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Pr^fVATE LIBHARY RICH A i.'' ^. MALVCr^C
CYCLOPEDIA
OF
BIBLICAL,
THEOLOGICAL, AND ECCLESIASTICAL
LITERATURE.
PEEPAEED BY
HE REV. JOHN M'CLINTOCK, D.D,
AND
JAMES STRONG, S.T.D. ~ Vol. VII.— NEW-PES.
NEW YOEKt ARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
FRANKLIN SQUARE.
188 3.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1877, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
PREFACE TO VOL. VII.
In this volume the same general plan and editorial management have continued as in several preceding. Dr. Strong has prepared all the biblical articles, and edited the entire work. All original contributions by other parties are designated by the initials of the names of the respective writers appended, as in the list below. Should no unforeseen hindrance occur, the three remaining volumes necessary to complete the alphabet may be expected at intervals of about one year each.
The large colored J/<r^:> of Palestine and Jerusalem accompanying this volume has been carefully executed under the immediate direction of the editor. It is drawn from the latest and most authentic sources, including the results of his own researches and observations, and exhibits every important feature and locality, whether ancient or modern.
R. B. A. — Professor E. B. Anderson, A.M., Ph.D., of the Wisconsin University.
L. B. — Professor Leonard Bacon, D.D., LL.D., of the Yale College Divinity School.
C. W. B. — Professor Charles W. Bennett, D.D., of the Syracuse University, N. Y. H. P. C— The Rev. H. P. Collin, Oxford, N. Y.
D. D.— The Rev. Daniel Devinne, N. Y. Citj-.
M. G. E.— The Rev. M. G. Easton, D.D., of Darsvil, Ayrshire, Scotland. J. H. F.— President J. H. Fairciiild, D.D., LL.D., of Oberlin College, Ohio. G. P. F. — Professor George P. Fisher, D.D., of Yale College.
E. H. G. — The late Professor E. H. Gillett, D.D., of the New York University.
H. H. — The late President H. Harbaugh, D.D., of the Mercersburg Theological Seminary.
W. B. H.— The Rev. W. B. Hayden, D.D., Portland, Maine.
D. C. H.— The Rev. D. C. Haynes, D.D., Bainbridge, N. Y.
G. F. H.— Professor George F. Holjies, LL.D., of the University of Virginia.
R. H.— The Rev. R. Hutcheson, A.M., Elliota, Minn.
G. C. J. — The Rev. George C. Jones, INIansfield, Pa.
D. P. K, — Professor D. P. Kidder, D.D., of the Drew Theological Seminar}', N. J. J. P. L. — Professor J. P. Lacroix, Ph.D., of the Ohio Wesleyan University.
J. W. M.— The Hon. J. W. Marshall, A.IM., of the Postal Department, Washington, D.C.
(r. M. — The Rev. George Miller, B.D., of the Newark Conference.
B. P.— The Rev. B. Pick, Ph.D., Rochester, N. Y.
N. P.— President Noah Porter, D.D., LL.D., of Yale College.
W. R. P.— The Rev. W. R. Powers, Norfolk, N. Y.
J. N. P. — Mr. J. N. Proeschel, Paris, France.
P. S.— Professor Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D., of the Union Theological Seminary, N. Y.
A. J. S. — Professor A. J. Schem, A.M., N. Y. City.
E. de S.— The Right Rev. E. de Schweinitz, D.D., editor of The Moravian, Bethlehem, Pa. S. S.— The Rev. Samuel Scoville, A.M., Norwich, N. Y.
L. E. S.— Professor L. E. Smith, D.D., of the Examiner arid Chronicle, N. Y. Citv.
iv PREFACE TO VOL. VII.
E. P. S.— The Very Rev. R. Pavse Smith, D.D., Dean of Canterbury, England.
J. L. S. — Tlie Eev. J. L. Sooy, of tlie New Jersey Conference.
M. L. S. — The late Professor M. L. Stoeveu, D.D., of the Pennsylvania University.
G. L. T. — The Rev. Gkokge L. Taylor, A.M., of the N. Y. East Conference.
W. J. R. T.— The Rev. W. J. R. Taylor, D.D., Newark, N. J.
H. W. T.— Howard W. Tilton, A.M., of The Chicago Post.
W. H. W.— The Rev. W. H. Waldron, Boston, Mass.
J. P. W. — The Rev. J. P. Weston, D.D., President of the Franklin Academy, Mass.
T. D. W.— The Rev. Theodore D. Woolsey, D.D., LL.D., ex-President of Yale College,
J. H. W. — Professor J. H. Wokjian, A.M., of Lawrence University, WLs.
LIST OF WOOD-CUTS IN VOL. YII.
Mnp of New Hebrides Page
Birthplace of Newtou
Newtou's Study
New- Year's Trumpet
Map of New Zealaud
New Zealander
Interior of a New Zealaud Vil- lage
Gnostic Dog-headed Figure
Niche at Peterborough
Niche at Coombe Church
N iche at Geddiugtou
Niche at Kidlingtou
Niche at Magdalen Church
St. Nicholas of Myra
Coin of Nicopolis
Plan of Nicopolis
Night-hawk
Map of the Sources of the Nile
Section of the Nilometer
M.racle of St. Nilus
Cure of the Palsied Mau
Mosaic at Ravenna
Mosaic at Milan
Ancient Assyrian Statue
Cuneiform name of Nineveh
Map of Vicinity of Nineveh
Plan of Ruins of Nineveh
Mound of NimrQd
Mounds of Khorsabad
Black Obelisk of Nimrud
Restoration of Sennacherib's Pal- ace
Modern Site of Nineveh
Assyrian King Feasting
Assyrian Winged Globe
Ancient Assyrian ShcdCib
Ancieut Assyrian Plough
Symbols of the god Asshur
Assyrian Inscribed Cylinders
Impressions of Ancient Signets. ..
Niobe and her Children . . .'
ISisroch
Specimen of the Nitrian MS
Reputed Tomb of Noah
Noah's Ark, from the Catacombs..
Figure and Hieroglyph of Anion . .
" Nobis Quoque Peccatoribus". . . .
ANollard
Early Norman Arch
Late Norman Doorway
Norman Window
Oriental Nose-jewel
Habit of the Cougregatiou of No- tre Dame
Figure of Notus
Double Stater of Miletus
Early Greek Coin
Coin of Philip of Macedon
Roman Uncia
Shekel of Simon Maccabieus
Half-shekel of Simon Maccabjeus.
Copper Half-shekel of Simon Mac- cab.nens
Copper Quarter -shekel of Simon ]\laccabteus
Copper Sixth-part-shekel of Simon Maccabteus
Copper Coin of John Hyrcanus...
Copper Coin of Judas Aristobu- lus
Copper Coin of Alexander Jan- Dieus
Another Coin of Alexander Jan- DffiUS
Later Coin of Alexander Jan- nsBus
Copper Coin of Queen Alexandra.
Copper Half-shekel of .Autigonus.
Medinni Coin of Herod the Great.
Smallest Coin of Herod the Great. VII.— A
13 Coin of Herod Archelau? Page 229
31 Copper Coin of Heiod Antipas 230
31 Coin of Herod Agrippa 1 230
37 Copper Coin of Agrippa II 230
39 Coin of Agrippa II, with head of
40 Nero 230
Copper Coin of Pontius Pilate.
41 Coin of Felix 230
43 Clopper Coin of Eleazar 231
57 Spurious Coin of Eleazar 231
57 Shekel of Eleazar 231
57|Coin of Eleazar (name backward). 231
57>Coin of Simon, Sou of Gioras 231
57, Large Coin of Simon, Sou of Ga-
02 mallei 231
SOiSmall Coin of Simon, Sou of Ga-
81 mallei 231
sol Half-shekel of Simou Barcochab.. 232 99|Shekel of Simon Barcochab 232
102iEarly Christian Device 232
lOOJCoin of Constautine 233
107 1 Later Coin of Constautiue 233
107 Coin of Constaus 233
107!Coin of Vetranio 233
110 (-'oiu of Magnentius 233
111 Coin of Valentiuiau 1 233
116 Coin of Gratiau 233
117|Coiu ofFlacellia 234
mlCoin of Placidia 234
118|Coin of Licinia 234
llOlCoiu of Augustuhis 234
Coin of Justin 1 234
12l!Coin of Justinian II 235
122 Coin of Leo VI 235
124|Taking the Veil 230
125I Pistachio-nuts 244
12s' English Walnut 245
12s Abraham's Oak 252
12s Evergreen Oak 252
129|Valouia Oak 252
13o'Oriental Gall-Oak , 253
132 Gates in the Pillory 255
l.SOiRomish Bishop taking the Oath.. 265
13S' View in Ban de la Roche 274
146, Representation of the Offertory... 314 147[Ancient Egyptians Registered. . .. 310
14'.r Quirked Ogee 319
151 iOgee Mouldings 319
158 Oil-stock 322
174 Ancient Oil Mill 323
175 Balanites jEgyptiacus 324
175 Stone-Pine Trees 324
195 Olive-trees in Gethsemane 349
The Olive 350
201 Mount of Olives 353
203 Map of the Mount of Olives 355
226 Obelisk of On 371
226 Strombus Dianm 380
226 Ceremony of " Orate, Fratres" 399
227 Priest of the Oratory 402
227 Red- Water Ordeal 406
22s Grecian Doric 407
Roman Doric 407
Arabian Night-Herou Page 498
White Owl 499
Otus ascalaphus 499
Syrian Ox 500
Monk of St. Pachomius 512
Wat-Cheng Pagoda 532
230'Sequol Pagoda 533
'"" Tower of Nankin 5.33
Pah-kwa 534
Eyes Ornamented with Kohl 537
Ancient Egyptian Vessels for Kohl. 538 Modern Apparatus for Eye Paint. . 53S
Ancient Egyptian Painters 539
Solomon's Palace, according to
Fergusson 542
Section of "House of Cedars of
Lebanon" 542
Ground-plan of "House of Forest
of Lebanon" 544
Upper Story of "House of Forest
of Lebanon" 544
Solomon's Palace, according to
Thenius 544
Plan of Solomon's Palace, accord- ing to Paine 544
View of Solomon's Palace, accord- ing to Paine 545
Interior of Solomon's Palace, ac- cording to Paine 545
Outline Map and Section of Pales- tine 554
Prottle Section of Palestine 562
Palestine in the Patriarchal Pe- riod 57T
Palestine at David's Accession,
with Solomon's Purveyorships. . 578 David's and Solomon's Empire.. . . 578
Palestine after the Schism 578
Pall (in heraldry) 589
Palmer-worm Moth 598
Date-palm 601
Date-flower and Fruit 601
Monogram of Christ, with Palm- branches 004
Simple Panels 611
Panel in Lincoln Cathedral Oil
Panel in Monument of Aymer de
Valence 611
Panel in Laugston's Monument. . . 611
Half Section of the Pantheon 624
Papyrus anPiquoriim 036
Map of Coast near Paphos 687
Ruins of Temple of Venus at Pa- phos 63T
Coin with Temple at Paphos 638
Map of New Guinea 640
Village in New Guinea 642
Oruamented Gothic Parapet 064
Parapet in Salisbury Cathedral... 064
Parapet in Merton College 664
Parthian Horsemen 711
Parthian Arch 712
Parthian Coin 712
228 Erecthenm at Athens 407 Partridges on Assyrian Mou u
ments 712
Greek Partridge 714
Desert Partridge 714
Grecian Ionic 408
228' Roman Ionic 408
Corinthian Capital 408
228 The Syrinx '. .^ 423!Syriau " Black" Partridge" 714
228 Antique Organs 423'Syrian "Kata Partridge" 714
Organ Pipe 424; House in which Pascal died 718
228 Portable Organ 4241 Passion Cross 731
Oriel at Wells 427iPastoral Staff 754
228 Ecclesiastical Ornaments and Vest- jCoin of Patara 762
ments 454' Plan of Patara 763
229 Ancient Mosaic of Orpheus 4571 Paten in Chichester Cathedral — 764
Pish-hawk 470J Island of Patmos 767
220 Short-tailed Eagle 471 1 Patriarchal Cross 772
229 Liimmergeyer 471 ! Patriarch of Constantinople 773
220 O.'trich 474 Maronite Patriarch 773
220 .A ucient Egyptian Oven 4S9| Patriarch of Jerusalem 774
229 Modern Egyptian Oven 4S9|Badge of Order of St. Patrick 776
VI
LIST OF WOOD-CUTS IN VOL. YII.
Cro??, Pattee Page 7S4
Paul's First Missionary Route 7!i4
Paul's Second Missionary Route.. 7S»S
Paul's Third Missionary Route 803
Paul's Route to Rome 813
Portrait of St. Paul 821
Paulist Hermit 839
Specimens of Tesselated Pave- ment 846
Ancient Egyptian Pavilion 845
Throne-Room at Teheran 847
Peacock as a Christian Symbol... 857 Pearl-oyster 858}
Common Pelican Page 877
Pendant 8SS
Gothic Pendentive 888
Byzantine Pendentive 8S9
White Penitent 892
Denarius of Tiberius 900
Coin of Perga 945
Plan of Perga 945]
View of PergamoB 947
Coin of Pergamos 948
Specimen of Perpendicular Style. . 955i
Perpeyn-wall, Lincoln Cathedral. . 955
Coin of Diocletian 967
Coin ofSIasimian Page SG7
Coin of Constantiiie 967
Rnius of Persepolis 972
Tetradrachm of I'erseus 973
Map of the Persian Empire 975
Ancient Persian King on his
Throne 977
Ancient Persian King putting his
Foot on an Enemy T . . . . 978
Persian Hunting Scene 978
Persian Warriors (179
Persian Costumes 979
Ancient Egyptian Pestle 9; S
C YC L 0 P^ D I A
OF
EIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL LITERATURE.
MEW.
New, Charles, a British missionary to Africa who suffered martj-rdom very recently, was a member of the United Methodist Free Churches of England. He \vas laboring among the Chagga, whose chiel^ Mandara, conceived ill-feelings against New, and used him so ill that he died in consequence of the severe treatment he experienced, in the summer of 1875. The British gov- ernment is at this writing in negotiation with the Chagga to secure indemnity for their brutal conduct towards one of its subjects. Mr. New deserves to be re- membered not only for his Christian missionary labors, but also for his service to African exploration.
Ne"W-Birtll is the technical expression frequently used instead of regeneration to exjiress the change from a natural or irreligious to a Christian living. The Church of England theology defines it as " That thing which hy nature a human being cannot have;" " that he may be baptized Avith water and the Holy Ghost, and received into Christ's holy Church, and be made a lively member of the same." "A death unto sin, and a new hirth unto righteousness." In short, it is that change of the moral nature which is requisite for salvation. This requirement, made by the Protestant Church in Christ's name, is undertaken by the person to be baptized. In the Anglican and Lutheran churches, in the case of in- fants to be baptized, the sponsor or parent assumes the responsibility of so training the candidate for baptism that when, "having come to years of discretion," he recognises the vows of his baptism, and "lives soberly, righteously, and godly in this (iresent world." An am- biguity has arisen from the difference of sense in which the term "new-birth" is at different times employed. It is used by some (in a sense allied to the above state- ment) to denote the admission to the privileges with which the Christian Church is endowed: namelj', that grace whose tendency is to place ns in the way of sal- vation ; by others, to signify the state of mind suitable to those who are born of God, and are in the path that leads to eternal life. See the articles Convkusiox ; Jus- tification; Regeneration; Salvation. (J. H.W.)
New-Born, a sect which arose in the United States in the early part of the last century. It was originated by Mattliias Baumann, a German emigrant, who embarked for America in 1719, and settled in what is now Bucks County, Pa. During the few j'ears which he passed in his adopted country — he died in 1727 — Baumann succeeded in drawing around him a small sect who called themselves New-Born, pretending to have received the new birth through mediate inspiration, apparitions, dreams, and the like. Any one who had thus been regenerated was alleged to be like Christ and God, and to be incapable of any longer committing sin. They denied that the Bible is necessary as a means of salvation, and scoffed at the holy sacraments. The privilege of impeccability they believed to be the por- tion of all who truly belonged to Christ. The New- Birth they held to be that new stone which none know-
eth but he that receiveth it. The sect appears to have survived the death of its foimder little more than twenty years. See Gardner, Faiths of the World, ii, 532.
New Britain is the name of one principal and of several subsidiary islands in the Pacific Ocean, situated between lat. 4^ and G^ 30' S., and long. 148^ and 152^ 30' E. The principal island, 300 miles in length, and having an area of 12,000 square miles, lies east of New Guinea, from which it is separated by Dampier Strait. The surface is mountainous in the interior, with active volcanoes in the north, but along the coast are fertile plains. Forests abound in the island, and palms, sugar- cane, breadfruit, etc., are produced. The inhabitants, the number of ^vhom is unknown, are the Negritos. They are well-formed, active, and of a very dark com- plexion. They are further advanced in civilization than is usual among the Polynesians, have a formal re- ligious worship, temples, and images of their deities. New Britain was first seen by Le jMaire and Schouten in 1G16, but Dampier, at a later date, was the first to land. See for details the articles Negritos and Poly-
NE.SIAN.S.
