—indicates that some of the swarms that went northward the past season, threugh Minnesota and Dakota east of the Missouri, penetrated north of the boundary-line; but we know from the history of 1875, and from the experience of the Hon. Donald Gunn, of Winnepeg (App., 11), that the return migration does at times reach beyond said line, and that the insects often pass from the south over Manitoba during the month of June, or so early as to imply develop- ment several degrees south of that province.

The question as to what eventually became of these northward-return- ing Swarms was everywhere asked during the summer. The evidence is clear that, as in previous years, these returning insects were mostly so diseased and parasitized that they dropped in scattered numbers and perished on their northward and northwestward journey. This is no theory, but known to have been the case in the more thickly settled parts of Kansas, Nebraska, lowa, and Minnesota, from which the in- sects that dropped were reported, and in some cases sent tous. Mr. J. G. Kittson, of Fort Waish, Cypress Hills, British America, also reports that those which alighted there gradually disappeared without taking further flight, and that they were badly attacked by parasites (App. 11). As this return flight is principally over a vast plain and prairie re- gion that is thinly settled, the number of insects that dropped and were lost to sight in said plains must have been infinitely greater than that which was observed to come down in the more thickly settled regions to the east. We found the insects sparsely spread over the rank prairies west of Brainerd, along the Northern Pacific, and along Red River, and by this we mean that a few would hop from the grass at every step wherever we searched for them. We met with only here and there a straggler in Manitoba; but they were more numerous, as we have just seen, farther west. After the middle of July the flights began to trend in the opposite direction, or toward the south, and the data, which we have been at some pains to obtain on the autumn flights (App. 12), show that they were, as usual, pretty coustant in the same direction. It is clearly shown that in the more northern parts of the country the northward-bound insects are often driven back and forth, constantly diminishing in numbers, and from their harmlessness and the fact that the northwest breeding-grounds are known to have been measurably free in spring, if is more than probable that the autumn flights over the temporary region were made up of the more robust of the insects that had, earlier in the season, left that region. West of the Rocky Mount- ains, and in restricted sections in Montana, east of them, the flights prevail in other directions.

MOVEMENTS OF LOCUSTS. 27

Chapter 8 will be found to contain all that is at present accurately known on the general habits and natural history of the species, bring- ing out a number of new facts and correcting some errors which have heretofore prevailed. We would call especial attention to the por- tions which treat of the locations where eggs are preferably laid, the conditions of soil which most assist hatching, the general habits of the young, and to the two subchapters, which show that in the temporary region, south of the 44th parallel, the return migration to the North- west is so complete that no insects of any consequence remain in the autumn, and in which are given the reasons why, in said region, the eggs are never laid thickly for two consecutive years, and, as a conse- quence, severe injury in spring and early summer for two such consecu- tive years never takes place. We have also discussed here the philoso- phy of the migrating habit, showing pretty conclusively that it is not to be attributed to one cause alone, but to several causes.

The chapter on embryology and anatomy contains observations on the mode of growth and hatching of the embryo, and gives new facts regarding the external structure of the locust and the internal anatomy of the respiratory organs concerned in lightening the body during flight. The general and minute anatomy of the digestive system and of the nervous system is also for the first time given.

The chapter on transformations will be found interesting as giving exact knowledge on the number of molts suffered by the species, mode and manner of molting, and of getting wings, and the structural changes that take place during growth.

In chapter 11 will be found an illustrated account of all the more minute enemies of the locust that are known to attack it in this country. Several interesting scientific discoveries are recorded, and among these we would draw especial attention to the interesting transformations of the locust-mite, which is parasitic in its early 6-legged state upon the mature insect, and in its adult 8-legged state destroys the locust-eggs; also to the curious life-history of the blister-beetles, which in their larval state turn out to be locust-egg destroyers. The excessive multiplication of most of these natural enemies was very generally noticed during the past year, the ground in some places being red with the egg-feeding mites, and the air full of swarms of the Tachina-flies, from which come the maggots that eat out the vitals of the locust.

In chapter 12 are given the locust-feeding habits of many western animals not heretofore known to have that habit ; and the good offices of birds are specially made manifest, examinations of the stomachs of over 90 species and 630 specimens having been made with special refer- ence to their locust-eating habits. The record in reference to these ex- aminations is very full, giving the date, the locality, the common and scientific names of the species, and the number of locusts and of other insectsfoundineach. The value heretofore placed on these aids by ento- mologists is fully sustained by this record.

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In chapter 13, which is one of the most extended and most important practically, itis clearly shown that the young locusts may be controlled, and by what means, while the way is pointed out how to better control the winged insects. Many valuable devices for destruction are illus- trated, among them one invented by Mr. Riley, which gave entire satis- faction, and will, it is believed, supersede other contrivances as a cheap and practicable meaus of destruction, applicable at any season, whether the plants or the insects be small or large. In this chapter, also, the necessity of legislation, the relative merits of ditching, plowing, harrow- ing, the use of coal-oil, of various fluids and powders, and of burning are discussed ; as also the best means of protecting special plants and trees.

In chapters 14 and 15 the influence of prairie-fires and of weather on locust-iucrease is discussed. It is shown that prairie-fires can have but little influence on the multiplication of the insect except when they are judiciously manipulated and controlled as suggested in chapter 13. The effects of frost and of wet weather on the eggs and on the young insects have an important practical bearing, and we have given a Series of experiments which prove that the eggs are not greatly influenced either by frost or water. That they should resist intense cold was to be expected, since the species is boreal; but that they should remain im- pervious to constant soaking, is contrary to the prevailing views hith- erto held on the subject. They are, also, far less susceptible to alter- nate freezing and thawing than was anticipated. The young locusts, on the contrary, perish whenever the temperature falls more than fifteen degrees below freezing-point, while they are very seriously and injuri- ously affected by prolonged wet weather, especially if it be cold in ad- dition.

The effects that invariably follow severe locust-injury are treated of in chapter 16, and the changes that, in consequence of such injury, take place in the flora and fauna—the increase of some species and de- crease of others—are sometimes very striking. It must also be assur- ing to the people of the West to know that there are good and sufficient reasons why a year of great locust-devastation is apt to be followed by one of locust-immunity and good crops.

In chapter 17 we have discussed the uses to which locusts may be put, and, not to dilate here on their availability as food for various ani- mals, including man, as fish-bait, or as manure, the chemical analysis given of the dead locusts is quite interesting. The insects furnish a new oil, which we have christened Caloptine, and a very large percentage of formic acid. Though this acid exists in the ant and some other insects, it is with difficulty obtained in large quantities; whereas by the action of sulphuric acid upon the locust-juices it passes off with great readi- ness and in remarkable quantity and gravity. The various uses of this acid, whether as a therapeutic, &c., are capable of great and valuable extension where it can be obtained so readily and in such quantity.

In the two concluding chapters it is clearly shown that locust-ravages

FUTURE PROSPECTS. 29

are by no means confined to the country west of the Mississippi, but may occur and have occurred in other parts of the country, at times in great intensity. It is also shown that no quarter of the globe is exempt from these pests, and that the countries bordering mountain-ranges in Southern Europe, Asia, and Africa, especially, have, since biblical times, and, doubtless, ages before, been devastated at irregular periods by devouring locust hordes.

We cannot well close this introduction without some statement of our views as to the locust-prospects for the immediate future, since our opin- ions are constantly being asked for. That the insect will, in the future, again pour down at times from its breeding-grounds into the temporary region, unless, by the co-operation of the two governments interested, it dis prevented from so doing by the course we recommend, or by some still more feasible course yet to be discovered, there can be no reason- able doubt. Yet, in proportion as that country becomes settled will locust-injury be more and more easily controlled. But we do not hesi- tate to give it as our deliberate opinion that there will be no serious in- jury in such temporary region the coming summer, and, probably, not for several years to come. We rest this conclusion, first, on our per- sonal examinations the past autumn over much of the country named ; secondly, on the reports of correspondents in said country (App. 14); thirdly, on the reports from the extreme Northwest, or permanent region. These show that none of the insects of any consequence that hatched in the temporary region remained to lay eggs; that scarcely any eggs were laid by the scattering autumn swarms, and that, with few exceptions, the permanent region east of the mountains is likewise remarkably free of eggs.

Sn c

NOMENCLATURE. 31

CHAPTER I.

CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE—CHARACTERS OF ; THE SPECIES.

The great damage done in the West during the past few years by ‘“‘ crasshoppers” has caused these insects to be more closely observed than formerly, and the members of the Commission are from time to time re- ceiving specimens from persons both east and west inquiring whether they are the much-dreaded species. We have therefore concluded to give a brief outline of the classification of the family to which this species belongs, and of the characters by which the group and species may be distinguished from other groups and species which are closely allied.

When the popular name of a group of insects or other animals, that is generally accepted, corresponds somewhat closely in its application to the scientific division, it is not difficult to convey to the general reader a correct idea of the position and characters of a given species by refer- ence to and comparison with well-known species of that group. Un- fortunately, in the present instance, not only is the opportunity for refer- ence to well-known species wanting, but the popular names applied to species and groups are so confused and erroneous that their use is calcu- lated to convey incorrect ideas to unscientific readers.

Even the name locust as formerly, and yet very generally, applied in this country is incorrectly used, referring to an insect not even belonging to the same order as the locusts of oriental countries.

The “ seventeen-year locust” of North America is, in fact, not a locust in the true sense, but a species of Cicada, or harvest-fly, belonging to the order Hemiptera, which contains only insects with a mouth prolonged into a horny, jointed tube formed for sucking the juices of the plants or animals on which they feed.