New Brunswick, a province of British America, originally a part of Nova Scotia, is situated to the north of that province, and to the south-cast of Canada. It has an area of 27,322 square miles, with a coast-line of 500 miles in extent. The population of New Bruns- wick in 1871 amounted to 285,594. The scenery of this province is beautiful, its soil is rich, and the land abounds in mineral wealth. The northern districts of the province, from the Bay of Chaleurs to the St. John, are occupied by metamorphic slates. In the south the carboniferous and new red sandstone sj'stems (in- cluding deposits of red marl and gypsum, and exten- sive beds of coal) prevail. One third of the surface of New Brunswick is underlaid by a bed of coal. Blany of the coal-measures, however, are tliin and impure; but the coal of Albert County is one of the most valuable de- posits of bituminous coal on the American continent, and is apparently inexhaustible. Throughout the province 2842 tons of coal were mined in 1851, and 18,244 tons in 1861 ; but mining has not yet become an important branch of industry. Gold and silver occur in New Brunswick; copper and iron ore of excellent quality abound; gypsum, plumbago, and limestone are very abundant; and the freestone of the province, unsur- passed for beauty and durability, commands a high price in the United States. In 18G1, 42,965 casks of lime, 42,47G grindstones, 14,080 tons of building-stone, and 14,000 tons of gypsum were brought into the mar- ket. Wild animals abound in the province, the lakes and rivers are well stocked with fish, and along the coasts cod, haddock; salmon, and other fish are caught in great plenty. Indeed, its fisheries are a principal source of income to the province. The autumn — and es- pecially the season called the Indian summer — is particu- larly agreeable, and the severity of the winter has been
NEW BRUNSWICK
NEW CALEDONIA
already much mitigated by the clearing of the forests. In the interior, the heat in summer rises to 80^, and sometimes to 95^; and in winter, which lasts from the middle of December to the middle of jMarch, the mer- cury sometimes falls as low as 40° below zero. At Frederickton, the capital, situated on St. John Eiver, 65 miles from the south, and 130 miles from the north coast, the temperature ranges from 35° below to 95^ above zero, and the mean is about 42^. In its social circumstances New Brunswick is preferable to any ter- ritory in the same latitude. Though not much given to agricultural development, a healthy state pervades all classes of society, as may be learned from the fact that the provincial penitentiary of St. John contained only thirty convicts (on Dec. 31, 1873). Altogetljer the province has fourteen jails, and these only contained in all 140 inmates, according to the census of 1871. This unusually high moral status of the community is fostered by a system of free public schools, which was last im- proved by an act of 1871. The schools are under the gen- eral supervision of a chief superintendent of education of the province, with a county inspector for each county, and boards of trustees for tlie several districts, and are supported by a provincial grant and a county tax equal to thirty cents per head, supplemented by a local tax, which includes a poll-tax of one dollar per head. The expenditures from the provincial treasury for school purposes during the year ending April 30, 1874, were $r22,067 69. The number of schools in operation dur- ing the summer term ending Oct. 31, 1874, was 1049, with 1077 teachers and 45,539 pupils; number in at- tendance some portion of the year ending on that date, 60,467; number of school districts, 1392; number of school-houses, 1050. A provincial training and model school is sustained at Fredericton ; besides which there is the University of New Brunswick at Fredericton, es- tablished since 1800, which embraces in its curriculum a classical course of three years, and special courses in civil engineering and surveying, agriculture, commerce, and navigation. There is an annual scholarship of $G0 for one student for each countv, Avho also receives tui- tion free; and there are five free scholarships, distrib- uted among the comities and cities, exempting from the payment of tuition fees also. In 1872-73 the number of professors was 7 ; students, 51. The Methodists since 1862 own jMount Allison Weslej^an College at Sackville, which is in connection with the provincial university, and is open to both sexes. It has classical, scientific, and special classes, and provision is made for theolog- ical instruction. A male academy and commercial school, in operation more than thirty years, and a fe- male academy, organized in 1854, are connected with it. In 1873-74 these institutions had 15 professors and instructors (5 in the college), 213 students (34 isi the college), and a library of 4000 volumes. The Roman Catholics have the St. Joseph's College at ISIemram- cook ; it has a commercial course of four years, and a classical course of five years, both taught through the medium of the French and English branches. In 1874-75 it employed 18 professors and instructors, and had 140 stuilents, and a library of 1000 volumes.
The first Wesleyan missionary sent out to this coun- try was the Eev. A.J. Bishop, who arrived in the city of St. John, the capital of the colony, Sept. 24, 1791. He found the inhabitants in a state of great spiritual destitution, and commenced his labors in the true mis- sionary spirit. From this small beginning much good resulted, and the iMethotlists have become a powerful and a respectable body in the country. The Congre- gationalists. Baptists, Presbyterians, and Episcopalians have also done much for the sjjrcad of the (Jospel. Al- though the work, as carried on by all denominations in New Brunswick, resembles in many respects that of the mother country, there is still a loud call for an increase of evangelical agency to meet the spiritual necessities of a scattered population in many jiarts of the colony, as numbers are still to be found who seldom hear a Gospel
sermon. The number of the inhabitants in 1871 be- longing to the various religious denominations, ami the number of churches and buildings attached thereto, are shown in the following table :
|
Denominations. |
Number of Adherents. |
Churches. |
Buildings. |
|
Baptists.. |
70,59T 45,481 29,S56 38,852 96,010 4,792 |
226 115 113 80 103 19 |
238 150 13G 8T 161 23 |
|
Methodists |
|||
|
Roman Catholics Other denominatious. . Total |
|||
|
285,594 |
656 |
795 |
|
Of the Baptists, 27,866 were Free-will Baptists, and of the Methodists, 26,212 were Wesleyans. The principal denominations not named in the table were Adventists (711), Christian Conference (1418), Congregationalists (1193), and Universalists (590).
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia originally formed one French colony, called A cadia or New France. The first settlement within the present limits of New Bruns- wick was made by the French on the Bay of Chaleurs in 1639. Other settlements were made in 1672 on the Miramichi liiver, and elsewhere on the east coast. This accounts for the large number of Roman Catholics in the country. In 1713 Acadia was ceded to the English by the treaty of Utrecht. The first British settler es- tablished himself on the Miramichi in 1764, and in 1784 New Brunswick was separated from Nova Scotia, and erected into a distinct colony. The first legislative as- sembly met at St. John in Januar}-, 1786. At the close of the American Revolution about 5000 royalists from the United States settled there, and their descendants now form a considerable portion of the population. In 1867 New Brunswick was made a British province of the Canadian dominion, and is now ruled bj' a lieutenant- governor, who holds office for five j-ears, assisted by an executive council of nine members, who are all respon- sible to an assembly of the people. See for further de- tails the A merican CijclojHedia, s. v. (J. H.AV.)
New Caledonia, an island of the South Pacific Ocean, belonging to France, and lying about 720 miles east-north-east of the coast of Queensland, in Australia, in lat. 20°-22° 30' S., long. 1640-167° E., is about 200 miles in length, 30 miles in breadth, and has a popula- tion estimated at about 60,000. New Caledonia is of volcanic origin, is traversed in the direction of its length, from north-west to south-east, by a range of mountains, which in some cases reach the height of about 8000 feet, and is surrounded by sand-banks and coral-reefs. There are secure harbors at Port Balade and Port St. Vincent, the former on the north-east, the latter on the south- west part of the island. In the valleys the soil is fruit- ful, producing the cocoa-nut, banana, mango, breadfruit, etc. The sugar-cane is cultivated, and the vine grows wild. The coasts support considerable tracts of forest, but the mountains are barren.
The inhabitants of New Caledonia, who resemble the Papuan race, consist of different tribes. They speak a language kindred to the Australian tongues, an(i are hospitable and honest. They are a well-formed peoiile, tall and robust, but indolent. Their skin is deep black, and their hair coarse and bushy. They are fond of painting their faces, and even in settlements they wear but little clothing. Their huts, built of spars and reeds, thatched with bark, and entered by a very small open- ing, bear some resemblance to beehives.
New Caledonia was discovered by captain Cook in 1774. In 1853 the French took official pos.'^cssion of it, and it is now comprised under the same government with Otahcite and the Jlarquesas Isles. New Caledonia has hitherto been scarcely visited by Protestant mis- sionary enterprise. Some teachers from Samoa at- tempted to form a community on the Isle of Pines about 1852, but were driven away. French Roman Cntholic priests have, however, labored in this quarter for many
NEWCASTLE
NEW CHRISTIANS
years with great zeal and courage, wortliy of better re- sults than thcj- have secured. It is n<it easy to obtain a connected view of these attempts from the loose and disjointed statements contained in the Annuks de la Proparjation de la Foi, the only authority to which we have access. We find that for several years there have been a vicar apostolic of Melanesia and Micronesia, whose head-quarters have varied according to circum- stances. One of these dignitaries, bishop Epalle, was murdered in 1846, in the exercise of his vocation, at the Solomon Islands, in the neighborhood of New Guinea. The priests, his companions, absolutely forbade the re- prisals which a French officer would fain have exercised for his death, and the mission in that quarter has since been abandoned. Bishop Epalle has been succeeded in his vicariate by monseigneur Collomb, titular bishop of Antiphelle, whose head-quarters for some time were in New Caledonia. In 1845 and in 1846 we tind priests laboring with very indifferent success among these in- tractable savages ; and in 1847 a ferocious onslaught was made on their little quarters in Balad, in which two priests were killed, and bishop Collomb himself narrowly escaped with his life. The assault was wholly unpro- voked; but one of the party seems to have unfortu- nately exhibited a gun in self-defence, which height- ened the exasperation of the assailants. Violent though deserved retribution was taken for it by the crew of a French vessel of war. The French occupatioi; in this instance seems therefore to have been preceded for some years by the missionary efforts of their ecclesiastics. Very recently the labors of the Roman Catholic mis- sionaries have been crowned with greater success than heretofore. Several thousand natives have embraced Christianity, and formed prosperous settlements, where are now cultivated a variety of vegetables and fruits, in- cluding wheat and barley, besides the raising of live- stock. The number of islanders who have embraced Christianity is estimated at 5000. They are proving industrious and temperate citizens. During the last French revolutionary movement the Communists con- demned to penal life were sent to this island. See the (London) Qnarftrli/ Review, 1854, pt. i, p. 97 sq. ; see also Melanesia.
Ne^wcastle, Wii-LiAJt Cavexdish, Duke of, an English general who fought against the Covenanters, deserves a place here for the part he played in the war- fare of a State Church against nonconforming religion- ists. He was born in 1592. He was the nephew of AVilliam Cavendish, founder of the ducal house of Dev- onshire; succeeded in 1617 to large estates, and devoted himself to poetry, music, and other accomplishments. In 1620 he was raised to the peerage as baron Ogle and viscount Mansfield, and in 1628 was created earl of Newcastle-upon-'lyne. At the outbreak of the civil wars he sided with the king, to ^vhose treasury he con- tributed £10,000, and took the field at the head of 200 cavaliers. He was intrusted with the command of the four northern counties; and, raising an army of 10,000 men, he prostrated the power of the Parliament in that part of England, defeated Sir Thomas Fairfax at Ather- ton jMoor, June 30, 1643, and was made marquis of New- castle. Subsequently he held the Scots in check at Durham ; but was obliged in April, 1G44, in consequence of the defeat of colonel Bellasis at Selby, to throw him- self with all his forces into York, where for the next three months he sustained an investment by a greatly superior army under Fairfax. Upon the advance of the royal army under Rupert, he joined the latter, with the greater part of the garrison, and endeavored to persuade him that, having raised the siege, he had bet- ter defer a battle until the arrival of reinforcements. This advice was disregarded, and the battle of Marston IMoor was fought, which ruined the royal cause in the North. Jlarquis of Newcastle then forced his wa}' with a few followers to Scarborough, set sail for the Continent, and established himself in Antwerp. His estates hav- ing been sequestrated bj- Parliament in 1052, he lived
in extreme poverty during the protectorate ; but on the restoration he received substantial honors, and in JMarch, 1664, was created earl of Ogle and duke of Newcastle. Clarendon says " he was a very fine gentleman, active, and full of courage." For further details, see the excel- lent article in the American Cyclopcedia, xii, 282, 283. See also Stoughton, Eccles. Hist, of England (Restora- tion), ii, 58 ; Stephens, Ecch-s. Hist, of Scotland, ii, 24, 278 ; Clarendon, History of the Great Rebellion, vol. i, bk. vi, sq.
New Catholics. See Holy Coat of Treves; Roman Catholics in Gekmany; Ronge.
New Christians, a name for Jews who were obliged by the edicts of the Inquisition to embrace Cliristianity in the 15th century, to avoid unheard-of tortures and death for conscience' sake. Many, rather than quit their homes, embraced the faith for which they had no fervor. (From that time the term New Chris- tians has designated Jewish converts to Romanism.) See Makanos. Romanism, however, was not content to make converts. It sought ardent followers, and the in- quisitors, finding that, though there were " New Chris- tians" in the land, there were yet Jewish services secretly performed and Jewish practices scrupulously observed, determined to have the property of those rebels or un- submissive ones if it could not own their souls. The in- quisitors therefore, on January 2, 1481, issued an edict, by which they ordered the arrest of several of the New Christians who were strongly suspected of heresy, and the sequestration of their property, and denounced the pain of excommunication against those who favored or abetted them. The number of prisoners soon became so great that the Dominican convent of St. Paul, at Seville, where the Inquisition was established, proved not large enough to contain them, and the court was removed to the castle of Triana, in a suburb of Seville. The inquis- itors issued subsequently another edict, by which they ordered every person, under pain of mortal sin and ex- communication, to inform against those who had relapsed into the Jewish faith or rites, or who gave reason for being suspected of having relapsed, specifj'ing numerous indications by which they might be known. Sentences of death soon followed ; and in the course of that year (1481) 298 "New Christians" were burned alive in the city of Seville, 2000 in other parts of Andalusia, and 17,000 were subjected to various penalties. The proper- ty of those who were executed, which was considerable, was confiscated. The teiTor excited bj' these executions caused a vast number of '■ New Christians" to emigrate into Portugal, where numerous communities of Portu- guese Jews already existed, who had come to be treated with comparative fairness. In Portugal, e. g., the Jews had long been allowed to appoint judges of their own people, and were otherwise favored. They had conse- quently attained a high degree of culture : they culti- vated medicine, science, and letters. Among a rude peo- ple of warriors and husbandmen, the Jews succeeded, to some extent, to the place left vacant by the Moors. They were the authors, the merchants, and the physicians of the nation ; they founded a famous academy in Lisbon, which produced several eminent mathematicians, gram- marians, poets, theologians, botanists, and geographers. The first book printed in Portugal was printed bj' a Jew. By perseverance, union, and talent, the Jews very soon became possessed of enormous influence in that coun- try. But this influence naturally caused a feeling of jealousy in the populace, who could not calmly behold a people whom they considered abandoned by God en- joying such prosperity. This feeling of rancor finally brought about the edict for the expulsion of the Jews from Portugal, which for a time appeased the popular fury. It was, however, but the calm preceding a violent eruption, which exploded on those victims who, bound to the land by ties of family affection or interest, sacri- ficed their faith to their emotions. Detested by the Christians, who were the authors of their apostasy, and
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humiliated in their own ojiinion, the Ne^y Christians of Portugal, with those from Spain, cherished in their souls the deepest devotion to their ancient faith, hut hoped that hypocrisy might be proof against the numberless opportunities of revenge which their riches afforded. Finally the day came which proved the St. Bartholomew to these poor Jewish converts of the Iberian peninsula. Ill the spring of 1500 the plague raged in Lisbon. The people, suffering all its horrors, were stricken also by famine, and offered up prayers in their churches for di- vine intercession, and on Sunday, April 19, while cele- brating their service in the church of San Domingo, a brilliant light was seen to illumine the hgure of Christ. Among those who doubted the miracle was one of the unfortunate apostates, who dared publicly to express his incredulity. This was sufficient to instigate the brutal and superstitious populace, who immediately seized the imhappy man, and burned him to death. It besides proved the spark that (ired a horrible persecution of the apostate Jews. During the three following days up- Avards of 2000 victims were sacrificed; old men, women, and children Avere not spared, but dragged from their liomes to the fires raging in the public squares. Only on the third day of these horrors the authorities were enabled to restore some tranquillity. The king, Don Manuel, who was absent from Lisbon, received the fear- ful news with profound indignation, and immediately ordered summary justice on the leaders. Several were put to death, among them being two friars who had been the first instigators of the people's fury. The mag- istrates, who through fear or negligence had not exert- ed their authority to quell the massacre, had their prop- erty confiscated ; and, finally, a decree of May 22 con- demned Lisbon to the loss of many ancient privileges. In vain the corporation sued the king for mercy; he replied that an example was necessary to punish the ferocity of the bloodthirsty and the pusillanimity of the timid. Yet, notwithstanding these generous actions of the king, the Jews and Jewish converts suffered so terribly that manj' of them left the Iberian peninsula and sought a home on the Continent, especially in Hol- land, where they enjoyed unlimited toleration. The prudent king Emanuel, seeing that his realm was likely to lose a large number of valuable citizens, and yet sat- isfied that it would be impossible to prevent the ex- odus, finallj' commanded that all children under four- teen should be detained and converted to Cliristianity. There can be no doubt that this cruel but politic order induced many Jews to embrace Christianity. The Jewish histories dwell on the complete national exodus, both from Spain and Portugal, and they paint in strong colors the heroic adherence to their religious convictions both of Spanish and Portuguese, and the terrible suffer- ings they underwent in consequence ; nevertheless, the evidence of phj'siognomy and of family tradition are all against this alleged universality of the movement, and, if a change of name had not been made compulsory in the days of persecution, so also luidoubtedly would be the evidence of names. There arc, unquestionably, in- numerable families of Jewish lineage in Portugal, and Israelitish blood Hows in the veins of many noble Portu- guese families. It is related that when that foolish bigot, king John (Don Juan III), proposed to his min- ister Pombal that all Jews in his kingdom should be compelled to wear wliite hats as a distinctive badge, the sagacious minister made no olijcct ion, but when next he appeared in council it was with two white hats. "One for his majesty, and one for himself," explained Pombal, and the king said no more about his proposal. It was during the reign of this king that tlie Inquisition was introduced into Portugal, but it was milder than in Spain, and the New Christians were suffered so long as they continued in public professions of the Christian faith.
In modern times tlie descendants of unfortunate apos- tates, under the name of New Cliristians, have been gradually losing all traces of the religion of their ances- tors. Tlieir family names alone point them out, such
as Sequcira, Costa, Marques, Lucas, Pinto, Cardoso, Cas- tro, and many others, now borne by lioman Catholic families. There are still to be found, even in distant provinces of Portugal, some who keep up a few vestiges of former rites, especialh' the observance of the great Day of Atonement. A few families do not eat bread during the Passover, and many treasure the Jewish sacred prayer, the Sliemiwg Israel. See Lindo, History of the Jeii's of Spain and Portugal, ch. xxii sq. ; Da Costa, Israel and the Gentiles, p. 309 sq. ; Griitz, G'esck, der Juden, viii, CI sq. ; Barnum, Romanism, p. 378. (J. H.W.)
New Church. See New Jerusalkji Chuuch.