On the contrary, the locusts of the Old World, to which the term was originally and correctly applied, are species of migratory grasshoppers belonging to the order Orthoptera, and are furnished with strong biting jaws or mandibles. There are other very material differences between the two, but these will suffice to show that they are quite distinct.

The very common name “ grasshopper ” has likewise been unfortunate in its use and application not only in a popular sense, but even by scientists, referring at one time to the true locusts or to the various species of the family to which they belong, and at another to species of a different family, which includes katydids. In fact, the term as gener- ally used applies to most of the species of two different families of Or- thoptera. In order, therefore, to convey a correct idea of the destructive

32 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

species now under consideration we are necessarily compelled to fall back upon the scientific arrangement and characters of the family, sub- divisions, and species. Commencing with the order, we will give briefly the characters of the various divisions and subdivisions leading to the genus Caloptenus, to which the Rocky Mountain locust belongs, omitting those divisions and groups not represented in the United States, and referring only to those characters which are most easily recognized, and- which apply specially to our acridian fauna.

The Order ORTHOPTERA is distinguished from the other orders of the insect class chiefly by the following characters: Mouth furnished with mandibles or strong biting jaws; wings four (occasionally wanting), upper pair coriaceous or parchment-like and flexible; under pair thin and membranous, folding lengthwise only in plaits like a fan; trans- fcrmations incomplete, being active in all stages after hatching from the egg.

Although not as extensive as some other orders, it contains a large number of species which differ very materially in appearance and charac- ters, and are generally known in this country by the common names earwigs, cockroaches, devil’s-horses, walking-sticks, grasshoppers, and crickets. [ach of these names, except the next to the last, represents a distinct family of the order, thus:

PORWAIGS eS Aa PE eo See ee ORI | ES Family 1. Forficulide. VOOEKLOAE ESR Ties SE IRS eae ee Family 2. Blattide. iewd sshorses*ieu. Sees SRO REY Lee. eee a eee Family 3. Mantide. Wiallkine sticks Poe 2h Gayo ae sis ere ae Family 4. Phasmide. Grasshoppers oe ancients se Banal eam Cricketsi2 tbe eaten : wie Saeiae kes ees Family 7. Gryllide.

As will be seen from this list, there is no confusion between the scien- tific and common names until we reach *‘ grasshoppers,” among which our insect belongs. Other names, it is true, are sometimes applied to insects of the previous families, but with the exception of ‘‘ earwig” they correspond in their application with the family limits as here given. As before stated, the term “ grasshopper” is applied to msects of two families—Acridide and Locustide; but notwithstanding this difficulty in using the popular name, the insects which compose the family are easily distinguished from each other by prominent characters.

Locustide includes those species usually found on the grass, bushes, and trees, which have very long, thread-like antenne, generally longer than the body of the insect ; the tarsi or feet are four-jointed ; the female is furnished at the tip of the abdomen with an exserted ovipositor, usually more or less curved and sword-shaped; and the upper wings of the male are furnished, at the base, with a peculiar arrangement of the. nerves, with which, by rubbing them together, they produce sharp, shrill notes. To this family belong the true grasshoppers, the katydids, and

LOCUST VS. GRASSHOPPER. JO

similar insects; it is true there are other species which strongly resemble and are usually called “ crickets” that belong to this family.

Acridide, includes those species which usually reside on the ground, and are distinguished from those of the other families of saltatorial orthoptera by the following characters:

The antennz are comparatively short, never exceeding the body in length, and in North American species composed of from twelve to twenty-five joints; the tarsi are apparently three-jointed ; the females are furnished at the tip of the abdomen with four short corneous pieces, two of which curve upward and two downward; the male is without the shrilling organ at the base of the wings found in the Locustide.

This family contains the true locusts, such as those of oriental coun- tries and the Rocky Mountain locust; also such so-called grasshoppers as the common red-legged species of the States and those found hop- ping on the ground in open waste fields, along roadsides, &c. There- fore, in speaking hereafter of these species, we shall use the term locust. As the family contains a very large number of species varying consid- erably in form and character, entomologists have endeavored to divide it into sections or subfamilies, by bringing together those minor groups having certain characters in common. The various results of these - attempts cannot be introduced here, as this would not only require too much space, but also the introduction of matter of purely scientific in- terest, and of no practical use in this brief review of the classification.

These subdivisions vary in number according to the characters selected by the different authors, some making as many as eleven sub- families, others only two or three. Yet, as a general rule, the difference is not so much in the grouping as in the value attached to the groups, the subfamilies of one author being considered as subordinate divisions by other authors.

Without undertaking at this time to decide upon the respective mer- its of these several arrangements, we have selected for present purposes that which makes but three subfamilies, as it appears to be the simplest and most easily understood by general readers. In our descriptions of these subdivisions we shall confine ourselves to those represented in the orthopteral fauna of that portion of North America north of Mexico, and so far as possible select such characters only as are necessary to distin- guish these divisions from each other. The first subfamily, Proscopine, contains only exotic species, and may therefore be omitted from further consideration.

The second subfamily, Acridina, is distinguished by having the pro- notum in tbe form of a shield, which covers the prothorax and extends backward at farthest only a short distance upon the base of the abdo- men, never reaching more than half way to the tip, and seldom half this distance; the prosternum or front breast is drawn up, that is, it is not in the same plane as the rest of the sternum or breast; it is spined,

3G

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tubercled, or smooth, but never advanced upon the mouth in the form

of a muffler; elytra or upper wings, when preseut, always as long as

the wings; tarsi with pads between the claws.

The third subfamily, Tettigine, is characterized by having the prono- tum, in the form of a shield, extending backward nearly or quite to the tip of the abdomen, and sometimes even beyond it; the prosternum in the same plane as the rest of the sternum, and advanced upon the mouth in the form of a muffler; elytra when present usually shorter than the wings, and placed at the sides of the body; tarsi without pads between the claws. |

The two latter families are represented in the United States, but the great body of our locusts belong to the Acridine, the species of Tettigine being comparatively few, quite smail, and seldom noticed by unscientific observers. As the Caloptenus spretus and all other migra- tory locusts belong to Acridine, we shall limit our further consideration to this subfamily. It contains several subordinate groups, but the charac- ters by which these are distinguished from each other are not so appar- ent and uniform as those separating the subfamilies, nor is it necessary for us in this general report to attempt an explanation of these differ- ences. Perhaps we may as well state here that no arrangement we have seen can be considered satisfactory. The form of the head and antenna, formerly selected as characters, are too indefinite to meet the demands of science, while those adopted by Stal in his most recent arrangement can scarcely be considered of sufficient value or importance to render them more satisfactory ; they also fail to separate forms which we think ought not be brought together. To bring togetber the long conical head, ensiform antenne, and elongate body of Truzxalis with the round head, filiform antennz, and massive bodies of some of the heavier Oedipodea, and to separate such forms as Pachytylus migratorius and Acridium pere- grinum, cannot be justified simply because of the presence or absence of a little prosternal spine or transverse pronotal sulcus. The difficulty arises from the fact that the Truxalide gradually separate into the two branches represented in part by the Acridit and Oedipode, the transition from the former to the two latter being so gradual that it is almost im- possible to mark the dividing line. But any system which fails to recog- nize the Truxalid group and yet separates the two latter is defective and unsatisfactory.

Therefore, for want of a better arrangement, we adopt for the present the following, although aware that it is defective, but it enables us to eliminate the Truxalid group, which is the only use we wish to make of it at this time.

A. The head conical or pyramidal; the face very oblique, or sloped under toward the breast; the antennez usually, though not always, enlarged at the base; hind legs comparatively slender.

Truxalini.

CHARACTERS OF MIGRATORY LOCUSTS. 35

A A. Head more or less ovoid or subglobular; face perpendicular or nearly so, never very oblique, though often somewhat arcuate below; antenne filiform, subdepressed or clavate, and not en- larged at the base; hind legs generally robust and very distinctly enlarged at the base.

a. Prosternum or front breast armed with a spine or tubercle. Acridint.

OG BYESternU nN mMATMedE: FA as iss anicte scien steriotolets ace Oedipodini. Although at least one species of Oedipodind is migratory in the Old

World, and a species in North America (Camnula pellucida Scudd.) be-

longing to the same group was formerly supposed to be the migratory

locust of California, vet at present our observations are confined to

Acridini, which contains the destructive locust of the West. This limits

us to those species found in the United States which have the head more

or legs subglobular or ovoid, and the front breast armed with a spine.

The latter character is easily recognized by any one, as the spine may

be seen by examining the under side of the neck; it usually stands out

like a little blunt thorn, very distinct. If this is wanting, the observer

- may know without further observation that his specimen does not belong

to the migratory species of our country. If it has the spine, and the head is not conical or pyramidal, then he must refer to the characters hereafter given of the genera and species.

We have now reached the genera, which cannot be fully discussed at present, as this would require, if properly done, a revision of the Calop- tent and Pezotettigi, and an examination of all our native species. We will, therefore, simply mention the more important genera of the group represented in the United States, calling attention to a few of the more prominent characters by which Caloptenus is separated from those genera most closely allied toit. We will also make use of localities, habits, &e., wherever they will assist the general reader in any way in determining whether or not a given specimen belongs to Caloptenus.

The following genera of Acridit which are mentioned by North Ameri- ean authors may be omitted from further consideration for the reasons given below:

Tropidacris, Dictyophorus, Rhomalea, Ommatolampis, Platyphyma, Dactylotum, and Chromacris.

The first contains only gigantic species, and if represented at all in the United States, it is only by a single species occasionally found along the southwestern border of Texas.

Ihomalea may be considered as a synonym of Dictyaphorus, which is represented by but two subtropical species, which are large, with brightly colored under-wings, chiefly red; while those of our Calopteni are transparent.

Ommatolampis has been superseded by Mr. Scudder’s new genus Hes- perotettin.