Newcomb, George, a minister of the INIethodist Episcopal Ciuirch, Soutli, was born in Quincy, Mass., Nov. 8, 1814. LTpon attaining manhood he devoted himself to teaching, which vocation he followed for many years. In 1850 he was licensed as a local preacher by the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1804, impelled by a sense of duty, he went to Beaufort, S. C, to labor among the freedmen as superintendent of schools. In 1807 he united with the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, decided to take active work in the ministry, and joined the South Carolina Conference. He was ap- pointed to Beaufort Circuit, where he remained three years. While laboring there he organized several so- cieties on the Combahee River and Ladies' Island. At the Annual Conference of 1870 he was made presiding elder, and assigned to St. John's District, Fla. He knew from experience what privations and hardships mean ; but, bold in the strength of God, he braved storms of opposition, surmounted difficulties, and in the pine lands and river bottoms, as well as in the crowded streets of the busy town, his voice was heard heralding forth the words of truth and soberness. The work proved too great for his physical strength, and he was finally obliged to relinquish it. and went North to regain his health. On his way, while at Beaufort, S. C, he fell a victim to yellow fever, and died Oct. 12, 1871. George Newcomb " occiqiicd a large place in the hearts of all who knew him." See Minutes of Annual Confer- ences ef the Meth. Episc. Church, South, 1871, p. 10.
Newcomb, Harvey, D.D., a noted Congrega- tional minister, was born at Thetford, Yt., in 1803. In 1818 he removed to Alfred, Yt., and in the following year, though still quite young, he commenced teaching school, and continued in that OQCupation most of the time for eight years. In the spring of 1820 he became publisher and editor of a newspaper in Westfiold, N. Y. Two years later he removed to Buffalo, as editor of the Buffalo Patriot. In 1830 and 1831 he publisl.cd the Christian Herald at Pittsburgh, Pa., and a paper for children, and for nearh' ten years from that period was mainly engaged in writing Sabbath-school boolcs. In 1840 he was licensed to preach, and the following year was made pastor of the Congregational Church at AVest Poxbury, Mass., and subsequently ministered to the churches at AYest Needham and Grantville. In 1849 he returned for a season to editorial life, being assistant editor of the Daily Traveller for about a year, and of the New York Observer for two years. In the fall of 1859, having spent several years in writing, establishing mis- sion Sabbath-schools in Brooklyn, N. Y., and preaching to the Park Street Mission Church of that city, he was installed over the Congregational Church in Hancock, Pa., where he continued to labor as long as his health allowed him to remain in active life. He died at Brook- lyn, N. Y., Aug. 30, 18G2. Dr. Newcomb was an able and useful Christian laborer, whose memory will be re- vered for many generations yet to come. He labored especially with his pen, and was the author of not less tlian 178 volumes, a great majority of which had special reference to the wants of children and youth, and had a large circuliition; among these were fourteen volumes of Church history. According to a calculation made in 1853, the circulation of his works had then reached
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nearly sixty-five million pages. His largest work was the Cfjclopcedia of Missions (Xew York, 1854, 8vo ; 4th ed. 185(5), a book of great value to the student seeking information on American missions, though of assistance also in the general field which it seeks to cover. At the time of its publication it proved a welcome guest, not only on this side of the Atlantic, but also in Great Britain, where it has been freely used in compilations requiring statistics of missions. In our own pages the work is frequently quoted, and its usefulness often made apparent by the lengthy extracts which it affords us. Revised and brought down to date, it would still rank as the best cyclopaidia of missions in the English tongue. See Allibone, Did. of Brit, and A mer. A uthors, ii, 1410 ; Drake, Diet, of A mer. Biog. p. G56 ; Congreg. Quarterly, 18G3, 352 sq. (J. H. W.)
Newcomb, Peter, an Anglican clergjTnan of note, flourished very near the opening of the last cen- tury. He was vicar of Aldenham, Hertfordshire, and died about 1722. Four separate sermons of his were published in 1705, 1710, 1715, 1737, and another four to- gether in 1719; also fifty-two discourses, constituting a catechetical course upon the Church Catechism for the whole year (2d ed. 17C2; 1712, 2 vols. 8vo). His son, of like name, born in 1717, was rector of Shenley, in the same count v, and died in 1797. He wrote. History of the Abbey 'of St. Alban, 793-1539 (Lond. 1793-1796, 2 vols. 4to).
Nevrconib, Thomas, D.D., an Anglican divine, was born in 1G75. But little is accessible regarding his early personal history. He was a great grandson of Spenser, the poet, and seems to have inherited the an- cestral love for the muse. In 1734 Newcomb became rector of Stopham, Sussex, and this position he held until his death, about 17G6. He was a sound the- ologian, but a better poet than preacher. His poetical publications have received many encomiums. His best- known production is his BibUotheca, published in vol. iii of Nichols's Select Collection of Miscellaneous Poems. See Chalmers's Biog. Diet. s. v. ; Allibone, Diet, of Brit, and A mer. A uthors, s. v.
Ne'wcoine, Richard, an English prelate, flour- ished near the middle of the last century. He was canon of Windsor until, in 1754, he was elevated to the epis- copate and made bishop of Llandaff, was transferred to the see of St. Asaph iu 17G1, and died in 17G9. He published several of his sermons (Lond. 175G, 17G1. 17G4, aU 4to).
Newcome, William, a learned English prelate, counted as one of the most eminent divines of the 18th century, was born in 1729 at Abingdon, Berkshire, where his father, an esteemed Anglican clergyman, was then vicar. William was educated at the grammar-school of his native town, from whence he passed to the Uni- versity of Oxford, where he became in due time a fellow and tutor of Hertford College, and had Charles James Fox for one of his pupils. In 17G5 he was honored with the doctorate in divinity, and in that year accompanied his patron, the earl of Hertford, when he went as lord-lieu- tenant to Ireland. Newcome went as private chaplain; but a bishopric, that of Dromore in that country, falling vacant soon after the earl's settlement in Ireland, New- come was placed in it. Entering the episcopal order thus early in life, it is not extraordinary that he had several translations, which Avere first to Ossory in 1775, then to Waterford in 1779, and finally, in 1795, to Ar- magh. He died in 1800. A writer of some chapters of bishop Newcome's hfe assures us that he " diligentlj' and faithfully discharged the duties of his episcopal oflice, and secured the respect of all parties and of all religious persuasions by the affiibility, prudence, candor, and mod- eration which were the invariable guides of his conduct." But his chief title to remembrance is that he was during the whole of his life a most assiduous Biblical student, and that he did not suffer those studies to end in them- selves, but laid before the world results which ensued
upon them. He did not do this till he had maturely con- sidered them, for he was nearly fifty before he printed any considerable work. His first book was The Har- mony of the Gospels (Dublin, 1778, fol. ; an edition of the Harmony, in the Engl, trans., was published in 1802, 8vo), a work the title of which affords but an inadequate idea of its nature and contents, as, besides the results of hia inquiries on a verj' diflicult and important point of sacred histor}', it contains a great mass of valuable criticism and usefid information. Out of this work arose a con- troversy with Dr. I'riestley on the duration of Christ's ministry ; bishop Newcome contending for three years, and Dr. Priestlej' limiting the time to one year. In 1782 Dr. Newcome published his Observations on our Lord's Conduct as a Divine Instructor, and on the Excellence of his Morcd Character (Lond. 1782, 4to), a work of great beauty ; and in 1785 a new version, with critical remarks, of the Twelve Minor Prophets. This was followed in 1788 by a similar work on the prophet Ezekiel. Of these works. Home says that " as a commentator the learned prelate has shown an intimate acquaintance with the best critics, ancient and modern," and adds that "his own observations are learned and ingenious." Though the notes are very copious, they are pertinent, and untainted by an ostentatious display of criticism, and abound with such illustrations of Eastern manners and customs as are best collected from modern writers. Later Newcome sent out a Revieic of the chief Diffi- culties in the Gospel History relating to om-'Lord's Resur- 1-ection (1791, 4to), and An Historiccd Viae of the Eng- lish Biblical Translations (Dublin, 1792, 8vo). This was his latest publication, except an Episcojxd Charge ; but after his death there was given to the world a very important work, which he had himself caused to be printed four years before his decease, entitled An At- tempt towards Revising our English Translation of the Greek ScrijAures^iJiuhYm, 179G, 2 vols, royal 8vo); this the Unitarians made the basis of such unscholarly changes in the English version as the Greek text with the critical examination of existing manuscripts would hardly authorize. See Engl. Cyclop, s. v. ; Darling, Cycl. Bibliographica, ii, 2172; Home, Bibl. Biblia, p. 304; Pye-Smith, Introd. to Theology, p. 511, 515; London Gentleman's Magazine, vol. Ixx.
NeTWCOmen, Matthe^v, M.A., an English Non- conformist divine, was born near the opening of the 17th century, and was educated at St. John's College, Cam- bridge. He became vicar of Dedham, Essex, from which he was ejected, in 1GG2, for nonconformity. He then retired to Leyden, where he was minister of a con- gregation, and died in 1CG8 or 1669. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, and assisted in drawing up their Catechism, and was also present at the Savoy Conference. He was one of the authors of the celebrated answer to bishop Hall on Episcopacy (Lond. 1641, 4to). He wrote also. The Duty of such as would walk worthy of the Gospel to endeavor Union, not Divi- sion nor Toleration (a sermon on Phil, i, 27 [Lond. 1646, 4to]): — Sermon on Rev. ii, 3 : — Fareivell Sermons. See Darling, Cycl. Bibliographica, ii, 2173; and Sermon on his death by J. P. (Lond. 1G79, 4to) ; Stoughton, Eccles. Hist, of Emjland (fJhurch of the Restoration'), i, 156, 165, 170. '(J.N. P.)
Ne-w Comiection General Baptists. See Baptists.
New Connection Methodists. See Kii,- iiAiiiTES ; Wesleyan Methodist New Connection. See also article Methodism iu vol. vi, especialh' p. 156 (3).
New Creation, a term denoting the theory of a restoration of the physical universe as the final abode of glorified humanity.
I. Argument for the Doctrine. — Predictions of a great and universal renovation are, in a more or less direct form, an almost invariable feature of Biblical Eschatolo- gy. Such was the tone of prophecy before Christ's first
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advent, such that of the apostolic writings, and such that of our Lord's own words as recorded in the Gospels and the Apocalypse. This may be shortly indicated by the words of an ancient prophecy, " ISehold, I create new heavens and a new earth ; and the former shall not be remembered, nor come into mind" (Isa. Ixv, 17 ; corap. Ixvi, 22) ; those of an apostolical ejiistle, " The heavens shall pass away with a great noise, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat; the earth also and the works that are therein shall be burned up. . . . Never- theless we, according to his promise, look for new heavens and a new earth, wherein dwelleth righteous- ness" (2 Pet. iii, 10-13) ; and those of the great Chris- tian prophecy, '• I saw a new heaven and a new earth ; for the first heaven and the first earth were passed away. . . . And he that sat upon the throne said, Behold, I make all things new" (Rev. xxi, 1, 5).
That these predictions of a new creation are figura- tive is an easy explanation, and it may be in some slight degree corroborated by the fact that the kingdom of Christ is a re-creation of human nature in his own per- son by his incarnation, and of the souls of mankind by their regeneration in holy baptism. Such an explana- tion, however, reaches but a little way towards drawing out the meaning of the predictions in question, for even if they include that which it refers to (as is not likely from the analogy of our Lord's own prophetic language), they yet undoubtedly look beyond it, and point unmis- takably to a new creation, not of souls, but of the ma- terial earth, its surrounding " Heaven" or heavens, and the works as well as the beings which it contains.
The chief difticulty in the way of belief in such a ren- ovation is probably that which arises from the accom- panying prediction of a preceding destruction. Look- ing on the changes which are wrought on the surface of the earth, or which have been wrought during the historic ages, we observe that the whole sum of them, after all the ordinary and all the convulsive operations of the phj-sical forces which affect them, falls far short of anything approaching the magnitude of so stupendous a change as that which would be made by a destructive catastrophe, such as is predicted. The terrific opera- tion of tire on the body of the sun is now, however, well known to scientific observers, as well as the vast and most rapid changes which it effects. There is no dif- ficulty in believing that such changes may be effected on the body of the earth, when we observe enormous craters to be almost instantly created on that of the sun — so enormous that many planets as large as the earth might be engulfed in them, and so intensely heated that the very granite would melt in the midst of them.
A more formidable objection is one drawn from the moral aspect of such a destruction. Allowing that it is reasonable to set aside the physical difficulty as being confuted by scientific kno-\vledge not less than by a priori reasonings as to Almighty Power, is it consistent with our ideas of God's attributes that the magnificent works of man — works of architecture, engineering, art, and skill — works that betoken the use of God's own gifts of intellect, and the progress of humanity in the devel- opment of those powers and the application of those materials with which the Creator has provided it — that these should be utterly destroyed'? Can there be no consecration of man's handiwork by which it may be symbolically renovated? Must the verj' foundations of the eartli and all that rests upon them be utterly broken up before the palace of the New Creation can be erected? Would not such a destruction, we are almost tempted to saj^, be a kind of waste, and contrary' to the first principles on which God's providence is ever work- ing?
No doubt such objections as these, and many more such, will arise in thoughtful minds; and no doubt they will be accompanied bj- a wish to understand the state- ments of the Bible in some easier way; to adopt a met- aphorical meaning, for example, such as would take the new creation of heaven and earth to be a moral regen-
eration, and the passing away of the old creation as the cessation of sin. But St. Peter appears to have been in- spired to meet such objections with a plain contradic- tion beforehand; for when he is about to speak of the destruction of the earth and the heavens in a manner that quite shuts out the idea of his words being intended to be metaphorical, he prefaces the awful statement by predicting that in the last days there will come scoff'ers, arguing that, from the apparent firmness and permanence of all things for so many ages, there is no probability of their future actual destruction. The apostle therefore warns us off from such objections, and leaves us little rational ground for supposing a metaphor to have been intended by the words "new heaven and new earth." Perhaps we maj' be better reconciled to a literal sense of these words if we take into account a few considera- tions respecting the power and authority of the Creator and his probable purpose in organizing a new creation.
(1.) It is manifest that all things belong to (Jod to deal with as he may think proper: there is no known law by which he binds himself to preserve as it now stands either the creation of his own hands or the handiwork of the race that he has created.
(2.) The infinite power of an Almighty Creator, that can call forth a new creation at his will, makes the destruction of many worlds a matter of no importance in the vast scheme of his general purposes and his eter- nal existence. " Behold, the nations are as a drop in a bucket, and are counted as the small dust of the balance : behold, he taketh up the isles as a very little thing. And Lebanon is not sufficient to burn, nor the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering. All nations be- fore him are as nothing; and they are counted to him less than nothing, and vanity" (Isa. xl, 15-17). Or, to use a homely simile, as we often see portions of beauti- ful columns, moiddings, and carvings built into the rub- ble of mediajval churches as if they were common stones of no value, and are aware that this was done by build- ers who knew that thej' could produce better work than that which they were concealing or partially destroj'- ing — so we know the great Architect of the universe can replace all that he causes or suffers to be destroyed with a new creation of still greater beauty, glor^% mag- nitude, and use, without effort and at anj* moment.
(3.) This seems to lead up to the object of so wide a destruction as that implied by the words of Holy Script- ure, the " whole creation groaneth and travaileth to- gether," fallen with fallen man, even in Christ's dispen- sation degenerating age by age, and removing furtlier and further from the high standard of perfection in which it first came forth from the hands of the Creator. It is to make room for a perfect creation that this de- generated one is to pass away — to make room for one in which there will be no capacity for degeneration, no trace of imperfection, no stain of a will adverse to the will of God.
By the consideration of truths such as these we may fortify our faith in the word which God has four times spoken by his prophets; and believing that we can see some reason \vhy there should be a new heaven and a new earth, believe also that there are many others which are beyond our knowledge, and that therefore our safest course is to take the divine proclamation simidj' and literally as it stands. Whether by an utter de- struction and an entirely new creation, or whether (as is more probable) by a regeneration and purification effected by fire, in some way or other God will cause the heavens and earth that now are to pass away ; and will fulfil his own words, " Behold, I make all things new," in the sense of a material renovation. See Confla- gration, General.
II. Material Renovation. — Theory as to the State. — Although it would be venturesome to pursue this idea of a new creation into details, by speculating as to the new features that will characterize the abode of man- kind and its celestial surroundings, we are fully justified in following it up as regards our own nature. Kespect-
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ing human nature, there is no room whatev* for doubt. It will be taken into the presence of its Creator after having passed again under his creating hand, renovated into a perfectness of condition even greater than that which belonged to it in its most perfect temporal con- dition.
(1.) First it is to be considered that there will be a new creation of the body. " Flesh and blood cannot in- herit the kingdom of heaven; neither doth corruption inherit incorruption" (1 Cor. xv, 20). Such is the truth which St. Paul declares to us when he is dealing theo- logically with the question of the resurrection. Such also is the truth that we are taught by the very instinct of self-consciousness. It is not bodies such as we are provided with for the work of this world that will be suited to inhabit a new earth, or to stand in the imme- diate presence-chamber of the all-glorious and all-holy God. Such bodies as these can never be dissociated from imperfection and degeneration, disease, decay, and dissolution. They are endowed with functions that are evidently incompatible with a never-ending immor- tality ; and we cannot imagine hunger, thirst, and the capacities and desires which are most characteristic of bodih' life as it now is to have any place in heaven. They exist under laws that involve the loss of strength, vigor, and beauty after the lapse of a few score years ; and we cannot imagine the wrinkles or weakness or de- crepitude of old age to have any consistency with the perpetual youth of a renovated creation.
Hence the same inspired teacher tells us that the body which is sown in corruption is raised in incorrup- tion, that which is sown in dishonor is raised in glory, that -(vhich is sown in weakness is raised in power, that which is sown a natural body is raised a spiritual body ; . . . this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality. These are most wonderful statements ; but can we gain from them, from other light of Holy Scripture, or from the light of our own experiences, observations, and reasonings, any defi- nite ideas on the subject of this renovated body which is to find itself fit for making a home of a renovated world? It is almost impossible to do so except by a series of negatives. For the spiritual body of the resurrection a3ra there will be no hunger nor thirst, no marrying nor giving in marriage, no pain, no suffering, no decay, no dissolution. It will answer to the great Catholic dog- ma, " I believe in the resurrection of the body," " the resurrection of the fiesh," in such a manner that every one will have a ready consciousness of identity, as of something restored which had long been lost, and yet it will be "a spiritual body," one of which, if we can positively say " it is the same," we must also say with equal certainty " it is not the same." Perhaps the ver}' phrase "spiritual body," which sounds like a contradic- tion of terms, contains the real explanation as far as we can now reach it. That which we think of in this life as the human body is a complex structure of substances and organs whose principal purposes are those of sense ; but even as it now exists we can discover traces of a lower organization and a higher organization. There is that which seems at once to be of the earth earthly — that which the Scripture calls " flesh and blood" — the grosser organization associated with the maintenance of animal life and action; and there is also that which we find little difficulty in associating with spiritual life and action — the nervous system, or that portion of it which is connected with the organs and faculties where- by the mind works and communicates with the world around. The one seems to belong to our bodies in com- mon with the bodies of creatures lower than ourselves in the scale of creation, the other to belong to those bodies in common with beings higher than ourselves. We easily believe of angels that they speak and think and reason; that they see and hear; that they remem- ber and increase in knowledge ; that they love and adore; and some of these properties which belong to men and angels we dare to think of as belonging even
to God. Is there not, then, in that part of our bodily system which enables us to do all this which is done even by angels and by One higher than angels, the germ of that spiritual body " which can inherit the kingdom of God?" And may we not venture to think of the resurrection of the body as a clothing again of our souls and spirits with all the organization that belongs to the higher part of our being, while that which belongs to the lower part lies forever in the dust with which it has mingled ?
It is not difficult to imagine bodies so regenerated that they find their original pattern in the body that rose from the grave three days after death, and after- wards ascended into heaven. It is, in fact, most easy and most rational to believe that as the Incarnation of the Son of God was the new creation of a Man perfect in body and soul, so it was the first step in the new creation of all human nature ; and that as we have borne in our bodies the image of the earthly, which is the First Adam, so in our bodies also we shall bear the Image of the heavenly, which is the Second Adam. See Resurrection of Christ.
Thus, when the word has gone forth, " Behold, I make all things new," this will be a part of that new creation, that the bodies of the redeemed will be as the glorified body of Him who is not ashamed to call them brethren; bodies such as were laid in the grave, and -with some- thing about them yet which will identify them with a former life, and j'et spiritual bodies on which the in- carnation will have done its thorough work by restoring to them their share in the Image of God; making them ever pure, ever incapable of evil, of degeneracy, or of decay.
(2.) As the external features of human nature will be thus renovated, so also will there be a renovation of all that belongs to its mental and spiritual faculties. To- wards such a new creation it is easy to see that the work of the incarnation has ever been tending. AVhat man lost by the fall he regains bj' his restoration in Christ. Man lost the image of God, but the express Image of the Father took upon him the fallen nature, raised it to its first estate in his own person, and made it possible for it to regain that position in the persons of all men. Man lost by the fall the spirit which was breathed into him so that he became a living soul, but the Holy Spirit descended to dwell in the Church on earth, and to continue the power of the incarnation ; and now each sacramentally built up man has the loss repaired, and becomes once more body, soul, and spirit, as in his first creation. See Spirit.
But this is a gradual, not a sudden work, and al- though in the first regeneration of human nature at conversion, and in all the stages of sanctifying edifica- tion, the Lord is causing it to go through a process of renovation and re-creation, the climax of that building up of the restored spirit of man will only be attained when the final fiat of re-creation goes forth. Under the operation of such a re-creation, that which we some- times call " the religious faculty" will become supreme among all the mental qualities of our nature. Then, too, all evil passions, all sorrows, all cares, having passed aAvay as part of the former things that have no place in the renewed world, it is reasonable to believe that other mental faculties will have room to develop in a degree for which there has been no sufficient opportu- nity in this life ; so that the intelligence of each one of the renovated persons will be like the intelligence of an angel. Thus all that is good and noble in the spiritual and intellectual part of human nature will become infi- nitely more good and noble still. The humblest sinner of this life who attains to the life everlasting will stand as a glorious saint before the throne of God. The low- liest intellect will be so cleared, so vivified and devel- oped, by the making of all things new, that there \vill be no such thing as ignorance — as we now understand it — possible, nor any bar set up by the will to the at- tainment of an exalted reach of knowledge.
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It seems, then, that we must blend together the high- est earthly saintliness and the highest earthly intelli- gence if we seek for a type of the perfectly renovated inner nature of man ; and when we have thus gained some idea of what will be effected by the new creation, we still have to remember that this type of the new- created mind and spirit of man places us only on the threshold of his future life. He will go on, without limit of time and age, dwelling in close communion with the all-holy and all-knowing God ; and from the per- petual shining of that "light which no man," in his mortal condition, " can approach unto," there must be a never-ceasing growth of saintliness and intelligence, a development of each which can find no limit short of the holiness and knowledge of the One who is without bounds.
III. Spiritual Surroundings. — As the renovation of the material world, and of the corporeal and incorporeal parts of man's nature, will alter all the conditions of what we should call from our present standpoint man's existence and work in the world, so also it will alter those of his existence in the Chuixh, since among the revelations of that future life which -were made to St. John there was a special one of a "New Jerusalem com- ing do\vn from God, out of heaven, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband" (Rev. xxi, 2). We are all familiar with the glorious things Avhich are spoken of this city of our God. Inwrought with our habitual de- votions as they dwell on the future arc such words as
" With jasper glow thy bulwarks. Thy streets with emeralds blaze ; The sardius and tlie toi)az Unite iu thee their rays."
But we are probably disposed to dwell on these glorious jiictures of the holy city without a sufficient recognition of the fact that they represent a development and new creation of the religious life, and especially of that part of it which is associated with divine worship. For this renovation of the religious life and of divine worship is also the glorious climax of our Lord's incarnation ; and therefore the coming down of the New Jerusalem from God is followed by " a great voice out of heaven," which recalls to our mind the fact that our Lord's incarnation was a tabernacling of the Deity in the humanity. " I heard a great voice out of heaven saying, Behold, the tabernacle of God is with men, and he will dwell with them, and they shall be his people, and God himself shall be with them, and be their God" (Rev. xxi, 3). That same presence of God, therefore, which has been at once the great power of the religious life and the great object of divine worship in the Church militant, will be the same in the Church triumphant. As God is now with his people in worship, the virtue of which is derived from the incarnation, so will he be with them in a direct presence, the power of ^vhich will be to them a perpetual light and an inexhaustible life ; and as now God is in his holy temple, and thither we gather that before his altar we may bow down in adoration of his mystical presence, so then, when there shall be no tem- ple in the holy city — " for the Lord God Almiglity' and the Lamb arc the temple of it" (Rev. xxi, 22) — the glo- rious and visible presence of him that sitteth on the throne will be that before which the elders will cast down their crowns, and the vast multitude of the re- deemed sing forth their hallelujahs.
Thus the Cliurch militant will develop into the Church triimiphant; Christ's first and his second ad- vent will prove to be two stages in the mighty work of new creation. The former things that are to pass away — a degenerate world, a fallen man, an imperfect religious life, a halting worship — all these having de- rived what good there has been in them from the first stage of the new creation, that good will still remain, even though their distinctive characteristics of evil, weak- ness, and imperfection will have been burned out and annihilated. But God is pleased that there should be a degenerate world, and a fallen man, and an imperfect
religious life, and a halting worship no longer, and there- fore the second stage of the mighty work of the incar- nation will be attained in the complete fulfilment of the words, " Behold, I make all things new."— Blunt, Diet, of Thtolofjij, p. 507-510.
Nevy Divinity. See Edwards, Jonathan; Pkesbvterianism; Theology (New England).
Newell, Ebenezer Francis, a pioneer preacher of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Brook- field, Mass., Sept. 1, 1775 ; joined a Methodist society iu St. Stephen's, New Brunswick, June 29, 1800; was li- censed as a local preacher, and appointed to Centre Harbor Circuit by the Loudon Quarterly Meetmg March 23, 1806; was licensed as a travelling preacher July 25, 1807, and successively held the following appointments: Pembroke, March 20, 1806 ; Centre Harbor, 1806; Lan- daff, 1807; Tuftonboro, 1808; Hallowell, 1809; Nor- ridgewock, Vt,, 1810: Danville, Yt., 1811; Barre, Vt., 1812; Barnard, Yt., 1813; Pittstown, Me., 1814; Bristol, Me., 1815; Durham, 1816; Keadfield, 1817; St. Croix, 1818. Located, 1819: Thomaston Circuit, 1821; Nor- ridgewock, 1822; Pittstown, 1823; Dennisville, 1824. In 1825 he was made supernumerarj^, and emploj-ed as Conference missionary in behalf of Maine Wesleyan Seminary, resuming work again in 1826-7, and was ap- pointed to Bethel, Me. ; Kennebunkport, 1828-9 ; Kit- ter}', 1830; Brookfield and Belchertown, 1831; North- bridge and Uxbridge, 1832; Brookfield and Belcher- town, 1834; Spencer and Leicester, 1835; Hopkinton, 1836 ; Marlboro and Harvard, 1837 ; Harvard and Leo- minster, 1838; North Brookfield, 1839; North Brook- field and Paxton, 1840 ; Charlton and Springfield, 1841-2. He was finally superannuated in 1842, and died Blarch 8, 1867, at Johnsville, S. C, where he was staying with his son.
Newell, Harriet, the wife of Samuel Newell (q.v.) and daughter of Moses Atwood, of Haverhill, Mass., a celebrated American female missionary, was born Oct. 10, 1793, and received an excellent education. She was naturally cheerful and unreserved, possessed a lively imagination and great sensibility, and at a very early age evinced a retentive memory and a taste for reading. Before the age of thirteen she received no particular or lasting impressions of religion, but was uniformly obedi- ent, attentive, and affectionate. In the summer of 1806, while at a school at Bradford, she was the subject of those solid and serious impressions which laid the foundation of her Christian life. At the age of fifteen she made a profession of religion. When Mr. Newell, along with jMessrs. Judson and others, offered himself a missionarj- to the General Association at Bradford, and was about to sail for India, he asked Miss Atwood in marriage. Her own heart was prepared to quit her native land, and to endure the sufferings of a Christian among hea- then people. She therefore readOj' determined to go, antl sailed June 19, 1812, for Calcutta. Finding on their ar- rival that the Bengal government would not grant them permission to reside within their territories, the mis- sionaries chose different places of destination, and Mr. and ]\Irs. Newell proceeded to the Isle of France, Aug. 4 ensuing. There she employed herself assiduously and with earnestness in the promotion of her Redeemer's cause, and by her conduct and advice became an honor- able and truly valuable member of society. The uni- form piety and seriousness of her mind are forcibly dis- played in her letters to her young friends and in her diary. Her health was delicate, but she bore imlisposi- tion with that calmness and submission to the dictates of Providence which always signalized her character. She complained much of the want of humility, and la- mented her deficiency in that Christian grace: "she longed for that meek and lowly spirit which Jesus ex- hibited in the days of his flesh." ]Mrs. Newell died of consumption Nov. 30, 1812. She departed in the peace and triumph of an eminent Christian. Her Life, written by Dr. Woods, to which are appended several of her let-
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ters and the sermon preached at her fimeral, has passed through many editions in its Enghsh dress, and has also been translated into foreign languages. The cause of missions has been greatly promoted by the delinea- tion of her character and the description of her suffer- ings. Says Dr. Whedon, of the Mcth. Qu. Rei: (April, 1875, p. 346) : " Both Samuel J. Mills and Harriet New- ell perhaps accomplished more by their early death in the mission field than they would have done by the most efficient life. Their memories shed a sacredness over their work. . . . There was a pathos in the life and death, especially, of Harriet Newell that touched the heart. The Church at home saw that her mission- aries were capable of the most heroic self-sacrifice, and could meet death in triumph ; and how could she shrink from the enterprise to which she was so evidently called?" See Jaraieson, Cyclop, of Mod. Relkjious Bioij- raphy, s. v. ; Pierson, A mer. Miss. Memorial, s. v. ; also Memoirs of Harriet Newell, by Samuel Newell ; Eddy, Daughters of the Cross; Heroines of the Missionary En- terprise ; Women of Worth ; Anderson, Hist, of the 3Iis- sions of the A . B. C. F. M. in India (Bost. 1874). (J. H. W.)
Newell, Samuel, a noted American missionary and Congregational minister, was born July 24, 1784, at Durham, Me. He graduated at Harvard College, class of 1807, and studied theology at Andover. He was, with four others, ordained a missionary Feb. G, 1812, in Salem, whence, with the Rev. INIr. Judson, he sailed for Calcutta, where they arrived June 18, but were ordered to leave the country. Mr. Newell sailed for the Isle of France, and arrived Oct. 31. Feb. 24, 1813, he went to Ceylon, where he remained until early in 1814, when he removed to Bombay, where he labored faithfully for the Christian cause until removed by sudden death from cholera, March 29, 1821. In connection with Mr. Hall he wrote The Conversion of the World, or the Claims of Six Hundred Millions (Andover, 1818), and a Memoir of Harriet Newell (q. v.). Sir. Newell was one of the first of the American missionaries in foreign fields, and a signer of the paper which led to the formation of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. See Sprague, Annals oftiie Amer. Pulpit, ii, 538.
Newell, Thomas Marquis, an American Pres- byterian minister, was born at Cross Creek, AVashington County, Pa., Oct. 10,1815. He made an early profes- sion of religion and joined the Church. In 1834 he graduated at Washington College, Pa., and in 1836 at the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny City, Pa. Soon after he was licensed, and in 1843 was ordained and installed pastor of the Presbyterian Church, Wells- burg, Va. In 1851 he removed to Jacksonville, HI., where he taught in the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, mean- while preaching in the surrounding destitute regions. In 1857 he took charge of the Church of Waynesville, where he labored until his death. May 10, 1865. Mr. Newell was one of the original members in the organi- zation of Bloomington Presbytery in 1850, and was the first commissioner from that presbytery to the General Assembly. As a man, he was naturally modest and un- assuming: as a preacher, clear, pointed, and experi- mental; as a citizen, intensel}- interested in national af- fairs, giving all his influence against slaverj'. See Wilson, Fresh. Hist. Almanac, 1866, p. 139. (J. L. S.)
New England Theology. SeeTHEoi>oGY,N.E.
New Fire, a term for the fire kindled on Easter Eve in Romish and Anglican churches for relighting the church lamps, which were extinguished on Good Friday, though in some places the upper candle of the tenebnc was reserved for the purpose, and in others, as at Rome in 750, in the pontificate of Zozimus, three lamps were concealed, emblematical of the three da^vs in which Jesus lay in the tomb; but usually the new flame was kindled by a burning-glass from the sun, as a type of the Orient on high, or, as mentioned by Leo IV in the 9th century, from a flint, symbolical of the Rock
(1 Cor. X, 4), as at Florence, from one brought from Je- rusalem in the time of the Crusaders. The rekindling represented both the resurrection and the fire which Christ came to cast upon the earth (Matt. xii,49). The fire was used to light three tapers branching from a common stock in the form of a lance. See Walcott, Sacred A rchmology, p. 397, 398.
Newfoundland, an island and British colony of North America, lies in the Atlantic Ocean, at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, separated from Labrador on the north by the Strait of Belle Isle (about twelve miles broad), and extending in lat. from 46^ 38' to 51° 37' N., and in long, from 52^ 44' to 59^ 30' W., is 370 iniles in length, 290 miles in breadth, about 1000 miles in circumference, and has an area of 38,850 square miles, or about 23,000,000 acres, of which only about 3,000,000 are set down as good for cultivation, and even of these but little has thus far been much tilled. In 1845 the only crops raised were oats and hay ; but with- in recent years large supplies of grain and vegctaljle and garden seeds have been imported, and in 1869 the number of acres under cultivation was 41,715. It will now probably not run far from 50,000 acres. The pop- ulation of Newfoundland has increased rapidly in recent times, and will no doubt in a short time greatly enlarge the figures for land under cultivation. In 1763 New- foundland only counted about 7500 souls; in 1874 it re- ported by census 101,455, from which, however, 8651 must be deducted for settlers of the French shores, and 2416 for Labrador. The main employment of these people is fishing, vrhich has proved a very profitable source of income. The mineral wealth of the country is also very great, and has in recent times been greatly developed. Newfoundland's surface is diversified by mountains, marshes, barrens, ponds, and lakes. The mountains in the Avalon Peninsula (stretching south- east from the main portion of the island, and connected with it by an isthmus of only about three miles in width) rise in some cases to 1400 feet above sea-level ; while, both here and along the western shore, the height of 1000 feet is frequently reached. The number of the lakes and "ponds" (the latter name being used indis- criminately for a large or a small lake) is remarkable, and it has been estimated, though perhaps with some exaggeration, that about one third of the whole surface is covered with fresh water. The " barrens" occupy the tops of hills. The coast-line is everj'where deeply in- dented with bays and estuaries, many of which are spa- cious enough to contain the whole British nav}'. Of these inlets, the principal, beginning from the northern extremity of the island, are Hare, White, Notre Dame, Bonavista, Trinity, Conception, St. Mary's, Placentia, Fortune, St. George's, and St. John's bays. These bays vary in length from twenty-five to seventy miles, are of great breadth, and are lined — as indeed the whole coast is — with excellent harbors. The rivers, none of which are navigable for anj' distance, communicate be- tween the lakes of the interior and the shore, and are narrow and winding; occasion all}', however, they are turned to account in driving machinery. The main streams are the Exploit, with its affluent the Great Rattling, and the Ilumber. The climate of the island is very moderate. In the summer the thermometer rarely ranges above 70°, and in winter it seldom foils below zero; yet the cold weather remains so steady for seven or eight months that the winters are pro- nounced severe. Verj' little activity is manifest during that period of the year.