36 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Platyphyma and Chromacris have probably been introduced by mis- take.

Dactylotum has been introduced into our nomenclature for the recep- tion of a very short-winged and brightly-colored species—Pezotettixz picta Thos.

This leaves only the following genera as necessary to be considered :

Acridium, Caloptenus, Hesperotettix and Pezotettix.

As Hesperotettiz contains, so far as we are aware, but three species, easily distinguished from Caloptenus spretus by the following characters and facts, it may also be excluded: One is short-winged, green, and found only in the Eastern Middle States; another somewhat common in the West is green, with reddish bands around the femora; the other has so far been found only in Arizona; it is yellow, thickly dotted over with black, and the antenne annulated with alternate colors.

There is a difference of opinion in reference to the characters of the genera Caloptenus and Pezotettix; Protessor Stal, of Sweden, maintain- ing that if properly limited Caloptenus does not embrace any of our species. He places C. femur-rubrum, and consequently the closely allied species, in Pezotettix. Without attempting to discuss the question so far as it relates to the proper characters, we have concluded, for reasons which will be mentioned further on, to retain the name Caloptenus and to use the genus in the sense understood by American and most Euro- pean authors. Although the chief distinction between this genus and Pezotettix, as adopted in this country, the difference in the length of the wings, cannot be considered satisfactory, yet, as it will answer present purposes, we will avail ourselves of it in order to eliminate the group from consideration. Acridium, so far as represented in the United States, may be characterized as follows:

Vertex but slightly inclined, angularly expanded in front of the eyes; antennal grooves profound and extending downward to the clypeus ; eyes elongate-elliptical. Pronotum somewhat compressed on the sides, depth usually considerably more than the width, moderately but dis- tinctly expanding behind the last sulcus (very slightly in rwbiginosum) ; lateral carinz obsolete on the anterior lobes, the sides round‘ng up somewhat as the sides of an arch to the median carina; the dorsum of the posterior lobe more flattened, with the lateral carinz subdistinet ; the lower margin of the lateral lobes straight, the posterior lateral angle slightly obtuse, varying from about 100° to 110°; posterior margin ob- tuse-angled and rounded at the tip. Elytra and wings, with one ex- ception, considerably longer than theabdomen, and in the exception pass it slightly. Abdomen elongate, rather slender; that of the male not en- larged at the tip; the last segment of the male subconical and dis- tinctly notched at the tip, usually with a square notch; cerci of the male flat, usually broad, oblong, and straight. Prosternal spine, robust, subeylindrical, blunt, and approximating the margin of the mesoster- num. The spines of the posterior tibize always have at least the basal

|

GENERIC NOMENCLATURE. 37

portion pale, either yellowish or white, even when the tibia are black. Posterior femora long, reaching to the tip of the abdomen, moderately robust, the outer face flat.

The species, with one exception, are large, the females exceeding two

inches in length; the exception, rubiginosum, is rare in the West, and so

far has not been found west of the Mississippi. We have omitted A. Frontalis Thos., as it does not properly belong to this genus, having been placed here by the author provisionally. As it is green, there is no danger of its being confounded with C. spretus. To this genus be- longs A. americanum, a large reddish-brown species, marked on the outer wings with cellular quadrate fuscous spots, which often does con- siderable injury to crops in the sections south of the latitude of Saint Louis, which is nearly its northern limit. In 1875 and 1876, and even in 1877, it was seen migrating in considerable numbers, causing much alarm, as those who saw them supposed they were veritable Rocky Mountain locusts. Such flights were observed in Southeast Indiana, Scuthwest Ohio, Southern Illinois, and Georgia. These flights are very limited in extent, reaching at farthest but a mile or two. Their large size, coloring, generic characters, and southern habitats will readily distingush them from the C. spretus. We may remark here that one of the most destructive migratory species of Southwestern Asia and Northern Africa (Acridium peregrinum) is not only congeneric with this species, but so closely resembles it that ordinary observation would scarcely detect the differences between the two.

As before stated, the characters by which the genus Pezotettix is dis- tinguished are not satisfactory, and undoubtedly require revision, but in this country the abbreviation or want of wings has generally been adopted as a leading character, which, whether well-chosen or not, is sufficient to distinguish its species from C. spretus, which answers our present purpose. This limits us to the genus Caloptenus, and the species belonging to it which are found north of Mexico.

As before intimated, Dr. Stal, of Sweden, in his recent work on Orthoptera (Recensio Orthopterorum), has so modified the characters of Caloptenus (if we admit his Calliptenus as a synonym) and Pezotettix, that none of our species which have heretofore been piaced in the former can be retained, some, as C. femur-rubrum, C. spretus, and closely allied species being referred to a subdivision of the latter genus named by the author Melanoplus. He emends the Calliptamus of Serville to Calliptenus.

If this change is followed, it will add to the confusion of the nomen- clature of this group, inflicting on it a host of synonyms where they are already too numerous. If the rule in relation priority require this change, then we might be disposed to submit to it and adopt it, other- wise we prefer to retain those names which by long usage and general acceptance have been woven into all of our entomological and other writings where the insects of this group are mentioned. Let us then

38 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

examine this point for a moment, using what Mr. Thomas has stated in his article on Orthoptera in Lieutenant Wheeler’s report of his explora- tions as a basis.

Dr. Stal holds that we have no Caloptent in North America, most of the species which have usually been placed in that genus being refer- able to Pezotettiz. In his diagnosis of these genera the chief distine- tions given are as follows: In Calliptenus the elytra are destitute of the intercalate vein; the posterior femora broad and distinctly serrateabove; the posterior sulcus in the middle or before the middle.

In Pezotettix the elytra are usually abbreviated or rudimentary, and furnished with an intercalate vein; the upper margin of the posterior femora entire and unarmed; posterior suleus of the pronotum some- times situated behind the mnddle,

The genus was established by Serville in 1831,in his article entitled “Revue Methodique des Insectes de Vordre We Orthopteéres,” vol. 22, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, with the following as its distinguishing characters :

Calliptamus (kaAdo¢ uxrauat). Posterior legs longer than the body, robust, and salta- torial. Abdomen firm, neither inflated nor vesicular. Anterior extremity of the pros- ternum not covering the mouth, the latter [prosternum] having a rather -robust, straight, and obtuse point [spine]. A pad (rather small) between the tarsal claws. Antenne filiform, composed of more than twenty cylindric rather indistinct joints. Head vertical, without frontal projection, or having one that is but slightly prominent, and obtuse anteriorly. The middle carinz of the face with a space between them; sometimes but slightly prominent inferiorly. Ocellusdistinet. Tibiz neither widened or channeled above; lower three-fourths of the upper side with two rows of closely- set spines; first joint of the tarsi elongated. Eyes oval. Pronotum distinctly tricar- inate above; lateral carinz as prominent as the median one; its transverse striz slightly distinct. Posterior margin more orlessrounded. Elytra and wings of ordinary length. Legs robust.

in this genus he included the following species:

1. C. sanguinipes, from South America. 2. C. ttalicus, from Africa and Europe. 3. C. morio, from Africa, Switzerland, and Pyrenees.

It is evident the author did not base his diagnosis chiefly on C. italicus, as some of the characters used are made prominent because of their greater prominence in one of the other of the three species.

Afterward, in 1839, in his Histoire des Orthoptéres, the same author removed C.morio to Gdipoda, as it was in fact no Aeridian; he also returned C. sanguinipes to Acridium. He also gave a new diagnosis of the genus, as follows:

Posterior legs robust, much shorter than in the preceding genus (Acridium) ; femora short, much enlarged, very strongly channeled below; tibixe short, stout, having on the lower three-fourths of the upper side two rows of spines, the basal ones very short ; the under side of the femora and upper side of the tibiz fringed with fine hairs; the

terminal spines (or spurs) large, curved. Tarsi straight, furnished with a little pad between the claws; the first joint of the posterior as long as the two last united.

SUBGENERIC CHARACTERS. 39

Head large; anterior face vertical; with four distinct carine ; front a little fattened between the eyes, and also strongly suleate. Antenne short, filiform, multiarticulate ; joints indistinct, cylindrical. Pronotum short, shagreened, or almost smocth; its disk flat; transverse incisions feeble; dorsal carina distinct, lateral more or less prominent ; the posterior border sloped slightly obliquely on the sides; median point somewhat salient. Prosternum furnished in the middle with a strong spine, somewhat enlarged, and very obtuse at the apex. Elytra short, not passing the abdomen, generally equal to it in length. Wings short, not quite the length of the elytra. Eyes large, oblong, slightly prominent. Palpi short; joints cylindrical. Breast large, flaf. Abdomen en- larged, strongly unicarinate above; terminal pieces of the female short, as are also the appendages (cerci). Subanal plate of the male somewhat triangular, pointed, and entire at the tip; elevated or straight; appendages of this sex more or less long ; some-

times setaceous and curved; in others larger, horny, curved inwards, and truncate at the tip.

Here he divides the genus into two sections, as follows :

First. Abdominal appendages of the male sometimes setaceous, a little curved as the horn of an ox. Subanal plate of the male rather short, elevated. Pronotum sha- greened; its posterior median point somewhat prominent.

Second. Abdominal appendages of the male very large, corneous, bent interiorly en cuiller at the extremity, where it is subtruncate. Subanal plate of the male almost straight.