Tlie early history of Newfoundland is involved in obscurity. It was discovered June 24, 1497, in the reign of Henry VII, by John Cabot ; and the event is noticed by the following entry in the accounts of the privy-purse expenditure: '•1497, Aug. 10. To hym ihat found the New Isle, £10." It was visited by the Portuguese navigator, Caspar de Cortereal, in 1500; and witiiin two years after that time regular fisheries had been established on its shores by the Portuguese,
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Biscaj'ans, and French. In 1578, 400 vessels, of which 50 were English, were engaged in the fishery. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, with liis ill-fated expedition, ar- rived in St. John's harbor in August, 1583, and formallj' took possession of the island in the name of queen Eliz- abeth. In the return voyage the expedition was scat- tered bj^ a storm, and the commander lost. In 1621 Sir George Calvert (afterwards lord Baltimore) settled in the great peninsula in the south-east, and named it the Province of Avalon. The history of the island during the 17th and part of the 18th centuries is little more than a record of rivalries and feuds between the English and French fishermen; but by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) the island was ceded wholly to England, the French, however, retaining the privilege of fishing and dr3'ing their fish on certain portions of the coast. A governor was appointed in 1728. The present form of government, established in 1855, consists of the gover- nor, a legislative council (appointed by the crown), and a general assembly (elected by the people). The coast of Labrador on the mainland, and the island of Anti- costi, have been included since 1809 within the juris- diction of the governor of Newfoundland. The question of annexation to Canada is now greatly agitated in the British dominions in America, but it is very doubtful whether the Newfoundlanders will yield their indepen- dence. The probability is that this island will soon be- come an important commercial centre. There is some prospect of a railroad connection Avith the United States to facilitate travel to Europe, shortening the ocean voy- age by four days. If accomplished, the social coloring of tliis now but sparsely settled comitry Avill change considerabh'. There are as yet no railroads in the isl- and, and its peculiar configuration renders even road- making a matter of great difUculty. There are no roads across the island ; they are confined chiefly to the south- eastern and south-western seaboard. There is fort- nightly communication in summer between St. John's and Halifax by steamer. On the colony, and connected with it, 400 miles of lines of telegraph have been con- structed, 50 miles of which, from Cape Bay to Cape Breton, are submarine.
The aborigines of Newfoundland, who called them- selves Beoths, and painted themselves with red ochre, whence thej- were called Red Indians, are supposed to have become extinct. There are a few Micmac Indians who came there from New Brunswick, and were mainly instrumental in extirpating the Beoths. The present in- habitants of Newfoundland, therefore, are mainly Euro- peans, and principally from England and Ireland. Those from the last-named country predominate to such an extent as to stamp the island with their own especial mark. " Unlike their countrymen in the United States, who, in the course of two or three generations, lose their accent, religion, improvidence, and all other national traits, and become assimilated by the predominant popu- lation into Americans, the Irish here, having been long almost a majority of the entire population, perpetuate all their peculiar characteristics, and even, to some ex- tent, impregnate the rest of the population with them. Thus the Newfoundland accent is a distinctly Irish one, tliough those who betray it may have no Irish blood in their veins, and never have been in Ireland in their lives. All along the coast the little huts erected near the fishing-stages for the fishermen to live in in sum- mer time have a strong family resemblance to those of the poorer peasantry in the 'ould country ;' and there is a sort of general air of slovenliness which the Celtic race seems to have a specialty for imparting to any community in which they preponderate." The signs and tokens, moreover, of Koman Catholics constituting the prevailing religionists of tlie island are apparent in many respects. Here, as elsewhere, it is the pecnliar- ity of Romanism that, while its adherents seem poverty- stricken, the Church is rolling in wealth. The Roman Catholic cathedral is by far the most imposing structure in the city of St. John, the principal place of the island,
and is the first object that strikes the ej^e on entering the harbor. Besides the cathedral and college, there are upwards of fifty churches and chapels, and no fewer than twelve convents, in that town. On all the island there were in 1874 04,486 Roman Catholics to 59,005 Episcopalians, 35,551 Wesleyan Methodists, and 1813 of other sects, such as the Baptists, Presbyterians, etc. Newfoundland contains two Romish bishoprics, St. John's and Harbor Grace, two Wesleyan superinten- dencies, and an Episcopal bishopric, with a bishop and a coadjutor. The number of places of worship in 1869 was 188, viz. Episcopalian, 81; Roman Catholic, 59; Wesleyan, 42 ; other, 6. For school purposes the island is divided into districts, and in each a board of educa- tion, consisting of Romanists for the Catholic schools, and another, consisting of Protestants, for the Protes- tant schools, is appointed by the governor in council. These boards have the general management of the schools in their respective districts, subject to the ap- proval of the governor in council. The governor, with the advice of the council, also appoints a Roman Catliolic and a Protestant superintendent to inspect the schools, and report on their condition. The sum of £750 (£400 for Protestants and £350 for Catholics) is appropriated annually for the training of teachers. Two scholars from each electoral district are entitled to £25 each for their board, lodging, and tuition in one of the academies or higher schools of the island. The money appropri- ated by the Legislature for educational purposes has hitherto been divided between the Protestants and Catholics in proportion to their numbers ; the act of April 29, 1874, provides for a further division among the various Protestant sects. This act did not go into effect until July 1, 1875, after a census had been taken, upon which and subsequent decennial censuses the de- nominational appropriations are to be based. It in- creases the number of inspectors to three. In the schools under government control a small tuition fee is required of pupils able to pay. Besides those estab- lished by the governmental boards, the schools of the Colonial Church and School Societj- (an English associ- ation under the auspices of the Established Church), and several established and controlled by the different religious denominations, receive aid from the govern- ment. The amount expended for educational purposes in 1872 was £14,852; in 1873, £15,316. The num- ber of schools in operation in 1874 was 293, with a total attendance of 13,597 pupils, of which 157, with 7805 pupils, were Protestant, and 136, witli 5792 pupils, Roman Catholic. Besides these there are grannnar- schools at Harbor Grace and Carbonear; an Episcopal, a Wesle3'an Blethodist, and a general Protestant acad- emy at St. John's; and at the same place an Episcopal theological institute and St. Bonaventure College (Ro- man Catliolic). See Blachwood's Mar/azine, July, 1873, art. iv; Anderson, Hist, of the Colonial Church (see In- dex in vol. iii); St. John, Catechism of the History of NeirfornvUand (1855) ; Anspach, Ilisi. of NeufonmUand (Lond. 1819) ; Pcdley, Newfoumlland (1863). See also the illustrated papers in IlarjKr's Monthly Mayazine, vol. xii and xxii.
NeTV Greek Church is the term sometimes ap- plied to the Eastern Church, as it was constituted after the subjugation of Greece by sultan Mohammed H in 1453, and continued in full power until the Greek Revo- lution of 1831-33 brought about the independent estab- lishment of a state Church for Greece. See articles Gueece; GiiEEK Church ; Nauplia.
New Grenada. See Colo.-mbia.
New Guinea. See Papua.
New Haven Theology. See Theology (New England).
New Hebrides, a group of volcanic islands situ- ated in the South Pacilic Ocean, to the north-east of New Caledonia, and to the west of the Fijis, extending
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13
NEW IRELAND
in S. lat. between 14^ and 20^, and in E. lonp;. between 166^ and 170^, and having a total area estimated at 5700 square miles, are regarded as the most easterly point of the western division of Polynesia, The grouj), which was discovered by (Juiros in IGOG, but not fully known until explored by Cook in 1773, embraces Espi- ritu Santo ((35 miles long by 20 broad), Mallicollo (60 miles long by 28 broad), Ambrim, Annatom or Aneityum, P^romango, Tanna, with an active volcano, and Aurora. Most of the group are hilly and well wooded, some even mountainous, an(l present a luxuriant vegetation. The only animal of consequence is a diminutive species of hog, which when full grown is no larger than a rabbit. The inhabitants, who are of the I'apuan Negro race, number less than 200,000. They are less intelligent than the other South Sea Islanders, ver\' tierce, and exces- sively dirty. Erromango is a well-known name in mis- sionary history, being the scene of the barbarous mas- sacre of the Rev. John Williams — generally called the Martyr of Erromango (Nov. 20, 1830). Two j-ears after the death of Williams the London Missionary Society sent native teachers from the eastern group of Polyne- sia, and they met a hearty welcome, especially' in An- natom. In 18-12 European missionaries attempted work at Tanna, but the hostility of the natives to all whites because of fear lest they should take them into slavery for Australia, as was so frequently done, prevented any successful issue. Several of the native teachers were murdered (at Futuna) ; others remained and labored, but without any apparent result. But the London Society would not see the work abandoned, and frequently sent the mission-ship to the New Hebrides, and furnished teachers when there seemed to be an opening. A new ffira dawned in 1848, when the Reformed Presbyterians established their mission. By 1852, when only two la- borers occupied the field, Christianity gained its first real strong footing, and by 18G0 all Annatom, then 3500 inhabitants strong, was free from the cruelties and ex- travagances of heathenism, and in close alliance with Christian morals and measures. The good work con- tinues, and there arc now in Annatom over 500 commu- nicants. The Rev. Mr. M'CuUough, formerly one of the missionaries, in June, 1875, wrote to the Boston Traveller some interesting statements respecting the triumph of the Gospel there. The following will be read with interest: "No one could visit Aneityum for the first time without being struck with the change ef- fected by Christianity. Instead of a number of naked savages on the beach, armed with clubs and spears, to dispute your landing, you see a number of qiuet, peace- able men and women, with children, in front of their houses, engaged in domestic occupations. The hus- band may be seen feeding a brood of pigs with cocoa- nuts, and the wife kindling the fire to cook the meal for dinner or supper, while the children all have the look of happiness and contentment in their countenances. The most conspicuous among the houses and villages are the church and school -houses and mission prem- ises. The church is itself a wonder of architecture, constructed by native workmen, under the missionary's superintendence. It is built of stone obtained on the island, and is beautifully plastered and whitewashed. Lime is obtained from the coral which abounds on the shore. This church is capable of accommodating a thousand natives, when seated closely together, and is pronounced by competent judges to be one of the finest places of worship in the South Seas. The teachers are expected to give instruction in reading, spelling, writ- ing, and arithmetic. The book used ail over the island is the New Testament, or some Gospel in a separate form, such as IMark or Luke, which were printed in a detached form before the New Testament was printed in full. Almost all the natives can read, and some of them very fluently. They pray with a fervency and fluency that would put to the "blush many who have enjoyed far greater advantages in Christian lands. They are also required to give an account of the births and
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deaths in their respective districts from month to month, and to recommend parties for marriage if they tliink them suitable."
In Erromango missionary Gordon sought a foothold in 1856, but in 1861 he and his wife fell martyrs to their faith, while many natives who had embraced Christian- ity were persecuted. Yet Christian teachers and mis- sionaries continue their work, among them a brother of Gordon, and of the population, which in 1867 amounted to upwards of 5000, 100 had accepted Christianity and 15 submitted to baptism. Tanna, with its 1500 inhab- itants, has had missionaries since 1858, though native teachers advocated Christianity before that time. Much opposition was encountered there too, and only recently the ^vork opens more favorably. There are now two stations. Vati is now also subject to missionary labors, and very recently mission work has been attempted on the largest island of the group. This important mis- sion work of the New Hebrides is now A-irtually under control of the Presbyterian denomination. A mission- ship, entitled the Daysprinr/, serves this field, and sus- tains connection with the Australian colonies. See Grundemann, Missions-A this, pt. iii. No. 4 ; Blachwood's Marjuzine, 1868, i, 37 ; 1860, ii, 52. (J. H. W.)
Ne-w Holland. See Australia.
New Ireland, a long, narrow island in the Pacific Ocean, lying to tlie north-east of New Britain (q. v.), from which it is separated bv St. George Channel; lat. 2= 40'-4o 52' S., long. 150^' 30 '-152= 50' E. Length about 200 miles; average breadth, 20 miles. The hills rise to a height of from 1500 to 2000 feet, and are riclily wooded. The principal trees are cocoas on the coast, and in the interior forests of areca-palm. The chief products are sugar-cane, bananas, yams, and cocoa-nuts. Dogs, pigs, and turtles abound. Tiie natives are ap- parently of the same race as the Australian Ncr/ritos (q. v.), but our information about them is extremely
NEW ISRAELITES
U NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH
scanty. No missionary labors have thus far been at- tempted araoiiuj them worth mentioning.
New Israelites is the name of a religious sect founded by Joanna Southcott (q. v.), a fanatical woman, near the opening of this centurj' in England. Joanna declared herself impregnated by the Holy Gliost with a child who should prove the Shiloh of the world, and, in order to prepare the way for the new dispensation, or- dered the strictest observance of the Jewish law. Al- though, after waiting for a long time, she died in 1814 in her delusion, and the splendid cradle which had been prepared for the expected Messiah still remained empt}', the New Israelites continued till 1831 to observe the Jewish Sabbath and the ceremonials of the law, in order to receive the hoped-for Messiah in a worthy manner. See jMathias, J. Soutlicotfs Projihecies and Case Stated (Lond. 1832, 12mo).
New Itinerancy. See Wesleyan New Con- nection' JIetiioui.sts.
New Jerusalem Church, a title assumed by a body of Christians adopting the views taught in the theological writings of Emanuel Swedenborg (q. v.). They are theosophists, and thtir fundamental opinion is that'the last judgment took place in the year A.D. 1757, when " the Old Church," or Christianity in its hitherto received form, passed away, and all things became new through revelations made to Swedenborg. This is the reason why the body calls itself '• The New Church," or " The New Jerusalem Church."
I. Theory and Doctrines.—!. Of God.— The New Jeru- salem Church maintains the strictly personal unity of God : one will, one understanding, one operating ener- g3'.or producing power. Only prominent ideas can be | given in so brief a sketch as the present. The infinite, eternal Being, Jehovah, the Lord, is essential divine love or goodness, and essential divine wisdom or truth. From these two fundamental faculties or qualities proceed all his other attributes of omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence. He is self-existent, before all worlds, and before the times or spaces were brought forth ; therefore is "in space without space, and in time without time." He cannot be apprehended by a merely natural idea, but only by a spiritual idea; nature is separate from him, and yet he is omnipresent in it. His love operates by his wisdom to produce all things.
' 2. Of Man. — The end, or divine purpose, in creation is a heaven out of the human race. For tliis object and use the worlds were made, and are no\v sustained, and to the same end are directed all operations of divine Providence : namely, to fill heaven with free, intelligent beings, who can reciprocate his love, who can live in in- creasing jnirity and mutual love to each other, and be growing in true blessedness forever, and whom he can gift with light, liappiness, and every good continually. Man was made in the image and likeness of God, with finite faculties corresponding to his infinite facul- ties : a will, to be the receptacle and seat of good affec- tions; and an understanding, to be the receptacle and seat of true knowledge and ideas. Man is not the pos- sessor of life, as a property inhering in himself, but is created an organism reci]iient of life, which is constant- ly commiuiicatcd by the Creator. Thus the Lord God breathed into man the breath of lives — namely, a life of affection and a life of thought — and m.an thereby became a living soul, and is a present and constant truth. The fundamental human endowments are freedom of will, by which is meant freedom of moral choice, and ration- ality, or the capacity of acquiring knowledge and exer- cising discriminating thought. These are carefully guarded and respected in all the operations of Provi- dence. At the solicitation of the sensual principle of his own mind, and in the abuse of his freedom, man turned aside into transgressidu, and fell from his prim- itive integrity. The fall was not a necessity of man's freedom, but only an incident on this earth; there may be men on other planets, free, and yet who have not fall-
en. Evil has its origin in the will of man; snflBcient freedom and sufficient power to produce it, and increase it from age to age, being a part of his original constitu- tion. '\\'ithout such freedom and power man woidd not be human, not a moral agent, but a machine or a creat- ure of instinct. Entirely free moral agents coidd not be created without involving the possibility of trans- gression, and without freedom, moral and spiritual, good cannot be appropriated.
The sin of our first parents is not judicially imputed to their descendants, but in natural generation the seed, both of the mental and material organism, is transmit- ted, a living unit, composed of soul and body ; and in the seed are treasured, latent, all the tendencies and capacities of life possessed by the parents. Hence the bias, tendency, or inclination to sin becomes native, and is inherited, growing stronger as the wickedness of each generation increases. Sin is predicable only of acts committed after the individual has begun to exercise some degree of rationalit}' and freedom. Hence in the divine economy all who die infants, as well of Gentile as Christian parents, are saved, being received by the Lord, and instructed in the spiritual world, and prepared for heaven. In this connection is developed an en- couraging view of the future of the Church. The en- tire tendencies of character being transmitted, by the same law there is hereditary good as well as hereditary evil; hence as the true Christian life is incorporated into the character of the parents, the evil tendencies of offspring will be modified ; and as the life of the Church becomes progressively purified and sanctified, constantU' better tendencies will be transmitted, the hereditary burden will be lightened, by the divine blessing on the Church, as the generations succeed, the new life in Christ Jesus coming in by degrees to replace the old corrupt life of the first Adam. Thus will come a basis for the fulness, for the latter-day glorj' of the Church. As hereditary evil is no further imputed than as it is made one's own by actual life, so with hereditary good, it is only bias that is inherited, and must be made actual to be appropriated. Thus the life of repentance, obe- dience, faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, and regeneration, will be just as requisite as ever to every member of the race.
The fall brought in spiritual death only, and not jihys- ical death, which was a law of organized bodies from the first. At the decease of the mortal part, men have in all ages risen almost immediately into the spiritual world, and to life and consciousness among the de- parted. That world is not a locality in some part of the material nniverse, but a plane of being above, and per- petually distinct from it. The spiritual body is a jiart of the man here, contained within the material body, the living form which gives life and shape to the out- ward body; consequently, when the outward body is laid aside at death, the man comes consciously into the spiritual world in perfect human form, as the blade of new grain comes forth from within the kernel of seed- corn cast into the ground, and so lives to eternity. Hence all spirits and angels are in human form, with indestructible bodies fitted to their mode of existence, and to the substances of their Avorld, with every sense and faculty in full development. No deceased person ever returns to this world, or resumes a ])hysical body. 3. The Spiritual Il'o/W. — This is distributed into three great divisions: heaven (oiiranos), the world of spirits (hades), and hell (r/eherma'). At death all at first go into the world of spirits (hades), intermediate be- tween heaven and hell, where all are together luitil the judgment, when a separation between the good and evil is effected, the good being elevated into heaven, the wicked finding their abodes in hell.
Heaven and hell are constituted by corresponding states of mind and life. The heavens are founded on obedience to divine truth as expressed in the precepts of the Word of (Jod— a life of love to God and one's neigh- bor; while the communities of the wicked are founded
NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH 15 NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH
on the principles of selfishness and disorder. The bless- edness of the former is communicated from the Lord through the medium of their orderly and obedient states of life ; and the miseries of the other all flow as natural results from their evil states of life and companionship. The divine mercy extends even to those in hell, desir- ing to elevate all to itself, but the bad quality of their life and disposition constantly prevents.
Judgment in the world of spirits is not effected at once ; the verj' good go sooner to heaven, the very bad sooner to hell. The mixed classes often remain in the intermediate state for long periods, accumulating there sometimes in immense numbers. At the end of each dispensation there is a judgment, which divides this multitude, and for the time empties the world of spirits of inhabitants. At the close of the antediluvian period there occurred such a judgment, at the time of the deluge, and another at the close of the Jewish dispensa- tion, when our Lord was on earth. Many of the scenes depicted in the Revelation b)' John are incidents of such a judgment, the last one — foretold by Daniel, and coin- cident with the Lord's second advent.
The association between the spiritual and natural worlds is so close that the state of the world of spirits powerfully affects the state of the world of men. When wicked multitudes accumulate there, supernatural in- fluences of the worst kind flow back into this world and grievously afllict mankind. This was the condition of things in an eminent degree before Christ came. Man- kind were almost entirely given over to wickedness. The world of spirits was full of demons, trjang to gain full possession of men. The powers of hell abounded, usurping the whole field to themselves in both worlds. "A universal destruction stood before the door and threatened." Without divine interposition, all mankind would have perished, both as to soul and body. No flesh could have been saved, the race at length would have been swept from the earth and gone into hell.
4. The Incarnation of Jesus Christ. — Jehovah him- self descended, the Lord, our Father, and assumed the human nature, that he might redeem and save men. This was accomplished by the miraculous conception in the womb of the Virgin. In Jesus Christ the fulness of the entire Godhead dwells bodily. The divine Trinity, of essential constituents, is all in him in one person. The two natures, divine and human, are together in him in perfect union; his divine part he calls " the Father," the human part, assumed in order to appear in the world, and born in time, is called " the Son." The angel said to Mary, " that holy thing which shall he born of thee shall be called the Son of God," and this is " the only hegotteu of the Father." The Holy Spir- it, the Comforter, is the new divine influence which the Lord sheds upon the believer and the Church through his glorified human nature.
The glorification of the humanity thus assumed by the Lord is believed to be a doctrine peculiar to this system. This was a progressive work, effected by temp- tations admitted into his human part. The divine could neither suffer nor be tempted. There was human parentage on one side only, hence the strictly human elements naturally derived in ordinarj- generation, liable to temptation, and of disorderly bias, existed in him as coming from the mother only, forming thus only an ex- terior clothing or covering to his interior soul, which was the very indwelling of the Father. The external human elements were one by one successively removed and rejected; while the divine elements from within as successively came forth, and down, occupying their places, until every part of his humanity was glorified and made over anew. Thus God became IVIan, and Man God, in one person. Thus the two natures became and remain perfectly united; Father and Son became one. Hence, since his resurrection and ascension above all the heavens, the Lord's humanity is no longer like the humanity of another man, but essentially divine in all its constituents; a glorified, transfigured form, in
which, and in which alone, supreme Divinity dwells and is manifested, as a man's soul dwells in his own body, and is manifested through that. Thus "the Lamb" becomes the only object of Christian adoration and wor- ship, as he declares to John in Revelation, " I am He who is, and who was, and who is to come, the .AJmighty." He alone is worshipiied by angels.
The Lord's glorification being thus a real incarnation, the Divinity coming down into the flesh is the grand archetype of the Christian's regeneration and sanctifica- tion, and the procuring means by which it is wrought out. "For their sakes I sanctify myself, that they also may be sanctified through the truth." It is ours to " follow" him " in the regeneration," and " overcome even as" he "overcame." F^om those states of tempta- tion, resistance to the influences of hell, combat, and victory in himself, he gives the Holy Spirit, which is a powerful spiritual infiuence, flowing from his own exer- cise of love, power, and will in similar states; aiding, strengthening, and healing the faithfid believer in his states of trial, temptation, and combat. He took not on him the nature of angels, but the seed of Abraham. " For that he himself hath suffered, being tempted, he is able to succor them that are tempted." He " was in all points tempted like as ire are, yet without sin." Thus he took on our infirmities and bore our sicknesses. Thus he sacrificed himself day by day ; his whole life was a sacrificial offering for our sakes, and by his stripes we are healed. Such was the work of reconciliation or atonement.
By this process of glorification he effected also the work of redemption, which was a purely divine work, consisting of a subjugation of the powers of hell, repre- sented and embodied in hosts of personal wicked spirits or demons, which held mankind in spiritual bondage, and, without relief, would have uttcrh' destroyed them. He executed a judgment in the world of spirits, casting down Satan and his crew. The passion of the cross was the last great temptation which he as greatest Prophet endured, and which comidcted the work of his own glorification and of the subjugation of the powers of hell, so as to keep them in subjection to his humanity forever, to the perpetual liberation of mankiud.
5. The Bible. — The plenary inspiration of Holy Script- ure is maintained in a supereminent sense. The Lord is believed to be immanently present in his Word by his Spirit. A clear distinction is made between the two kinds or modes of inspiration, the mediate and the immediate, or between that which is dictated or spoken to the prophet and that which is given by influx (in- fused) ; thus, in the Old Testament, between " the Word of the Lord" and the " Kethubim" of the Jewish Church. The whole " prophetic Word" is held to have been spoken by a living voice from on high, and con- tains every^vhere within it a spiritual, heavenly, or true Christian sense. The whole " Word," while it is true, literal history, is at the same time what the apostle calls the history of Sarah and Hagar, viz. a divine " al- legory ;" in which lessons of heavenly wisdom are con- stantly taught under a veil of natural thought and im- agery. The law of this figurative or symbolical mode of expression is simple, according to the universal anal- ogy of nature, expressed by the apostle, " the invisible things of the Creator are seen in the things that are made," and is called the "law of correspondences." Many applications of this law are so obvious that the Church in all ages has understood portions of the Word according to it. In this system it is applied to the whole " Word," and its universality and uniformity maintained by an extensive citation of texts. The term " prophetic" is here used in its widest sense, in- cluding the five books of Moses, Joshua, Judges, Sam- uel, Kings, Psalms, and all the prophets. The writers had "open vision," having immediate communication with heaven. The letter is sometimes expressed ac- cording to apparent truths, or the appearances of truth, while the spiritual sense is alwaj-s according to genu-
NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH 16 NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH
ine truth. To the remaining books, ner.rly coincident with the " Kethubim" of tlie Jews, a similar style and meaning is imputed to that generally held among Christians, their entire meaning is conveyed in their plain, grammatical sense. A similar distinction is car- ried forward into the New Testament. The four Gos- pels and the Kevelation are held to be pre-eminently "the Word of the Lord," and to contain "a wheel within a wheel," a spiritual meaning within the letter; while the ajiostolical writings, penned by •' men tilled with the Holy Spirit" and communicating with heaven, yet do so less immediately than the others, and convey all their meaning in the letter.
6. The iJlriiit Government The providence of the
Lord is his government of the world, exercised from love and guided by infallible wisdom ; most scrupu- lously preserving man's freedom in everj-thing, while directing all affairs to the greatest possible good. Eter- nal ends are constantly kei)t in view by the Lord, tem- poral things being regarded only as they may be made subservient to the interests of the soul. The divine in- spection and operation descend to the minutest particu- lars of every man's life, the object being to regenerate every one who in freedom will allow himself to be re- generated, and so to bring him to heaven at last, if pos- sible.
7. Salvation. — In order to be saved, aU men require spiritual regeneration, in which the desires of the heart and the ideas of the thought are entirely renewed. Tliis is effected altogether by divine influence upon the soul, producing a new creation or new birth, man all the while co-operating by shunning in his life whatever is sinful in the sight of God. While man works exter- nally, (iod works internally. All merit belongs to the Lord, there is none in man. The superabounding di- vine goodness or mercy is the imputative ground or fo- rensic basis of forgiveness, which is freely accorded to all, under everj' dispensation, on the simple condition of repentance and departure from evil. "All his trans- gressions that he hath committed, they shall not be mentioned unto him" (Ezek. xviii, 22). As soon as sins are forsaken in the name of the Lord they are re- mitted. " Election" is conditional, being the result of man's own free choice of life; and "effectual calling" depends upon his own perseverance in the way of a righteous life. First comes reformation of conduct, and then regeneration of the heart, or, as it is sometimes called, sanctification, a progressive work, continuing to eternity.
The means of salvation, on the part of man, is a life according to the divine precepts contained in the Word. This form of expression is believed to be most compre- hensive, and the only truly comprehensive one that can be used ; for he who lives in the effort to obey what is commanded in God's holy Word will be in the right ■way to procure every element of a pure and righteous life. He will believe the Gospel, have faith in Christ, possess charity in the affections of the will, and show forth gooil and acceptable works. Keligion in the heart, which is lo\-e or charity, religion in the understanding, which is faith in genuine truth, and religion in the ac- tions, which are good works, are held to be unitedly and equally necessary to the Christian life or character; and the degree of purity is marked by the degree of conform- ity to the precepts of truth one yields in actual life.
8. Sacrdntrnts. — IJaptism and the Holy Supper are the only two sacraments; they are of divine institution, of permanent obligation, and, like the Word in which thoj' are commanded, both have interior, spiritual sig- nifications, communicating with heaven. They are means of actual grace, being media of bringing down renewing and sanctifying intluenccs into the minds of worthy recipients. Hence to these they are signs and seals of divine blessing, but bring no good to the un- worthy.
9. Kschatolofiy. — One of the most noticeable features of this theology is its doctrine of eschatology. It is
maintained that angels and devils, all inhabitants of the other world, indeed all finite spiritual beings, are men, and have originated in material boilies on some earth or planet. Heaven, therefore, owes its increase to the Church on this and other earths. The [ihysical globe being thus needed as a seminarj' for mankind, where they can be born and instructed and jirepared for heaven, will never come to an end, nor be destroyed, nor have the historical continuity of its affairs broken up, but, with the starry heavens above, will perpetually re- main for this use, a momiment of the wisdom and good- ness of the Creator. The " consummation of the age" spoken of in the Gosjiel refers to the end of the first Christian age, or closing up of the apostolical dispensa- tion, the second coming of the Lord, and a consequent judgment. These events, it is alleged, have already taken place, or are now in process of being fulfilled. The things foretold in the Book of Revelation bj- John are at this day receiving their fulfilment. The end of the former dipensation came about the middle of the last century, after all things in the divine providence had been prepared. As explained above, the judgment is a process belonging to the unseen world, being effected only in the world of spirits intermediate between heaven and hell. Consequently it is an event not of this visible world, and which no mortal eyes can behold — an event, a knowledge of which, whenever it does occur, cannot possibly become known to men, except by the testimony of some one raised up bj"^ the Lord, and gifted with seership or "open vision" to witness and record it, as John was shown the vision which foretold it. And this is the claim made by Emanuel Svvedenborg; that he was so gifted and commissioned by the Lord to witness, describe, and declare it, as a servant of the Lord Jesus Christ. The judgment occurred in 1757, and marked the change from the apostolic to the apocalyptic dis- pensation. Since then we have been living under the new order.
The second coming of the Lord is not personal, visi- ble, but spiritual. As to its outward means or instru- mentality, it consists of a body of new truth or doctrine, disclosed from the true meaning of his own Word. The entrance of this body of doctrine into our world is pre- tigured by the birth of the man-child in Kevelation, and tlie opening of the book sealed with seven seals symbol- izes the opening or explanation, the spiritual or heav- enly meaning of the Bible. The Lord comes thus to the rational thought of mankind, creating a new dis- pensation of light.
The execution of the judgment in the world of spir- its in 1757 removed many infernal and obstructing in- fluences which hindered the progress and improvement of mankind. A vast dark cloud of evil hovering over Christendom in the invisible world was dissipated, and better influences from heaven began at once to flow in, taking effect over the whole Church, and in all parts of the world. The extraordinary changes that have since taken place, and the new age of light and progress smce inaugurated, are regarded as proceeding from this cause, as being visible tokens of the Lord's second advent, and as striliing confirmations of Swedenborg's representa- tions. The presumption is that the changes will con- tinue, the opinions of men gradually modifying, until these truths are generally recognised and accepted.
From the divine Word thus opened, explained, and interpreted comes the system of divinity here taught, a revealed system, the one meant by the Lord, and be- lieved and understood by the angels, and thus taught in the Church in heaven. The institution of a Church on earth having the heavenly platform, and therelbre en- deavoring to establish the heavenly truths in the world, is what is meant by the New Jerusalem which John saw, and is described in Kev. xxi and xxii, and also meant in Daniel by the "kingdom" to be set up in the latter days — to be the crown and completion of all churches," and to last forever. The glory and honor of the nations are to flow into it, while those who are saved
NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH 17 NEW JERUSALE:M CHURCH
will walk by the light of it. It will be composed of all those wlio acknowledge and ajiproach tlie Lord Jesus Christ alone as the only God of heaven and earth, and lead a life of obedience to his precepts. It is called the Bride, the Lamb's wife, because it worships the Lord Je- sus on\Y, being spirituall}^ conjoined to none but liim. As this earth is needed as a seminary for the propaga- tion and instruction of the human race, marriage is the divinely appointed means to that end; in itself a holy institution, the very foundation of heaven and the Church. The union of one man with one woman is es- sential to its very existence. By shunning every im- purity as a sin against God, the love for each other in the minds of such partners becomes constantly cleaner and purer; the distinction of sex pertains to the soul, the two minds are exactlj' fitted to form a union, and the spiritual love and friendship of a pair remaining obedient to the divine precepts may continue to eter- nity. Wedlock is not only more useful than celibacy, but to those who foUow a life of righteousness is spirit- ually purer, and more conducive to regeneration. Ev- ery departure from strict conjugal chastity, even in thought, is a divergence towards hell. By some re- viewers, Swedeuborg has been charged with looseness in this respect. Nothing can be further from the truth. He discriminates very clearly and justly the different degrees of disorder and criminality, but affords not the slightest plea for the least latitude on the part of a Christian. (See the editorial additions below.)
The difficulty, or rather impossibility, of giving an adequate idea of this system, or any of its parts, in a mere statement, arises from its comprehensiveness, and its exhaustive thoroughness in all its particulars. It is pervaded throughout by a profound philosophy of man, the soul, human society, and the universe, which cannot be wholly transferred to other pages than those on which it is originally found. It is alleged by its most intel- ligent students to be perfectly consistent and coherent throughout, and to answer satisfactorily every question which the rational religious mind desires to ask. It has undoubtedly definite teaching on a larger number of points than any other system of theology or philosophy that has ever appeared in the world. For some account of the writings in which it is contained and the litera- ture of Swedenborgians, see the article on E.manuel SwEDEXBORG in this work.
II. History and On/nnizntion. — Swedeuborg took no steps towards an ecclesiastical organization, nor was there any movement of the kind until many years after his death, the first notices of it appearing about 1780. Since then there has been a steady and nearly uniform increase, zealous advocates of these doctrines being now found in all parts of the Christian world, and to some extent in regions beyond. Tliey are making progress in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Russia, France, Ger- many, Switzerland, Great Britain, South Africa, Aus- tralia, and the East Imlies, as well as in America. In Great Britain Swedenborgianism found its earliest or- ganization under the name of " Theosophical Society" in 1783, and thus continued until 1788, when Robert Hindraarsh (q. v.) and friends liired a chapel in London, and established public worship and preaching according to Swedenborg's doctrines. The example was soon fol- lowed in other places, and there is in that country since the beginning of this century a General Conference, which was composed in 1873 of 58 societies, 20 minis- ters, and 4019 members, holding annual sessions, main- taining publishing and missionary societies and periodi- cals, besides many churches or congregations not in con- nection with the general body. Tliere are numbers, too, of clergymen and laymen adopting a large portion of the views while retaining their comiection witli the other denominations. In Canada there is an associa- tion, composed of several ministers and churches, with scattered members, having an " ordained minister," or presiding bishop.
In the United States, where the first Swedenborgian VII.-B
Cluirch was organized in 1792, at Baltimore, j\Id., a General Convention exists since 1817, incorporated un- der the law, having associations, societies, or members in nearly all the states in the Union ; in 1873 it re- ])orteil 74 ministers, 93 societies, and 4408 members; it holds annual sessions in different cities, maintains a Board of Publication, with a publishing-house in New York, issues three periodicals, sends out missionaries, has a theological school at Waltham, Mass., an Amer- ican New-Church Sunday-School Union, and a New- Church National Church Music Society. No very precise ecclesiastical forms are prescribed in these doc- trines, much freedom being allowed in this respect to the genius and wants of different nations, and the prac- tical wisdom of the Church, the power being vested in the whole body of membership. The form principally assumed in this country' is a modified or moderate epis- copacy, with a ministry in three orders. Each state association has its "ordaining minister," or ecclesiasti- cal overseer, wliose office is permanent. In most of the congregations the worship lias assumed a partially li- turgical form, and a variety of liturgies, books of wor- ship, and manuals of devotion have been issued in this country and in England. Each congregation is free to adopt its own mode, and hence all forms are found in use, from the simple, extemporaneous modes of the Puritans, to the ritual services of the prelatical churches. In all, however, forms expressed in the exact language of Scripture are preferred. In the General Convention the lay and clerical delegates meet and vote in one body. The accredited organ of the New Jerusalem Church in Great Britain is the Intdkcfual Repository, published in London ; in Germany, the Wochen SchriJ't J'iir die Xeue Kirche, at Stuttgard ; in Italy, La Niiova Epoca ; in the United States, the Jerusalem Messenger, at New York, and Bote der Neuen Kirche, at Baltimore. In England there is also published the Juvenile Maga- zine, and in this country the Little Messenger, for the j'outh.
There is also a " New-Church Congregational Laiion," composed of ministers and churches, with an aggregate membership of about 1000, preferring that form of or- ganization, having its headquarters at Phila<lelphia, and maintaining its own Board of Publication, Tract Society, and periodical. There are, too, independent so- cieties or churches, not in association with any general body, with numbers of believers communing in other denominations, and others not in connection with any Church. (W. B. H.)