C. italicus is placed in the latter division. .

The removal of the two species mentioned above left C. italicus as the only original representative of his genus. But in the mean time Bur- meister redescribes the genns, and changes the name to Caloptenus, in- cluding in it as describad and understood by him not only ttalicus, but also the American species femur-rubrum, femoratus, and bivittatus, be- sides a nnmber of other exotic species. This author in his Handbuch der Entomologie (1838) describes the genus as follows, giving Calliptamus of Serville as a synonym :

A more compressed and yet in general more pleasing structure of the body betrays the members of this genus. Moreover, its head stands entirely vertical, has no no- ticably prominent apex, and the two median frontal carinz are united into a flat bulge, which, in the neighborhood of the lower ocellus, is obsolete. The margins of the vertex in front of the eyes are rather sharp, and the part between them is notice- ably depressed (sulcate). The strong mouth parts (mandibles) are distinguished, on closer examination, by sevéral pointed teeth on the inner margin. The pronotum has distinctly marked lateral borders (or carinz), and a sometimes distinctly, sometimes less prominent median line (carina); the posterior margin is more or less salient ; and the last of the transverse impressed lines cuts the median carina abont its middle. The prosternum has an obtuse vertical spine: the flat meso- and metasternum are broad. Wings and elytra without distinctive characters. Hind femora thick, strongly com- pressed, with prominent carina above; as long as the abdomen. The male in this genus is especially distinguished by the great development of its genitalia, which causes a spherical thickening of the apex of the abdomen. The terminal ventral plate is, moreover, sometimes large, and envelopes the apex, and sometimes no longer than usual; in the Jatter case the cerci are very large and curved inward.

In this C. femoratus, “ from Carolina,” appears to be his type; C. Jemur-rubrum being placed next, and C. italicus third,

40 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Attention is called to the fact that neither of the authors mentioned alludes to the serratures on the posterior femora, or want of the inter- calate vein of the elytra. Serville evidently intended, by some of the characters given in his first description of the genus, to distinguish it from Pneumora, belonging to a wholly different group; his pronatal characters are also inapplicaple to most of the species which have usually been placed in the genus. Omitting these, nothing remains in his diag- nosis but what is applicable to a number of other genera.

Taking these facts into consideration, we are forced to consider the Caloptenus of Burmeister, although given but as an emendation of Ser- ville’s Calliptamus, asreally a newgenus. This being the case, C. femur- rubrum must be retained as the type, unless femoratus is considered a good species.

It is also worthy of remark that Seville’s genus does not appear to have been adopted or used by any other author previous to the publica- tion of Burmeister’s Handbuch. On the contrary, Braulle (Hist. Nat., 1835); O. G. Costa (Fauna di Napoli, 1836), and Hahn (Icon. Orthop., 1855), retain t¢alicus in Acridium.

The character of Caloptenus and Pezotettiz, as given by H. Fischer, (Orthoptera Europea, 1853) were evidently intended to embrace only European species, and although we infer from his remarks that be would include our species of Calopteni in the former genus, yet the characters render it very doubtful where they would fall.

Therefore, while we admit that the group stood sadly in need of re- vision at the time Stal entered upon the work, yet we do not think the facts warrant him in dropping the generic name Caloptenus or in remov- ing femur-rubrum therefrom, hence we cannot follow him in this change. This is, perhaps, not a proper place to discuss a question of this kind, but we have considered it necessary to say this much in ex- planation of our reasons for differing with so distinguished an entomol- ogist in his special field as Dr. Stal.

Under the circumstances it is perhaps best that we should define the genus as we understand it, or at least give the characters which the North American species have in common which we include in Caloptenus. These are as follows:

CALOPTENUS, Gen. char.

Head subglobular, front vertical,or nearly so. Eyes ovoid, sometimes almost sub- orbicular, but usually the length is to the breadth as three to two, and the front side is more or less straightened; usually the upper canthus is more or less angular, but some- times it is rounded so as to obliterate the angle; generally rounder and more promi- nent in the male than in the female; separated above by a little less than their width. Vertex narrow between the eyes, the width at this point being a little less than the width of the eye; usually though not always sulcate, the sulcus or groove shallow ; expanding slightly, abruptly, and angularly immediately in front of the eyes; deflexed (15° to 40°), and generally rounded in front. Frontal costa usually quite prominent, about as broad as the vertex between the eyes; sides parallel; flat, or shallowly sulcate,

DIAGNOSIS OF THE GENUS CALOPTENUS. Al

reaching to or nearly to the clypeus. Pronotom subquadrate, that is to say, a cross section (in the middle) will present a quadrate figure or parallelogram with the upper corners slightly rounded; the sides are nearly perpendicular; the disk or dorsal sur- face is very nearly flat, with a little thread-like, median carina, usually distinct on the posterior lobe, but sometimes obliterated on the middle and anterior lobes; the lateral carinw are obtuse, but distinctly marked as the angle where the disk and sides meet; on the posterior lobe they sometimes appear as true carinz, though not prominent or sharp; the lower margin of the sides is nearly straight, sometimes projecting a little in the middle, where the triangular corner piece connects ; the posterior lateral margin varies somewhat; in some species it forms a distinct entering angle at the shoulder or lateral carina, in others it continues to the tip in an almost straight line; the three transverse incisions are distinct and situated close together, the posterior one being a little behind the middle and always cutting the middle carina; all three sever the lateral carine, but the anterior one ends at the upper margin of the sides with a slight and short curve forward; the posterior and middle ones extend down the sides well toward the lower margin, and most generally about midway down the posterior sends out at right angles a branch sulcus which often crosses the intermediate space to the middle one; there is also a fourth sulcus extending down the sides close to the anterior margin; the posterior sulcus and usually the middle one make a short curve forward immediately at the median carina; the posterior margin is obtuse-angled, rounded at the tip; the posterior lobe is usually finely punctured, while the middle and anterior lobes have « velvety or felty appearance.

The elytra and wings extend to or beyond the tip of the abdomen; the former are narrow (except in C. bivittatus); the latter transparent in all our species ; sometimes a very slight greenish-yellow or a bluish tinge is observed, the nerves usually more or less dark. The abdomen is usually subcyhndrical, presenting no distinct keel above; that of the male enlarged at the tip and curved upward; the cerci are usually flat, rounded at the tip, and curved up but some are straight and others tapering. The last abdominal segment, which curves upward like the prow of a boat, is some- times truncate above, sometimes with a slight angular notch. Posterior femora ro- bust, much enlarged near the base, the external face more or less convex, in the female never longer and generally shorter than the abdomen; in the male the reveres is the rule. Pads between the claws large, reaching a maximum size in some of the species. Most of our species have the upper portion of the inner face of the posterior thighs marked with three oblique dark bands (the one at the base often indistinct). There is generally a dark stripe on the side running back from the eye to the last transverse sulcus of the pronotum; it is often interrupted, broken, or partially obliterated, but is seldom wholly wanting in those species any way closely allied to C. spretus or C. femur-rubrum. ‘The antenne are filiform and slender, reaching their maxi- mum length in the male of C. differentialis, where they sometimes attain the middle of the body. The prosternal spine is usually stout and conical, quadrangular at the base, and generally slightly transverse; in one or two species it approximates the mesoster- num, but this is not usual.

Our species vary in length from 6-10 to 24 inches.

The genus as thus characterized is represented in the territory em- braced in our observations by a number of species, several of which are so closely allied to C. spretus that it is difficult for any but an expe- rienced entomologist to determine to which a specimen belongs. We think it more than likely that future investigations will show that several | of the species which have been described as distinct are but varieties of other closely-allied species.

The following list contains all the species found in the United States

42 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

which have been described up to the present time, except a few men- tioned by older authors, which have not been identified in recent vears:

C. femur-rubrum, Deg. C. robustus, Scudd. CU. Yarrowii, Thos. spretus, Thos. Turnbullii, Thos. regalis, Dodge. atlanis, Riley. floridanus, Thos. Sasciatus, Seudd. repletus, Walk. angustipennis, Dodge. _helluo, Scudd. bilituratis, Walk. plumbum, Dodge. devorator, Scudd. punctulatus, Ubler. bivittatus, Say. ponderosus, Scudd. lurida, Dodge. differentialis, Thos. flavolineatus, Thos. minor, Scudd. griseus, Thos. Keelerii, Thos. gracilipes, Scudd. scriptus, Walk. volucris, Dodge. deletor, Scudd. occidentalis, Thos.

Although this list of species is somewhat large, it will be necessary to call attention to but few of them, as the larger number can easily be disposed of by reference to locality or a single character.

C. spretus, or Rocky Mountain locust, as will hereafter be more fully shown, is a comparatively small species, the body seldom exceeding one inch and a quarter in length, slender, the elytra or upper wings longer than the body, of a pale brownish color, with small squarish darker spots arranged along the middle line; body some shade of brown, never distinctly green or bright yellow, and without pale or yellow stripes along the back.

By referring to locality, we may eliminate the following species:

C. floridanus and Keelerti. So far only found in Florida.

C. griseus. With spots scattered over the elytra; rare, and hitherto dis- covered only in Ohio.

C. bivittatus. A widely-dispersed species, much larger than spretus, with two yellow or pale stripes along the back.

C. differentialis. Our largest species belonging to the genus, one and a half to two inches long, without spots on the elytra.

CO. Turnbullii. Dull yellowish-brown, with two broad yellow stripes; wings scarcely as long as the abdomen.

C. repletus and scriptus. Hitherto found only in northwest part of Wash- ington Territory.

The following species are local in the places mentioned, and are dis- tinguished by having the last abdominal segment of the male rounded or squarely truncate at the tip, whereas that of spretus is notched :

C. plumbum, Nebraska; tip of male abdomen rounded.

C. ponderosus, Texas; tip of male abdomen rounded.

C. robustus, Texas; tip of male abdomen rounded.

C. devorator, Texas; tip of the male abdomen truncate.

C. deletor, Texas; tip of the male abdomen rounded.

C. glaucipes, Texas; tip of the male abdomen acuminate but rounded. C. fasciatus, Texas and Nebraska; tip of the male abdomen rounded. C. minor, Nebraska; very small; tip of the male abdomen tuberculate, O. lurida, Nebraska; last ventral segment of the male entire.