Articles of Faith.— The Scriptures, as interpreted by the voluminous and verbose writings of Swedeuborg, are taken generally as the standard of Swedenborgian doctrine ; but a synopsis of their founder's opinions was made at the first organization of the sect in the form of fortj'-two propositions, taken from his works, and these propositions were embodied in thirty-two resolu- tions, which were agreed to at the first Conference on April 16,1789. These thirty-two "Resolutions" have again been condensed into twelve "Articles of Faith," which now form the standard of doctrine in the " New Church." They are as follows :
"1. That Jehovah God, the creator and preserver of heaven and earth, is love itself, and wisdom itself, or good itself, and truth itself: that he is one both in essence and in person, in whom, nevertheless, is the divine Trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, which are the essential Di- vinity, the Divine Humfaiity, and the Divine Proceeding, answering to the soul, the hody, and the operative energy in man : and that the Lord arid Saviour Jesus Christ is that Gort.
"2. That Jehovah God himself descended from heaven as divine truth, which is the Word, and took upon liim human nature, for the purpose of removing fiom man the powers of hell, and restoring to order all thinirs in the spiritual world, and all things in the Church: that he re- moved fr<iin man the powers of hell by combats against and victories over them, in which cousisted the great work of redemiition : that by the same acts, which were his temptations, the last of which was the pas-ion of the cross, he united in his humauiiy divine truth to diviue
NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH 18 NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH
good, or divine wisdom to diviuc love, and so returned into his diviuity in wlilch lie was fi-om eternity, togetlier with and in his "loiificd luiruiuiity, whence he I'oiever keeps the infernal powLMS in ^^ubjection to himself; and that all who believe in him with tlie understanding, from the heart, and live accordingly, will be saved.
" 3. That the sacred Scripture, or Word of God, is divine truth itself, containing a spiritual sense heretofore un- known, whence it is divinely inspired and holy in every syllable, as well as a literal sense, which is the basis of its spiritual sense, and in which divine truth is in its fulness, its sanctity, and its power, thus that it is accommodated to the apprehension both of angels and men : that the spiriiiial and natural senses are united by corresponden- ces like soul and body, every natural expression and im- age answering to and including a spiritual and divine idea; and thus that the Word is the medium of commu- nication with heaven and of conjunction with the Lord.
"4. That the government of the Lord's divine love and wisdom is the divine providence, which is universal, ex- ercised according to certain Used laws of order, and ex- tending to the minutest particulars of the life of all men, both of the good and of the evil: that in all its operations it has respect to what is infinite and eternal, and makes no account of things transitory, but as they are subservi- ent to eternal ends; thus, that it mainly consists with man, in the connection of things temporal with things eternal, for that the continual aim of the Lord by his di- vine providence is to join man to himself, and himself to man, that he may be able to give him the felicities of eternal life ; and that the laws of permission are also laws of the divine providence, since evil cannot be prevented without destroying the nature of man as an accountable agent, and because also it cannot be removed unless it be known, and cannot be known unless it appear: thus that no evil is i^ermitted but to prevent a greater, and all is overruled by the Lord's divine providence for the great- est possible good.
"5. That man is not life, but is only a recipient of life from the Lord, who, as he is love itself, and wisdom it- self, is also life itself, which life is communicated by in- flux to all in the spiritual world, whether belonging to heaven or to hell, and to all in the natural world, but is received differently by every one, according to his quality and consequent state of reception.
"C. That man, during his abode in the world, is, as to his spirit iu the midst between heaven and hell, acted upon by influences from both, and thus is kept in a state of spiritual equilibrium between good and evil, in conse- quence of which he enjoys free-will, or freedom of choice, in spiritual things as well as in natural, and possesses the capacity of either turning himself to the Lord and his kinirdom, or turning hiniself away from the Lord, and connecting himself with the kingdom of darkness; and that, unless man had such freedom of choice, the Word would be of no use, the Church would be a mere name, man would possess nothing by virtue of which he could be conjoined to the Lord, and the cause of evil would be chargeable on God himself.
"7. That man at this day is born into evil of all kinds, or with tendencies towards it : that, therefore, in order to his entering the kingdom of heaven, he must be regener- ated or created anew, which great work is eflfected in a progressive manner by the Lord alone, by charity and faith as mediums daring man's co-operation: that as all men are redeemed, all are capable of being regenerated and consequently saved, every one according to his stale; and that the regenerated man is in communion with the angels of heaven, and the unregenerate with the spir- its of hell : but that no one is condemned for hereditary evil any fiu'ther than as he niaUes it his own by actual life; whence all who die in infancy are saved, special means being provided by the Lord "in the other life for that purpose.
"8. Tluit repentance is the first beginning of the Church in man, and that it consists iu a man's examining him- self, both iu regard to his deeds and his inlentiijus, in knowini; and acknowledging his sins, confessing them before the Lord, supplicating him fur aid, and beginning a new life : that to this end all evils, whether of affection, of thought, or of life, are to be abhorred and shunned as sins against God, and because they proceed from infernal spirits, who, in the aggregate, are called the Devil and Satan ; and that good afl"ections, good thoughts, and good actions are to be cherished and performed, because they are of God and from God: that these things are to be done by man as of liir.iself ; nevertheless, under the ac- knoxvled^nient and belief that it is from the Lord oper- ating in him and by him: that so far as man shuns evils as sins, so far they are removed, remitted, or forgiven ; so far also he does good, not from himself, but from the Lord ; and in the same degree he loves truth, has faith, and is a s|)iritual man ; and that the Decalogue teaches what evils are sins.
"9. That charity, faith, and good works are unitedly necessary to man's salvation, since charity without faith is not spiritual but natural, and faith without charity is not living but dead, and both charity and faith without good works are meiely mental and perishable thiuirs, be- cause without use or fikeduess ; and that nothing of faith,
of charity, or of good works is of man, but that all is of the Lord, and all the merit is his alone.
"10. That Baptism and the Holy Supper are sacraments of divine institution, and are to be perniauenlly observed — baptism being an external medium of introduction into the Church, and a sign representative of man's purifica- tion and regeneration, and the Holy Supi)er being an ex- ternal medium, to those who receive it worthily, of intro- duction as to spirit into heaven, and of conjunction with the Lord, of which also it is a sign and seal.
" 11. That immediately after death, which is only a put- ting off of the material body never to be resumed, man rises again in a spiritual or substantial body, in which he continues to live to eternity, iu heaven if his ruling aflec- tions and thence his life have been good, and in hell if his ruling aft'ections and thence his life have been evil.
"V2. That now is the time of the second advent of the Lord, which is a coming, not in person, but in the power and glory of his holy Word : that it is attended, like his tirst coming, with the restoration to order of all things iu the spiritual world, where the wonderful divine operation, commonly expected under the name of the Last Judg- ment, has in consequence been performed, and with the preparing of the way for a new Church on the earth— the first Christian Church having spiritnally come to its end or consummation through evils of life and errors of doc- trine, as foretold by the Lord in the Gospels; and that this uew or second Christian Church, which will be the crown of all churches, and will stand forever, is what was representatively seen by John when he beheld the holy city. New Jerusalem, descending from God out of heaven, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband."
It will be noticed by our readers that the view taken by the Nexv Jerusalem Church of the person and work of Christ, as God, is fundamentally at variance with the opinions of all other Christian churches, whether Eo- manist or Protestant. Tlie language of Scripture con- cerning justification and redemption is invested with a meaning altogether different from that which is usual- ly assigned to it. It is denied, according to the Swe- clenborgian system, that the Son descended from the Father, and, further on, that the Father in his wrath condemned the human race, and in his mercy sent his Son to bear their curse. It is denied, and declared to be a fundamental error to believe, that the sufferings of Christ on the cross were the redemption of his people. The doctrine of imputed righteousness is distinctly de- nied, and declared to be a subversion of the divine or- der. Mediation, intercession, atonement, propitiation, are alleged to be forms of speeeb " expressive of the ap- proach which is opened to God, and of the grace com- municated from God, bj' means of his humanity." Swe- denborg taught that in the fulness of time Jehovah assumed human nature to redeem and save mankind, by subjugating the hells and restoring to order the heavens. Every victor\' gained by Christ over the temptations to which lie was exposed weakened the powers of evil everywhere. The victory of the Saviour is our victory, in virtue of which we are able, believing in him, to resist and vanquish evil. Redemption Swe- denborg believed to be wrought yor ns only in so far as it is wrought in us: and that our sins are forgiven just in proportion as we are reclaimed from them.
In regard to the future state, and the condition of the soul after death, it mu^t have occurred to our readers that the doctrines of Swedenborgians differ greatly from those of all other churches. Thus the Swedenborgians maintain that there is a last judgment, both particular and general ; the former relating to an individual of the Church, and the latter to the Church considered collec- tively. The last judgment, as it relates to an individ- ual, takes place at death ; the last judgment, as it re- lates to the Church collectively considered, takes )ilace when there is no longer ain* genuine faith and love in it, whereb}' it ceases to be a Church. Thus the last judgment of the Jewish Church took place at the com- ing of Christ, and accordingly he said, "Now is the judgment of this world, now is the prince of this world cast out." The last judgment of the Christian Church foretold iiy the Lord in the Gospels, and by John in the Revelation, took place, according to Swcdcnborg, in A.D. 1757; the former heaven and earth are now there- fore passed away; the '"New Jerusalem" mentioned in the Apocalypse has come down from heaven in the form
NEW-LIGHT ANTIBURGHERS 19
NEWMAN
of the " New Church ;'' and consequently the second ad- vent of the Lord lias even now been realized in a spir- itual sense by the exhibition of his power and glory in the New Church thus established.
Another imjiortant divergence in Swedenborgian be- lief from other Christians is that respecting holy Script- ure, which is so stated by Mr. Hayden as hardly to convey clearly the belief of his Church. A reference to the third article of the Articles of Faith will make it clearer, and yet even it does not fairly cover it, for it omits the statement of the twelfth proposition taken from Swedenborg's A raina Calestia and other " revela- tions." This statement is " that the books of the Word are all those which have the internal sense, which are as follows, viz., in the O. T., the five books of Moses, called Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deu- teronomy; the book of Joshua, the book of Judges, the two books of Samuel, the two books of Kings, the Psalms of David, the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lam- entations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Ilosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, jVIalachi ; and in the N. T., the four evan- gelists— Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John — and the Rev- elation. And that the other books, not having the ii> ternal sense, are not the Word" (.1 rcana Ccslestia, n. 10,325; New Jerusalem, p. 2G6 ; White Horse, n. 16). Thus ten books of the O. T., the Acts of the Apostles, and all the epistles of Paul and the other apostles, are set aside as no part of " the Word of the Lord."
The remaining articles of the Swedenborgian Con- fession may be passed over without comment, since they deal more with theosophical views of love, wisdom, re- pentance, charity, faith, good works, etc., than with important articles of faith. It maj^ be added here that when, in 1788, it was determined to effect a permanent religious organization of all Swedenborgians, it was thought expedient to establish a settled ministry, and it was arranged, by drawing of lots, that Robert Hind- marsh, the printer, should ordain his father, James Hindmarsh, and Samuel Smith, both of them being Methodist preachers who had seceded from Wesley's society. In the j'ear 1818 the eleventh General Con- ference of the sect settled some doubts which had been raised as to the competency of Robert Hindmarsh to ordain others, seeing he had not himself been ordained, by determining unanimously " that Mr. Robert Hind- marsh was virtually ordained by the divine auspices of heaven" (see Hindmarsh, ^we and Progress of the Neto Church, p. 72, 310). In 1815 "a trine, or threefold or- der" of the ministry was established. It consists of the ordinary ministers, ordaining ministers, and a minister superintendent over and in behalf of the New Church at large.
New-Light Antiburghers. See Antiburgii-
EIIS.
Ne"w-Light Burghers. See Antiburghers.
New Lights, a name frequently given to the early Christians in contempt. In modern times the expression has been applied to some seceding ecclesiastical bodies in Scotlanil, as, e.g. The Fifth Monarchy 3 fen (q.v.). The Separates (q.v.), a sect of Calvinistic Methodists organized in this country near the middle of last cen- tury, were at first known also as New Lights.
Newlin, Thomas, B.D., an eminent English divine, was born at Winchester in 1G80. In 170G he was elect- ed demy of ^Magdalen College, Oxford ; became M. A. in 1713, and actual fellow in 1718. He was presented to the living of Deeding, Sussex, in 1720, and died in 1743. He was a divine of great worth and remarkable abili- ties, and was especially esteemed for his simplicity of manners and integrity of life. His sermons have always been greatly admired. " There is a zeal and pathos in them which rank them among the most useful sermons and elegant compositions in the language" (Clapham). Many of them are inserted in Dr. Vicesimus Knox's Faniili/ Lectures, and in Clapham's Collection. Newlin
published five separate Sermons (1718-1736) : — Eighteen Sermons on Several Occasions (Oxf. 1720, 8vo) : — One- and-twenty Sermons on Several Occasions (Oxf. 1726, 8vo) : — and translated from the Latin bishop Thomas Parker's History of his Own Times (1727, 8vo). See Darling, Cyclop. Bibliographica, ii, 2174.
Nevrman, Francis William, an eminent Eng- lish speculative writer, perhaps the ablest and most no- ted of modern theists, was born in London in 1805. He received his preparatory training in his own home and at the school of Ealing, and thence passed to Worcester College, Oxford, where he obtained first-class honors in classics and mathematics in 1826, and in the same year a fellowship in Baliol College. This fellowship, how- ever, he resigned ; and he withdrew from the university in 1830, at the approach of the time for taking the de- gree of M.A., declining the subscrijition to the Thirty- nine Articles, which was then required from candidates for the degree. He set out on a lengthened tour in the East, and spent nearly three years (1830-1833) in va- rious parts of Turkey, starting, as some will have it, to engage in missionary work in the East, but finally re- linquishing this work for philological and social studies of the Turks. As the result of his observations in that coimtry we have from his pen letters sent at the time, but not made common public property until 1856, when they were sent forth, entitled Personal Narrative in I jctters, principally from Turkey, in the years 1830-1833. Shortly after his return home he was appointed classical tutor in Bristol College (1834). In 1840 he accepted a similar professorship in Manchester New College ; and finally, in 184G, his great reputation for scholarship, and his general accomplishments, led to his appointment to the chair of the Latin language and literature in the London University, which position he held until 1863, when his numerous literary engagements made it neces- sarj"^ for him to quit the school-room. Yet even while in the professorial chair Jlr. Newman was engrossed by numerous and varied engagements; thus he not only became an active contributor to several literary and scientific periodicals, and to various branches of ancient and modern literature, but took also a leading part in the controversies on religion, in which he chose the line directly opposite to that taken by his elder broth- er, proving no less ardent as a disciple of the extreme rationalistic school tlian John Henry Newman of the dogmatical. Indeed, Francis William Newman is chiefly known to-day on account of the peculiar opinions he held on religions questions. These opinions, and the system fountled upon them, form the subject of his well-known work. Phases of Faith, or Passages from the History of My Creed (1850, and often; replied to from the orthodox standpoint in Rogers's Eclipse of Faith, which Mr. Newman answered in his second edition [1853], which in turn elicited a response from Rogers, entitled A Defence of the Eclipse of Faith [2d ed. 1854]), and of many essays in the Westininster, Eclectic, and other reviews ; but he is also the author of very many separate publications. Of these, several relate to the fundamental questions of the controversy to which we have referred, as Catholic Union: — Essays towards a Church of the Future (1844) :— .4 State Church not Defensible (1846) :— /I History of the Hebrew Monarchy (1847) -.—The Soul, its Sorrows and Aspira- tions (1849) •.—Solomon's Song of Songs, a new transla- tion (1857): — Theism, Doctrinal and Practical, or Di- dactic Religious Utterances (1858), Few men have labored as successfully as F. W. Newman in speculative theological fields. A scholar and a thinker of first-class order, his utterances and publications have commanded the respect of his contemporaries. In England es- pecially he has exerted a widespread and powerful, though it must be confessed, sad as it may seem, a baneful influence. Rather mystical in his religious no- tions, his life spoke most decidedly in favor of the high- est types of Christian manhood, and a personal forget- fulness for Christ's sake. His declarations, however,
NEWMAN
20
NEWMAN
would, if successful, take from us the foundations of the Christian religion; thus strongly and strangely contrasting, by his tenacious clinging to its highest as well as humblest associations, with his strong but inconsistent love for the very letter of Scripture, and his profound conviction of the essential truth of Chris- tianity. With him religion is wholly subjective and in- nate, and thus incapable of deriving its ideas of divine truth from any revelation or external source whatever. Not only does he distinguish between religion and theology, as he shoidd do, but, like our own theist, Theodore Parker (q. v.), he separates the one from the other, and flings the former with contempt away alto- gether. His logical consistency we cannot call in ques- tion. Indeed, his power of reasoning has been com- mended alike by friend and foe, but there is the more fault to be found with his premises, which are chiefly some palpable and isolated sophisms. He denies the doctrine of the Trinity, rejects that of eternal punish- ment, and assails the canon of Scripture ; but he more wisely espouses the Arminian view on the doctrine of the will. Indeed, it is generally and reasonably asserted that his estrangement from orthcdox Christianitj^ was caused by the radical Calvinistic training which he re- ceived in his youth. While his early religious views are laid down in Phases of Faith, his work on the Soul is the most complete and the latest expose of the views in his maturer years. That work treats first of the " Sense of the Infinite without us." It shows how this sense is the joint fruit of awe and wonder and admiration, as these emotions are begotten by the soul's consciousness of the mysterious and sublime and lovely in the facts of its environment. These are the preparation of the heart for love ; for they are antagonistic to our selfish- ness. Even the domestic affections tend to multiply self, rather than to kill out selfishness. Enthusiasm is wanted. Enthusiasm is the life-blood of morality. The sense of order marks the next stage of human aspiration; and this, in turn, is followed by the sense that the eternal order is both good and wise. The sense of personality, which glimmers in the first senti- ment of awe, now floods the spirit with its beams, and culminates in the soul's sense of sin and longing for enfranchisement, evolving under natural and regular conditions a sense of personal relationship with God. Out of this sense of personal relation comes " the prayer of faith," addressed to God in perfect confidence that he will hear and answer it, and from this sense is born the sweet assurance of immortal life. Such is the scheme, and it is carried out with a great deal of force and earnestness. This work was superseded by Theism, which did not prove so satisfactory to his own school of thought as the former worlc (see Christian Examiner, May, 18GG, art. iv). Newman's proof of God is pre- sented as follows: His first axiom is that the omni- present law, which we discern as animating the universe, is not blind, but intelligent; the second, that God must have aU the human spirit's faculties, and more besides; the third, that God observes our moral actions, approves the right and disapproves the wrong; the fourth, that if he approves our rectitude, his must be perfect ; the fifth, that adoration of God is intrinsically suitable to man ; therefore such adoration is pleasing to God. These axioms are intuitive, but thej' are capable of being ver- ified ; and, before stating them as axioms, Mr. Newman seeks to verify them. His first test is that of congru- ity ; Are they self-consistent, and consistent with known facts? His second test is that of universal reason; the common consciousness of mankind. His third is that of practical experience. A postulate from these axioms is that God gives spiritual strength to them that ask for it in prayer. He does not claim this for an intuition. But we pray instinctively, and experience tells us that we never pray in vain.