SPECIES OF THE GENUS CALOPTENUS. 43

C. volucris, Nebraska; terminal segment of the male abdomen pointed at the tip; elytra unspotted.

Some of these are doubtless good species and may be found to be more widely distributed than our present knowledge would indicate. Some of them are most probably local offshoots or varieties of femur-rubrum. C. helluo is from Texas; the female only has been observed, aes has

the spots on the elytra scattered throughout.

C. regalis has been observed at only one locality in Nebraska, is very distinct, being marked to a greater or less degree with bluish and white; disk of the elytra white, and veins of the wings white; hind tibie bright blue, with a white annulus near the knee.

C. Yarrowii is known only by a single female, probably from Arizona, but possibly from Nevada; elytra brown, with oblong yellow spots along the disk, scarcely as long as the abdomen.

C. flavolineatus, from Southern California, is evidently very closely allied to spretus, and in all probability is but a southwest or Pacific coast variety of it. It is distinguished from that species by being some- what fleshier, shorter wings, and its bright yellow lines. The last ventral segment of the male is very slightly notched.

C. angustipennis has been observed only in Nebraska, and is evidently a local variety of C. atlanis ; in fact, the characters given scarcely justify its being designated as a variety.

C. punctulatus, found in New England, is probably nothing more than a sectional variety of femur-rubrum.

C. occidentalis, found west from Minnesota to Colorado, although possess- ing distinctive characters, is probably nothing more than an offshoot from femur-rubrum, not like atlanis in the direction of spretus.

C. bilituratus, Washington Territory, has been observed at but one or two points.

This leaves but three species, femur-rubrum, spretus, and atlantis, which require special mention in this connection, as they are the only ones generally distributed which are so closely allied to each other as to render it difficult to distinguish them.

Caloptenus spretus, Thomas.

As every fact relating to the history and habits of this species is either of economic or scientific interest, we give here a brief history of its no- menclature. |

About 1860, Mr. Thomas, then residing in Southern Illinois, sent some specimens of Orthoptera collected in that locality to Mr. P. R. Uhler, of Baltimore, Md., for determination; among those returned was one: marked Acridium spretis, with a note stating that it was new.

In a paper written by Mr. Thomas on “ Insects injurious to vegetation in Illinois,” in 1862, but not published until 1865 (Trans. Ill. St. Ag. Soc., V), he describes a species of locust under the name A. spretis Uhler, as follows:

General color a dark, brownish purple, with dusky points and lighter rays. Head brown, with dusky points; antennz reddish yellow. Thorax an ashy brown, with a

44 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

velvety luster on the anterior half, the latter half punctured ; the lower edges, at the sides, paler—sometimes pale red, at others almost white. Elytra extending about half over the abdomen (or not exceeding two-thirds), marked along their internal margins with a light, reddish-brown ray ; external margin dusky; a few dusky dots along the internal margins. Wings not quite as long as the elytra; transparent, pale yellowish on the disk, tinged with red at the base (in recent specimens). Posterior thighs crossed by two black bands, and black at the knees; intermediate spaces pale yellow—often almost white. Length of female, one inch and three-eighths; of the male, slightly over an inch.

This species is quite common here along the road-side and among low weeds and grass.

Immediately after this, in the same paper, follows a brief description of femur-rubrum, showing that he then considered the two species as dis- tinct. But there is evidently some mistake in his description; although it agrees in part with the characters of spretus, part of the description cannot possibly apply to that species. The original specimens were destroyed soon after the paper alluded to was written, and Mr. Thomas is unable at present to explain the error, and knows of no species in Southern Illinois to which the description will apply throughout. It is more than probable that there was some confusion of specimens at the time the description was written. It is possible that one or more of the three specimens ‘a. b. c.” (Walker’s Cat. Dermap. Salt.) of the British Museum are from the collection made by Mr. Thomas at that time.

In the “ Practical Entomologist” (October, 1866), Mr. Walsh notices this species somewhat at length under the name of Caloptenus spretus, quot- ing Mr. Uhler as authority, but gives no further description than a com- parison of the length of the wings with those of C. femur-rubrum.

In Mr. Scudder’s ‘Catalogue of the Orthoptera of North America,” published in 1868, it is mentioned under the name Acridium spretum Uhler.

No description of the species having been published previous to the appearance of the *“* Snyopsis of the Acrididz of North America,” Mr. Thomas described it as follows:

Very much like C. femur-rubrum, Burm., the principal difference being in the length of the elytra and wings, a notch at the tip of the last ( ¢) ventral segment. Posterior lobe of the pronotum slightly expanding; median somewhat distinct. Elytra and wings pass the abdomen about one-third their length. The last ( g ) ventral segment, which is turned up almost vertically, is somewhat tapering and is notched at the apex, which distinguishes it from the femur-rubrum ; the notch is small, but is distinct. Pros- ternal spine, robust, subcylindrical, transverse. Migratory.

Color.—Scarcely distinct from the C. femur-rubrum. The occiput and disk of the pro- notum generally reddish-brown ; the posterior lobe somewhat paler than the anterior and middle. Spots as in femur-rubrum, arranged in a line along the middle of the ely- tra; these are a little larger and more abundant toward the apex. The head and tho- rax are sometimes a very dark olive-brown, at others reddish-brown and even brown- ish-yellow, the color deepening withage. The wings are pellucid, nerves dusky toward the apex; when flying high and against the sun their wings look like large snow-flakes.

Dimensions.— 2 Length (to tip of abdomen) 1 to 1.2 inches; elytra as long as the body ; posterior femora, 9.55 inch ; pesterior tibiz,0.5inch. ¢ Length, 0.85 to 1 inch; elytra, 0.9 to 1.05 inch.

‘DESCRIPTIONS OF CALOPTENUS SPRETUS. 45

This must, therefore, be accepted as the first description of the spe-

cies. In the Report of the Geological Survey of the Territories for 1871 (published in 1872), he described the pupz as follows :

General color, yellow (sometimes varied to light-brown, and at others a pale pea- green), with a large proportion of black spots and stripes, also a few white dots and lines; labrum and lower part of the face, mostly black; upper part of the face, the vertex and cheeks yellow (or the prevailing color); a row of black dots on each mar- gin of the broad, sulcate, frontal costa; occiput with two lateral and one median dot- ted lines of black; a broad line of deep black starts behind each eye and crosses over the entire length of the pronotum, widening and bowing upward near the middle of the pronotum ; the immature, somewhat fan-shaped elytra [wing-pads] are black, with a white dot on the disk near the base, from which proceed about ten or twelve white rays, the dorsal or upper margiu yellow ; dorsal and lateral portions of the abdomen

‘varied with white and black; a triangular black dot on each side of each segment ; tip and venter yellowish.

In his * Seventh Annual Report” (1875), Mr. Riley gives the follow- ing additional characters of the perfect insect from living specimens, also the following descriptions of the larva and pupa:

Regarding coloration, as with femur-rubrum, it is quite variable, and the dead spec- imens convey a very imperfect idea of the living colors, which are thus given in my notes taken in the field. The more common specimens are yellowish-white beneath ; glaucous across the breast and about mouth-parts; pale bluish-glaucous, often with shades of purple, on the sides of the head and thorax and on the front of the face; olive-brown on the top of the head and thorax; pale beneath, more or less bluish above, and marked with black, especially toward base, on the abdomen. The front wings have the ground-color pale grayish-yellow inclining to green, and their spots aud veins brown; the hind wings, except a yellowish or brownish shade at apex and along the front edge, and a green tint at base, are transparent and colorless, with the veins brown. The front and middle legs are yellowish. The hind legs have the thighs striped with pale glaucous and reddish on the outside and upper half of inside, with four broad black or dusky marks on the upper edge, the terminal one extending be- neath around the knee. The shanks are coral-red with black spines; the feet some- what paler with black claws; antenne, pale yellow; palpi, tipped with black. In the dead specimens all these colors become more dingy and yellow. Palpi and front legs in some specimens tinged with red or blue; the hind tibiz sometimes yellowish instead of red, especially in the middle.

Larva.—W hen newly hatched the larva is of auniform pale gray without distinctive marks. It soon becomes mottled with the characteristic marks, however. After the first molt the hind thighs are conspicuously marked on the upper outside with a longi- tudinal black line; the thorax is dark with the median dorsal carina aud two distinct lateral strips pale yellow, the black extending on the head behind the eyes. The sides of the thorax then become more yellow with each molt, the black on the hird thighs less pronounced, and the face almost always black. The occiput and abdomen above are mottled with brown, the former marked with a fine median, and two broader anteriorly converging pale lines, the latter with two rather broken lateral lines of the same color.

Pupa.—The pupa is characterized by its paler, more yellow color, bringing more strongly into relief the black on the upper part of the thorax and behind the eyes; by the spotted nature of the face, especially along the 1idges, by the isolation of the black subdorsal mark on the two anterior lobes of prothorax, and by the large size of the wing-pads which, visible from the first molt, and increasing with each subsequent molt, are now dark, with a distinct pale discal spot, and pale veins and borders. The hind shanks incline to bluish rather than red, as in the mature insect.

46 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

The following somewhat full description of the perfect insect is given from a comparison of a large number of specimens from different sections:

Female.—The face nearly perpendicular, sloping under, toward the breast very slightly ; afew of the specimens reared in confinement form a somewhat marked ex- ception to this character, sloping under (by measurement) 36° from perpendicular, while a deflexion of 15° appears to be the extreme of those collected. Vertex between the eyes same width as the frontal costa just above the centrai ocellus, and distinctly less than the shortest diameter of the eyes; the fastigium, or portion of the vertex in front of the eyes, more or less distinctly channeled, and deflexed at an angle of about 40° from horizontal. Eyes nearly straight in front from the upper to the lower can- thus, about semicircular behind. Antenne quite slender, and rather short, reaching only to or but slightly beyond the tip of the pronotum.

Pronotum short, the anterior portion scarcely as broad as the head; sides of the an- terior lobes parallel, the posterior lobe expanding somewhat rapidly posteriorly; the median carina threadlike, but always distinct on the posterior lobe, usually obsolete on the anterior lobes; lateral carinz obtuse but distinct on the posterior lobe, usually so on the middle lobe but becoming obsolete toward the front; posterior lateral mar- gin perpendicular from the humeral angle one-third its length then curves forward to the posterior lateral angle which is obtuse and rounded; the (entering) humeral angle is sharply defined, and in this respect appears to differ from C. femur-rubrum and C. atlanis; the apex is obtuse, angled (about 100°) rounded at the point; posterior lobe minutely and shallowly punctured throughout, anterior lobes smooth with few or no punctures except along the lower margin of the sides. Elytra and wings extend- ing beyond the tip of the abdomen from one-fourth to one-third their length (see meas- urements given below) ; the elytra are of nearly uniform width throughout, slightly curving upward at the apex, the thin portion (that part in which the branch nerves curve upward) occupying about two-fifths of the length; wings a little shorter than the elytra, very thin and delicate; nerves and nervules very slender. Abdomen, and in fact the whole insect, rather more slender than usual in this genus, but this appear- ance is partly due to the elongated wings; cerci very small, triangular or tooth-shaped, not extending across the segment on which they rest; the valves of the ovipositor quite prominent, especially the upper pair which are more than usually exerted, sharp at the tips, and deeply excavated above. The posterior femora usually extend about to the tip of the abdomen, and are rather slender in comparison with some other spe- cies of the genus.

Color.—Reddish-brown with fuscous spots. Head and the pronotum back to the posterior sulcus reddish-brown varying in depth in individuals; the face is sometimes ofa lighter and brighter red than the pronotum, sometimes darker assuming a dark purplish hue; the posterior lobe of the pronotum is generally a pale, olive brown, its lighter color contrasting somewhat distinctly with the darker shades of the anterior portion ; some individuals exhibit much lighter colors than here described, v+rying from a very dark brown to adull yellow. Specimens which have but recently entered the perfect state often show on the posterior lobe traces of the dark longitudinal lines seen inthe pupa. The dark line on the side of the head and pronotum usually so con- spicuous in the closely allied species is generally obliterated in this species by the dark brown color, but it usually appears distinctly in specimens which have been immersed for some time in alcohol, and is also manifest in the pale individuals, but is broken up by pale spaces and lines. The eyes are shining black. Elytra ash-brown, more or less tinged with reddish-brown at the base and fading toward the apex; in the disk or middle field, commencing near the base, where this field comes to a point, is an irregular row of fuscous dots, usually single to where the thin portion com- mences, now and then a double dot appearing; from this point to the apex they de- crease in size and distinctness and spread over the entire width; as a general rule the

MEASUREMENTS OF CALOPTENUS SPRETUS. 47

inner field (posterior marginal area) is marked with a few fuscous dots; in some indi- viduals one or two quite distinct are seen, in others they are very minute and dim, and not unfrequently they are entirely wanting. Wings transparent, with a very slight yellowish tinge at the base; nerves and nervules of the costal area and apical portion black, rest pale. The abdomen is generally glossy brown with the posterior margins of the segments pale; venter yellowish or pale brown; sternum pale brown or dull yellow. Anteriorand middle legs usually more or less rufous but varying from reddish-brown to pale honey-yellow. Posterior femora with the disk reddish-brown, sometimes showing dim outlines of oblique bands; the inner face and lower carina yellowish, the latter usually tinged with red; the upper carina and upper portion of the inner face yellowish, marked with three large black spots or partial bands, one at the base, the other two equally spaced in the middle portion ; apex or knee black or with a black crescent each side.

The posterior tibis vary in color from a bright coral red to pale yellow, and in some cases to bluish.

Measurements (these are given below).

Male.—Differs from the female as follows: Is somewhat smaller, the average differ- ence in the length of tne body being shown by the measurements given below; the wings are nearly or quite as long as in the female; it is also somewhat slenderer, but these differences are too slight and variable to be of any value as characteristics ; the abdomen is enlarged or widened posteriorly and curved upward at the apex; the last yentral segment being elongated, rounded and narrowed upward like the prow of a boat, and at the tip is distinctly notched, the lobes somewhat tubercular in form; this part of the apical segment is covered with minute scattering hairs. This notch forms one of the chief characteristics of the species, at least the most important one in dis- tinguishing it from femur-rubrum. The super-anal plate, or triangular piece above the anal opening, is sharply bicarinate longitudinally ; the tooth-like appendages at the base, above, are narrow and slender. The cerci are somewhat longer than the width of the preceding segment, are broad and flat throughout, the width equalling two-thirds the length; not suddenly narrowed or constiicted, moderately curved upward and in- ward; roundly narrowed and depressed near the apex. The prosternal spine (in both sexes) is sub-quadrate and large at the base but distinctly transverse, robust and de- cidedly conical, gradually lessening to a blunt point.

Measurements of the female (from Riley’s Seventh Report).

g me oe £2 £ as ee ate - —_ we A ~ ~~

ae oO © Pie cq ho oO aml ae = 33 oe. as ce Ee oe Se ee ao ace aA ym ‘eae a5 =2 Org emi) aes ae ors pale) isle ee a6. asd 64 oS aad aga ae ee Saar bt GS BSS ok bt 58 te 53 be es ces Pas ort E~ om} Fas ees = + Pa 4H 4 fa e Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch Inch Inch Inch Inch NE 0. 28 0.15 0.13 1. 423 0. 38 0.15 0. 23 ng J 0. 33 0.18 0.15 1. 28 0. 38 ONS 0. 23 2528 0. 40 0. 23 0.17 1. 30 0. 36 0.13 0. 23 1.34 0.30 0. 12 0.18 1. 29 0. 36 0.12 0. 24 1. 38 0. 40 0. 22 0. 18 1. 3) 0. 42 0.18 0. 24 1. 29 0, 24 0. 06 0.18 W833! 0. 2 0. 04 0. 24 LSB: 0. 28 0.19 0 19 1239) 0. 32 0.08 0. 24 1. 44 0.38 0.19 O10 1. 33 0. 39 0.15 0. 24 Tiga 0. 39 0.19 0. 2 ah) 0. 42 0.18 0. 24 1. 38 0. 43 0. £3 0. 20 ao 0. 43 0.19 0. 24 1. 24 0. 33 0.13 0. 20 1. 26 0. 30 0. 06 0. 24 i fps 0. 82 0. 12 0. 29 1. 38 0. 40 0. 16 0. 24 ibd. 0. 33 0.13 0.29 Laos 0. 35 0.12 0. 24 inoD 0. 42 0. 20 0. 22 1. 24 0. 33 0. 08 0. 25 1. 28 0. 40 0.18 0. 22 1. 29 0. 38 0.13 0. 25 1. 30 0. 40 0.138 0. 22 1. 45 0. 43 0.18 0. 25 ob 0. 43 0. 20 0. 23 1.50 0. 43 0.18 0,25 2 0. 28 0. 05 0. 23 1.33 0. 33 0. 08 0. 25 Pearse 0. 33 0.10 0. 23 1. 30 0. 43 0.18 0. 25 1.16 0. 36 0.13 0. 23 1. 30 0. 33 0.03 0. 25

48 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

Measurements of the female—Continued.

$ ES gs a2 liges 25 aie ee ad Bo ee) ea = ES Bo Pe ~~ H = 2 on =) | ax 2 Sn =S Spe Os Ss cos a eS os Sa oz ao ca as | ae 2 = kas: ae Ons Sy SS - | 28 Om Sarg Omak 3 2 Sie aa 3 = iE = a ae eo? aoe ao¢ aoe 2° dod dod ago cm Bt aS ES ep =. s& bt 28 ae! woe 8 as ASS 223 aes == aos a25 2S e 4 3 4 Ee 4 S 4 Inch. Inch. Inch Inch. Inch Inch Inch. Inch, 1.25 0. 30 0. 04 0. 26 1. 38 0. 42 0. 13 0. 29 1.30 0. 35 0. 09 0. 26 1.35 0. 42 0. 13 0. 29 1. 28 0. 32 0. 06 0. 26 1. 36 0. 39 0. 10 0. 29 1.34 0. 30 0. 04 0. 26 129 0. 38 0. 09 0. 29 1. 36 0. 34 0. 08 0. 26 1. 38 0. 43 0. 14 0. 29 1s 0. 38 0. 12 0. 26 1. 28 0. 38 0 09 0. 29 1. 45 0. 52 0. 16 0. 26 1.33 0. 39 0. 10 0. 29 1. 45 0. 44 0.18 0. 26 1. 36 0. 34 0. 04 0. 30 1.25 0. 30 0. 04 0. 26 1.45 0. 43 0.13 0. 39 1.39 0. 45 0.18 0. 27 1.38 0.33 0. 03 0. 30 1.52 0. 40 0. 13 0. 27 1.39 0. 40 0. 10 0. 30 1. 26 0. 36 0. 09 0. 27 1. 38 0. 39 0. 08 0. 31 iL? 0. 40 0.13 0527 | 1, 29 0. 35 0. 04 0. 31 1. 28 0. 35 0. 08 0. 27 1. 38 0. 35 0. 03 0. 32 1.33 0. 33 0. 06 0. 27 1. 42 0. 48 0. 16 0. 32 135} 0. 35 0. 08 0. 27 | 1.30 0. 40 0.18 0. 32 1. 28 0. 35 0. 03 0. 27 1. 43 0. 38 0. 06 0. 32 HZ 0. 39 0. 12 0. 27 1.25 0. 35 0. 03 0. 32 1. 38 0. 42 0.15 0. 27 | 1. 46 0. 44 0.12 0. 32 1. 30 0. 40 0.13 0. 27 | 1.33 0. 36 0. 04 0. 32 1,22 0.35 0. 08 0. 27 1. 24 0. 36 0. 03 0. 33 1. 43 0. 30 0. 02 0. 28 1, 34 0. 45 0. 12 0. 33 1. 29 0. 36 0.038 0.2 | #1. 35 0. 43 0. 10 0. 33 1.28 0. 38 0. 10 0. 28 1.35 0. 45 0. 10 0.35 1.30 0. 36 0. 08 0. 28 1. 32 0. 338 0. 03 0. 35 1.35 0. 43 0.15 0. 28 Usk? 0.33 0.03 0. 35 1.30 0. 43 0.15 0. 28 1. 43 0.45 0. 10 0. 35 1.33 0. 38 0. 10 0. 28 1.33 0. 42 0. 04 0. 38 1.38 0. 42 0. 13 0. 29 1.53 0. 49 0. 10 0. 39 1.15 0. 38 0. 09 0. 29 Later measurements of the female. Length to tip of elytra. Length to tip of elytra. TOMAS PE CHNOHS on 2a sana nee ieee ee 1.23 || Montana specimens .........-...--------- 1. 20 1.5 1. 25 LS Path | 1.31 1. 08(2) —_— 1.38 | JAY CRAG O oo gase es ee oe eee 1. 25 1. 30 ——————— 1. 20 1.25 | 1. 26 1.97 |, Colorado specimens ....-.---------------- . 1.21 1. 22 1.32 1.21 1,24 ‘ ‘ iIMGNS 2222s. eee eee 1.90 Dakota speci 1.21 1.15 1.29 1, 22 =a IAVOTSEO vane aaee se = oe eee RV ETABO. cornet. 2c he cnn teow ee- eee 1, 24 Haake SPECIMENS —- <2... ---cceqss-= ss neces 1. 40 ToD 1.22 || Specimens reared by Miss Middleton from 1.34 eggs from Minnesota ......-....-------- 1. 29 IAG ORIG ae cheb oc canara pees Ree ae 132 = SS = AVO@ISEO .. =. 6. 0.2 ase es

MEASUREMENTS OF CALOPTENUS SPRETUS. 49

Measurements of the male (Riley’s Seventh Report).

s. 3 a5 8 s. 32 aS rae

o aoe a 8 et % qa a 8 =) ok se. aS {Se S oe ‘oer.

Ba ZZ oS Sq PB ss Os = (I As aaa A235 aks 33 ae a aos ais ea mes | wes meg ep ees | eee Eiage 5 825 Bas sas 8 gas SAS aac a =) 4 H 4 a 4 | Inch Inch Inch Inch Inch. Inch. Inch Inch 1, 24 0. 25 0. 05 0. 20 1.35 0. 34 0. 03 0. 31 20 0. 28 0. 08 0. 20 1. 30 0. 34 0. 03 0.3L 1, 29 0. 28 0. 08 0. 20 1.33 0. 33 0. 02 0. 31 1.138 0. 33 0, 12 0. 21 1. 25 0. 34 0. 03 0. 31 1. 26 0. 25 0. 03 0. 22 1. 32 0. 34 0. 03 0. 31 1, 22 0. 29 0. 06 0. 23 1. 30 0. 34 0. 03 0.31 1.10 0. 29 0.05 0. 24 1,18 0. 34 0. 02 0. 32 1.33 0. 20 0. 04 0. 25 1. 38 0. 40 0.C8 0. 32 1.33 0. 35 0. 09 0. 20 1. 38 0. 42 0. 09 0. 33 1. 24 0. 29 0. 03 0. 26 1. 40 0. 38 0. 05 0. 33 1. 29 0. 35 0. 08 0. 27 1, 28 0. 38 0. 05 0. 33 1. 30 0. 32 0. 05 0. 27 1, 30 0. 35 0. 02 0. 33 1. 30 0. 35 0.08 0. 27 1. 24 0. 38 0. 04 0. 34 aps 0. 35 0. 08 ON 1, 30 0. 38 0. 03 0. 35 1.29 0. 32 0. 05 0. 27 1. 40 0.3 0. 03 0. 35 1. 24 0. 30 0. 03 0. 27 1.33 0.35 0. 00 0.35 Neu) 0. 33 0. 06 0. 27 1, 33 0. 38 0. 03 0. 35 1. 28 0. 36 0. 09 0. 27 1.35 0. 38 0. 02 0. 36 1.28 0. 30 0. 02 0. 28 1. 34 0. 38 0. 02 0. 36 1, 24 0. 38 0. 09 0. 29 1. 29 0. 38 0. 02 0. 36 1.35 0. 39 0. 10 0. 29 1.33 0. 35 0. 02 0. 37 1.23 0. 33 0. 09 0. 29 1. 36 0. 43 0. 06 0. 37 1.35 0. 35 0. 05 0. 30 1. 38 0. 34 0. 05 0. 39 1.35 0. 40 0. 10 0. 30 1. 33 0. 36 0. 03 0. 39

Later measurements of the male. Length to tip of elytra. Length to tip of elytra. OW A SPOCIINONS Loess ccosaenestierecieescsas 1. 20 Coloradoispecimens)--c.eeecee ee eeeeee eee 1.31 1. 23 1. 40 1.15 1. 28 i, lz 1.25 1. 26 — 1.18 PMMAPOT® cocddeouooeocoqHaSunadeocaGe 1.31 il 19 a 1.18 1. 28 AVOLAZO . ccc ce cnccnn enn cennssese se 1. 205 mes Dakota specimense-- s-sceccesccceeec ocean ol, 9 Montana specimens ........--.---- woseeseee 1.21 fetus al : 2 ASVELAS Onsen eocie se Meanie enero 120° DANGERS) Easnccos ast eosoonpetseoonee 1. 24 Tdaho specimens -...- ~~. 2 6. w qe n enon 1. 28 1.26 || Reared by Miss Middleton from eggs. .-... 1.19 ib Pat 1. 24 INNOVAE Ot eecisntse soeers eae teeta te = 1. 26 ALverage '358 52 Ss SITE Fe SE 1.215

The species most closely allied to spretus is the C. atlantis, Riley, which the author describes in his seventh report, as follows:

Length to tip of abdomen 0.70-0.85 inch; to tip of closed wings, 0.92-1.05 inches. At once distinguished from femur-rubrum by the notched character of the anal ab- dominal joint in the male, and by the shorter, lcss tapering cerci; also by the greater relative length of the wings, which extend, on an average, nearly one-third their length beyond the tip of the abdomen in the dried specimens; also by the larger and

4G

50 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

more distinct spots on the wings, in all which characters it much more closely resem- bles spretus than femur-rubrum. From spretus, again, it is at once distinguished by the smaller size, the more distinct separation of the dark mark running from the eyes on the prothorax, and of the pale line from the base of wings to hind thigh; and also by the anal joint in the male, tapering more suddenly, and by the two lobes forming the notch being less marked. From both species it is dist:nguished not only by its smaller size but by the deeper, more livid color of the dark parts, and the paler yellow of the light parts; the colors thus more strongly contrasting.

* * * Just as the typical femur-rubrum is at once distinguished from the typical ' spretus by the characters indicated, so atlanis, though structurally nearer to spretus, is distinguished from it at a glance by its much smaller size and darker, more marbled coloring. The contrast is all the greater in the living specimens of spretus that at all approach it in these respects.

Measurements of the male.—Length to the tip of the elytra, 0.97, 0.95, 0.98, 0.95, 0.96, 0.84, 1.05, 0.93.

C. femur-rubrum, De G.

This species is also closely allied to spretus and atlanis, and as it has often been described, we will here simply refer to the differences between it and the former of these two (spretus).

Female-——The only very marked difference between the females is the shorter wings of this species, yet there are other slight variations observable when a large number of specimens are compared, such as the following: The eyes in femur-rubrum are slightly more prominent; the head, pronotum, and sides of the thorax are usually some shade of olive-bro-vn, varying from pale to almost black; the black line behind the eyes is quite broad, seldom broken up, and is distinct in the darkest spec’mens. The humeral (entering) angles of the posterior margin of the pronotum are more rounded and not so sharply defined as in spretus ; the median carina is usually more distinct on the anterior lobes, while the lateral carinal are rather more obtuse and not so well de- fined; the punctures on the posterior lobe are more distinct. The wings extend but slightly beyond the extremity of the abdomen (see measurements below). In this species and atlanis, the intercalate vein is present in the elytra (notwithstanding the assertion of Stal to the contrary), dimly and imperfectly it is true, but it can be clearly seen for more than half the length of its course; in spretus itis wanting, its place being marked by the line of union between the two rows of ceJls. The fuscous spots or dots are not so conspicuous or widely spread over the apical portion of the elytra and the elytra are narrower and straighter.

As a very general rule, the upper half of the external face or disk of the poster‘or femora is black or brown, the lower margin and lower half of the inner face bright coral-red ; when these colors are well defined, there is a yellow space or stripe between the red and black; but these markings are subject to considerable variation, the red sometimes being entirely wanting, the external face dark, and the lower margin yel- low; sometimes the dark is replaced by apale olive. The tibiz are most generally bright red, but this character is not without its exceptions. Usually there is a pale ray extending from the base of the wings to the posterior coxa, but is occasionally wanting in dark specimens and is generally absent iu spretus. The prosternal spine is not so distinctly quadrate at base as in spretus, transverse, flattened behind, and not regularly conical, but more uniform in size to the broadly-rounded and very blunt apex.

Mule.—The most constant difference between the species is found in the form of the last ventral segment of the male; in femur-rubrum this segment, although strongly curved upward as in spretus, is not so distinctly narrowed toward the end but rounded, and instead of being notched at the tip is squarely truncate, presenting a sharp, hori- zontal, and almo t semicircular margin. Below the tip on the posterior face of the

MEASUREMENTS OF CALOPTENUS FEMUR-RUBRUM. 51

segment is arather large transverse gash-like indentation. The cerci are about the same length as those of the male spretus and about the same width at the base, but are nar- rowed from the middle to the tip to about halfthe width at the base. The little tooth- like appendages at the base of the super-anal plate are elongate and slender, as in spretus and are sinuate.

Measurements of the female (Riley’s Seventh report).

ee as ee ee © een gee: eee = eg 23 Poy 5 ee 25 Fe Emirs On iso} o-5 >. on “S ors os 3 © Siw ee Ss a S 2 « Sine a = o.8 e) Ee iF 3 Be a's a6 3 423 86 aS aoa eee aS 6 &0 oo ES San to PS EN bo RS of Gs woes oi ges Sas G2's 8 gas Sas O26 4 4 4 4 | 4 H 4 Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch 1.2 0.13 0.15 0. 00 1. 06 0. 10 0. 03 0. OF aS 0.13 0.15 0. 00 1. 09 0.10 0. 03 0. 07 1.05 0. 04 0. 05 0.01 1.13 0.10 0. 03 0. 07 1.08 0. 09 0.10 0. 01 1.15 0. 10 0. 03 0. 07 1. 20 0.13 0.14 0. 01 1.15 0. 08 0. 00 0. 08 is 0. 03 0. 03 0.01 i, 1 0. 08 0. 00 0.038 1.03 0. 04 0. 04 0. 01 1,14 0.15 0. 06 0. 09 1.10 0. 06 0. 05 0. OL 1.18 0. 09 0. 00 0. 09 1. 06 0. 03 0. 02 0. 01 1.10 0. 13 0. 04 0. 09 1. 06 0. 03 0. 02 0.0L 1.16 0. 12 0. 03 0. 09 1.08 0. 03 0. 02 0. OL 1.19 0. 23 0. 12 0.11 1. 08 0. 04 0. 03 0. 62 i Us 0. 14 0. 03 0.11 1.05 0. 03 0. 62 0. 02 tes 0. 12 0. 00 0. 12 1.09 0. 06 0. 04 0. 02 0.95 0. 03 0. 03 0. 00 1.45 0. 14 0. 12 0. 02 1.05 0. 04 0. 03 0. 01 1. 04 0. 02 0. 00 0. 02 1.00 0. 03 0. 02 0. 01 1.08 0. 02 0. 00 0. 02 1, 03 0. 04 0. 03 C. OL 1. 04 0. 03 0. 00 0. 03 1. 03 0. 04 0. 03 0. OL 1.09 0. 08 0. 05 0. 03 1.03 0. 05 0.03 - 0. 02 1. 03 0. 03 0. 00 0. 03 0. 98 0. 02 0. 00 0. 02 1.08 0. 12 0. 09 0. 03 1. 08 0.05 0. 03 0. 02 1, 04 0. 03 0. 00 0. 03 0.97 0. 02 0. 00 0. 02 1, 10 0. 06 0. 03 0. 03 1. 06 0. 10 0. 08 0. 02 ia 8: 0. 14 0.10 0. 04 1. 03 0. 04 0. 02 0. 02 13 0. 08 0. 04 0. 04 0, 94 0. 02 0. 00 0. 02 1.08 0. 04 0. 00 0. 04 1.05 0. 08 0. 05 0. 03 1.13 0. 09 0. 05 0. 04 1. 10 0. 09 0. 06 0. 03 1,18 0. 12 0. 08 0. 04 1. 02 0. 03 0. 06 0. 03 ijn 0. 09 0. 05 0. 04 104 “= 0.05 0. 02 0. 03 116s 0.13 0.08 0. 05 1.10 0.028 0. 04 0. 04 1. 09 0. 08 0. 03 0.05 0.95 0. 09 0.05 0. 04 als 0.13 0. 08 0. 05 0.99 0. 08 0. 04 0. 04 1.19 0. 15 0. 10 0. 05 1705 0. 08 0. 04 0. 04 1.19 0.14 0. 09 0. 05° 1. 08 0. 09 0. 05 0. 04 1. 04 0. 05 0. 00 0. 05 1. 08 0. 10 0. 06 0. 04 1.19 0.14 0. 08 0. 06 1.09 0. 08 0. 03 0.05 215 0. 14 0 08 0. 06 0. 99 0. 05 0. 00 0. 05 1.15 0. 03 0. 02 0. 06 1. 04 0. 05 0. 09 0.05 1.18 0.14 0.08 0. 06 il, (Os) 0. 06 0. CO 0. 06 iP as: 0. 09 0. 03 0. 06 a We) 0. 12 0.05 0. 07 113 0. 09 0. 02 0. 07 1.05 0. 08 0. 00 0. 08

A few additional measurements of last year’s specimens: Female—1.21, 1.23. Male—1.05, 0.94, 1.02, 1.05, 1.07, 1.07.

In addition to the characters mentioned in the original description of C. atlanis, we would call attention to the following differences between it and spretus on the one side and femur-rubrum on the other.

Female-——As compared with the female of spretus the wings are shorter, extending less and sometimes beyond the tip of the abdomen, not differing greatly, in this respect, from femur-rubrum; the elytra are narrower, curved upward very slightly at the apex, very few spots or dots on the apical portion, and these minute and dim. The inner field is almost always immaculate, the posterior half of the intercalute

52 REPORT UNITED STATES ENTOMOLOGICAL COMMISSION.

vein apparent. The wings pellucid, but when living have next the base a bluish-white tinge; a larger portion of the nerves and nervules dark. The black stripe on the side of the head and pronotum nearly always apparent, even in the darkest individuals; head and anterior lobes of the pronotum with the velvety appearance, so marked in spretus, but here dark or olive brown, without the reddish cast so common in that species; the pale, oblique, metathoracic ray usually apparent, but often obliterated.

There are no reliable characters by which to distinguish it from the female of femur-rubrum; the posterior lobe of the pronotum is usually _ less conspicuously punctured, agreeing in this respect with spretus.

Male.—Ditfers from spretus in being smaller, pronotum rather more constricted and subcylindrical ; eyes more rounded and prominent; the notch at the tip of the last ventral segment less distinct, sometimes al- most obliterated; more of the nerves of the wings dark.

From the male of femur-rubrum it differs in usually having longer wings ; in some individuals they are as long, proporticonably, as in any specimen of spretus; in others, little or no longer than in femur-rubrum; in the more slender form, and smaller size; in having the apical seg- ment of the abdomen narrowed and notched at the tip; in having the cerci broad throughout, and shaped as in spretus; in having the tooth- like appendages at the base of the super-anal plate shortened and broad- ened, and with a longer union at their base.

It is evident from these characters that atlanis is an osculant species (or variety) intermediate between spretus and femur-rubrum, partaking largely of the characters of each, and, in a few respects, differing from both. The female approaches very near femur-rubrum, scarcely show- ing varietal differences from the female of that species, while on the other hand the male approaches much nearer spretus than it does femur- rubrum, as Shown by the character of the terminal segment, the form of the cerci, and the length of the wings. The local species heretofore mentioned, which belong to this restricted group are, in all probability, offshoots from spretus or femur-rubrum, the particular direction of the variation depending upon the peculiar condition of the locality.

The popular names of these species are as follows:

C. femur-rubrum has generally been and is still known as the * Red- legged locust” or, which is better, the ‘Common Red-legged locust.”

C. atlanis was first described from the New England States, but as the species is not confined to the Atlantic slope, and the term Atlantic might convey a wrong idea, we have concluded to call it the * Lesser locust,” in reference to its smaller size.

C. spretus is known by several popular nawmes, as ‘‘ The Hopper,” ‘6 Army grasshopper,” ‘ Red-legged Iceust,” ‘‘ Mormon locust,” ‘* West- ern locust,” ‘Hateful grasshopper,” and “ Rocky-Mountain locust.” The last name, which Mr. Riley suggested as the most appropriate, is now generally adopted, and has been accepted by the Commission.

PAST HISTORY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN LOCUST. 53

CHAPTER II.

CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY.

The history of the American or Rocky Mountain locust is in nearly all respects parallel with that of the locust of the Old World. It breeds over a large continental area, and periodically, in seasons of extreme drought and other favoring meteorological conditions, migrates in im- mense hordes for several hundred miles beyond its usual habitat. Unlike the locust of the Eastern Hemisphere, our species naturally affects the cooler and more elevated portions of the temperate zone in the New World, though its southern limits extend at times into the hot and dry plains of the Great Basin.

Titfu: and periodical in its visits to the older, settled portions ofthe West, the history of the Rocky Mountain locustis difficult to trace beyond a period of about thirteen years. Previous to the year 1864 it has been rarely referred to by travelers in the West, and after examining the reports of the government expeditions and the works of Lewis and Clark, Pike, Irving, and others, we find little or no mention made of it. It is a ques- tion in our mind whether in some regions it may not have increased in numbers since the Far West has been partially settled, particularly in » those regions where irrigation has been practiced, as in Utah and Colo- rado and in the western edge of