"Who, then— having faith that God is the fountain of holiness, and approves of our virtue, and enjoins its ad- vancement—can doubt tliat when we pray and surrender
our worse, not only thereby do w-e welcome the bettet tliiit iras within, but the living Source of that better swells the flood of his presence ; so that the conscience itself be- comes sounder iiud purer and stroniier, broadening, deep- eiihig, euliveuiug the inward moral forces." — Theism, p. 195.
It will be seen from this sj-nopsis that there is much that authorizes our likening him to the American theist Parker. In many respects, however, Newman was the superior of Parker. The latter's method of reasoning was less formal and exact, and the life, too, not quite so Christ-like as that of the English theist. Newman died in lS7o. Aside from ]\Iill, no other English writer should claim so much of the attention of the theological student as F. W. Newman. He was possessed of that un- usual breadth of intellectual tastes and accomplishments which gave such eminence to Mill ; and, unlike the lat- ter, he did service to Christian theology by his valuable contributions to the evidences for a deistic faith. Like Mill, Newman shone conspicuously as a political writer. He also figured prominently by his philological attain- ments, and was especially noted for his mastery of the Oriental tongues, particularly the Arabic. For a list of his publications in these departments we must re- fer to secular cyclopreilias. See London Quarterly Re- view, 1854, July, p. 234 sq. ; Oct. art. i; Westminster Review, Oct. 18o8 ; Oct. 1870, p. 220 ; Eclectic Review, 4th sen, xxviii, 257 sq. ; Eraser's Magazine, xxxiii, 253 sq.
Newman, Jonathan, a noted pioneer minister of the Methodist Episcopal Church, flourished near the opening of this centur^y. Of his early personal history we know scarcely anything. In 1791 we find him la- boring in the Wyoming valley, which unites Pennsyl- vania and New York, and later in Otsego County, N. Y., where he was instrumental in forming the district. This county was at that time wild and sparsely settled, with scarcely any roads and many destitute people. New- man by indefatigable industry succeeded in rallying many to the Christian work, and when the district was formed eighty members were reported as belonging to it. He next extended his labors over the iMohawk valley, and when Garrettson (q. v.) came into that re- gion Newman's preparatory work proved more service- able than had been expected. He was "a mighty preacher, and usually in the advance line of attack," and wherever he went he made friends and converts. Newman died and was buried on the Otsego Circuit about the opening of the present century. See Peck, Early Methodism, p. 174 sq.; Stevens, [list. M. E. Ch. ii, 329, 330. (J. II. W.)
Newman, Samuel, a minister of colonial days in this country, was born at Banbury, England, in 1(J02, and Avas educated at Oxford University, where he grad- uated in 1C20, and immediately took holy orders in the state establishment. In 1(536 he emigrated to America, and, after staying a short time at Dorchester, now Bos- ton, Mass., was chosen minister of the Church at V/ey- mouth. In 1644 he removed to Eehoboth, and there preached until his death, which occurred July 5, 1663. Newman compiled a concordance of the Scriptures which passed through several editions, under the title of the Cambridge Concordance (5th ed. Lond. 1720, fob).
Newm.an, Samuel P., an American educator and rhetorician, was liorn at Andovcr, Mass., in 1796, and was educated at Bowdoin College, where he graduated in 1816. In 1824 he was made a professor of rhetoric and oratory in his alma mater, and he held that position until 1839. He then became i)rincipal of the State Nor- mal School in Mississi|iin, and died while in tlie dis- charge of the duties of that office at Barre, Mo., Feb. 10, 1842. He pulilished a Rhetoric, a treatise on Political Economy, and a scries of Southern Eclectic Readers.
New^man, Selig, a noted Jewish scholar, emi- nent as an Hebraist, was Ijorn in the city of Posen, Prussian Poland, in 1790, and received the best educa- tion that could be procured in various Jewish colleges
NEWMARKET
21
NEW MOON
in Prussia. He decided to devote himself to Biblical studies, and even at an early age his renown was so great that he was given an office in the chief synagogue of Berlin. He went to London when about twenty- eight years of age, and was soon afterwards appointed minister to the congregation at Plymouth by the late chief rabbi, Dr. Solomon Herschell. Afterwards, for many years, he taught Hebrew in the University of Oxford", and would have had the title and salary of the professorship had not his religion debarred him from ac- cepting, there being an old law in that university which precludes all other than Protestants from holding that office. Yet for many years the heads of that universitj', by their own example, encouraged all requiring instruc- tion in Hebrew to study under him. When at length sev- eral converted Jews came to the university, he was com- pelled to leave, and to seek a home in America at an advanced age. Among the eminent men who were his pupils in England was Dr. Tait, the present archbishop of Canterbury, who no doubt, had Newman been in Eng- land, would have placed him upon the mixed learned commission of Christians and Jews now engaged in re- vising the authorized translation of the Bible. Com- petent authorities pronounce him to have been the best Hebrew scholar of the present day, and learned rabbis did not think it derogatory to their position to take in- struction of him in the higher branches of Hebrew lit- erature. The late Rev. Dr. Kaphall, Prof. Marks, of London, and other eminent Israelites, were among his pupils. In the United States Newman found no official employment. He had many pupils in the Hebrew, but busied himself mainly with his own writings, on which he was engaged until the hour of his death, Feb. 20, 1871, at Brooklyn, N. Y. His works consisted of a Hebrew and EnrjUsh Lexicon, an Enc/lish and Hehreio Lexicon, a Hehreio Grammar, a popular work, entitled The Challenge Accepted, being in the form of a dialogue between a Jew and a Christian, and Emendations of the Authorized Version of the Old Testament. His last work, which he had but just completed, is still in man- uscript, and is an abridged translation of the Bible, with copious notes, intended for the use of Jewish schools and private families. There is every reason to believe that, at his advanced age, the close application he gave to this work hastened his end. His intellect was clear and vigorous to the last. Selig Newman was an en- lightened man, opposed to bigotry, but at the same time a staunch Jew, firmly wedded to the orthodox principles of his faith, and alwaj's read}' to battle for Judaism. At one time, when the conversionists were most active in England, they selected their most com- petent advocate to challenge the Jews to a public dis- cussion. Selig Newman was selected by such Israel- ites in London as felt an interest in this discussion to meet the Christian advocate, and he did so, the discus- sion being carried on for many nights in public at the Freemasons' Hall Tavern. He afterwards delivered sermons to the Jews for many Sabbaths at the Jews' Free School, the building being always crowded by anxious listeners, but his duties at Oxford compelled him to relinquish this, to him, pleasurable task. His views on Christianity are embodied in his The Chal- lenge Accepted, a book worthy the study of Christian Apologists. (J. H.W.)
Newmarket, an English market-town, situated in the county of Suffolk, is noted in English ecclesias- tical history as the seat of a Church council which is re- ported to have been held there in July, llGl, by Henry II, king of England, and is denominated Concilium ajmd Novum Mercatum. This ecclesiastical gathering is said to have recognised the papal authority of Alexander HI (q. v.), and to have declared against the antipope Victor. Binius and others call this an English council, but Labbe {Concil. x, 1-106) contends tJiat the Novum Mercatum is the Neufranche in Normandy, in the diocese of Rouen. Inett, in his History of the English Church, ignores this council altogether.
Ne"W Moon (O'ln, cho'desh, strictly neieness; fully Cin OXT, beginning of the month [as in Numb, x, 10; xxviii, 11], since ^"in stands likewise for "a month" [q. V.]; Sept. veofirivia or vovfi-qviai; Vulg. calendcc, neomeni), Fkstival of, a regular observance among the Jews. Many ancient nations celebrated the return- ing light of the moon with festivities (Isidor. Orig, v, 33; Macrob. Sat. i, 15, p. 273, Bip. ed.; Tacitus, Germ. vol. ii) — offered sacritices (Snid. s. v. civaaTaroi ; Meursii Grcecia Feriul.v, 211 sq.) and prayers (Demosth. In A ristog. i, 799 ; Horace, Odes, iii, 23, 1 sq.), feasted (Hon Oi\ iii, 19, 9 sq. ; comp. Concil. Trul. can. 62 ; Mansi, x, 974), and made merry (Theophr. Char. 5; Doughtaei Anncd. ii, 133 ; Spencer, Legg. rit. iii, 4, p. 1045 sq.). In the following account of this usage we chiefly follow Ginsburg in Kitto's Cyclopcedia.
1. Celebration and Sanctity of this Festiiml. — All that the Mosaic code says on the subject is contained in the two passages enjoining that two young bullocks, a ram and seven lambs of the first j'ear as a burnt-offering, with the appropriate meat-offerings and drink-offerings, and a kid as a sin-offering, are to be offered on every new moon in addition to the ordinary daily sacrifice, and that the trumpets are to be blown at the offering of these special sacrifices, just as on the days of rejoicing and solemn festivals (Numb, x, 10; xxviii, 11-15). It is, however, evident from the writings of the prophets, and from post-exilian documents, that the new moon wag an important national festival. It is placed by the side of the Sabbath (Isa. i, 13 ; Ezek. xlvi, 1 ; Hos. ii, 3), and was a day on wliich the people neither traded nor en- gaged in any handicraft-work (Amos viii, 5), but had social gatherings and feastings (I Sam. xx, 5-24), re- sorted for public instruction either to the Temple (Isa. i, 13 ; Ixvi, 23 ; Ezek. xlvi, 1, 3), or to the houses of the prophets and other men of God (2 Kings iv, 23); and no national or private fasts were permitted to take place, so as not to mar the festivities of the dav (Judith viii, G ; Mishna, Taanith, ii, 10). The Halld (q. v.) was chanted in the Temple by the Levites while the special sacrifices were offered ; and to this day the Jews cele- brate new moon as a minor festival. The day previous to it, i. e. the 29th of the month, which is called i"i" Tyin OX1, New Moon Ere, i) npovovia]via (Judg. viii, C), is kept by the orthodox Jews, in consequence of a remark in the Mishna (Shebaoth, i, 4, 5), as the minor day of atonement, and is devoted to fasting, repentance, and prayer, both for forgiveness of the sins committed during the expiring month, and for a happy new month. Itisfor this reason denominated "-p "ilS'^D QTi, since they say that, just as the great day of atonement is ap- pointed for the forgiveness of sins committed during the year, this minor day of atonement is ordained for the remission of sins committed during each month. They resort to the synagogue, put on the fringed wrapper, or Tallith [see Fringe], and the phylacteries; whereupon the leader of the service recites Psa. cii, offers a peni- tential prayer (nt DT^), after which he recites Psa. viii, the praj'er called Ashre ("^"iTyS), and the half Kadish. The scroll of the Law (Iniin ^BD) is then taken out of the ark, and ilT'l, or Exod. xxxii, 11-15 ; xxxiv, 1- 10, with the Haphtarah (q. v.), Isa. Iv, 6 ; Ivi, 1-8, are read, being the appointed lesson for fasts, after which other appointed penitential prayers, together with the ordinary daily afternoon service, conclude the vespers and the fast, when the Feast of the New Moon is pro- claimed, which, like all the feasts and fasts, begins on the previous evening. On the morning of the new moon they resort to the synagogues in festive garments, offer the usual morning prayer (n^inD), inserting, however. Numb, xxviii, 11-15 in the recital of the daily sacrifices, and the prayer X13''1 n^"i in the eighteen benedictions. The phylacteries which are worn at the ordinary daily morning service are then put off, and the
NEW MOON
NEW MOON
Hallel, with its appropriate beiiodictioii, is recited, all the congregation standuig; after which the scroll of the Law (irnn "SO) is taken out of the ark, and Numb, xxviii, 1-15 is read in four sections: the first section (i. e. ver. 1-3) being assigned to the priest ; the second (ver. 3-5) to the Levite ; the third (ver. C-10) to an Is- raelite ; and the fourth (ver. 11-15) to any one. If new moon happens on a Sabbath, two scrolls of the Law are taken out of the ark, from the first of which the ordinary Sabbatic lesson is read, and from the other Numb, xxviii, 9-15, or Maphtir; and if it happens on a Sunday, 1 Sam. XX, 18-42 is read as the llaplitarah instead of the ordinary lesson from tlie prophets. Unlike their breth- ren in the time of the prophets (Amos viii, 5), the Jews of the present da}- work and trade on new moon.
The new moons are generally mentioned so as to show that they were regarded as a peculiar class of holy daj^s, to be distinguished from the solemn feasts and the Sab- baths (Ezek. xlv, 17 ; 1 Chron. xxiii, 31 ; 2 Chron. ii, 4 ; viii, 13 ; xxxi, 3 ; Ezra iii, 5 ; Neh. x, 33). See Festi- val.
The seventh new moon of the religious year, being that of Tisri, commenced the civil year, and had a sig- nificance and rites of its own. It was a day of holy con- vocation. See Trumpets, Feast of.
2. Mode of ascertaininff, fixing, and consecrating the New Moon. — As the festivals, according to the JNIosaic law, are always to be celebrated on the same day of the month, it was incumbent upon the spiritual guides of the nation to fix the commencement of the month, which was determined by the appearance of the new moon. Hence the authorities at Jerusalem, from the remotest times, ordered messengers to occupy the com- manding heights around the metropolis, on the oOth day of the month, to watch the sky; these, as soon as they observed the moon, hastened to communicate it to the synod; and, for the sake of speed, thej' were even al- lowed, during the existence of the Temple, to travel on the Sabbath and profane the sacred day (INIishna, Rosh Ha-Shana, i, 4). These authorities also ordained that, with the exception of gamblers with dice, usurers, those who breed and tame pigeons to entice others, those who trade in the produce of the Sabbatical year, women and slaves, any one who noticed the new moon is to give ev- idence before the Sanhedrim, even if he were sick and had to be carried to Jerusalem in a bed (Rosh Ha-Shana, i, 8, 9). These witnesses had to assemble in a large court, called Beth Jazek (pT"i T'^a), specially appointed for it, where they were carefully examined and feasted, so as to induce them to come; and when the authorities were satisfied with the evidence, the president pro- nounced the word ^TipTO, i.e. It is sanctified; where- upon all the bystanders had to repeat it twice after him. It is sanctified! It is sanctified! and the day was de- clared New IMoon (jMishna. Rosh lla-Shana, ii, 5, 7). On beholding the new moon from his own house, every Israelite had to offer the following benediction : " Bless- ed be He who renews the months! Blessed be He by whose word the heavens were created, and bj' the breath of whose mouth all the hosts thereof were formed ! He appointed them a law and time, that the\- should not overstep their course. They rejoice and are glad to perform the will of their Creator. Author of truth, their operations arc truth! He spoke to the moon. Be thou renewed, and be the beautiful diadem (i.e. the hope) of man (i.e. Israel), who shall one day be quickened again like tlic moon (i. e. at the coming of Jlessiah). and praise their Creator for his glorious kingdom. Blessed be He wlio renewed the moons" {Sanhedrim, 42 a). Of such importance was this prayer regarded, that it is asserted, '■ Whoso pronnuncetli tlic benediction of the New Moon in its prciper lime, is as if he had been hoMiiig converse with the Shokliinah" {ibid.'). To this prayer was after- wards added, "A good sign, good fortune be to all Is- rael ! (to be repeated three times). Blessed be thy Creator.! Blessed be thy Possessor! Blessed be thy
Maker! (repeated three times). As I leap towards thee, but cannot touch thee, so may my enemies not be able to injure me (said leaping three times). May fear and anguish seize them. Through the greatness of thine arm they must be as still as a stone; they must be as still as a stone through the greatness of thine arm. Fear and anguish shall seize them. Amen, Selah, Hal- lelujah. Peace, peace, peace be with you" {Sopherim, ii, 2). This prayer, which during the period of the second Temiile was offered up by every Israelite as soon as he beheld the new moon, is still offered up every month by all orthodox Jews, with some additions by the rabbins and the Kabbalists of the Middle Ages, and is called in the Jewish ritual (133? "ClT^p, Consecra- tion of the Neiv Moon. When the moon was not visi- ble on account of clouds, and in the five months when the watchmen were not sent out, the month was con- sidered to commence on the morning of the day which followed the 30th. According to Maimonides, the Rab- binists altered their method when the Sanhedrim ceased to exist, and have ever since determined the month by astronomical calculation, while the Karaites have re- tained the old custom of depending on the appearance of the moon. Astronomical knowledge was certainly acquired long after the destruction of Jerusalem ; unless, with Michaclis and Jahn (.1 rcheeol. iii, 304), we find a trace of it, sufficiently obscure, in 2 Kings xxv, 27 (comp. •Jer. Iii, 33. See also Paulus, Comment, iii, 543 sq.).
3. Origin of this Festival. — That the Mosaic law did not institute this festival, but already found it among the people, and simply regulated it, is evident both from the fact that the time of its commencement is nowhere stated, and from the words in which the sacrifices are spoken of (■' And on your new moons j-e shall offer," etc., Numb, xxviii, 11, etc.), which presuppose its existence and popularity. Several causes co-operated in giving rise to this festival. The periodical changes of the moon, renewing itself in four quarters of 7f days each, and then assuming a new phase, as well as the fact that its reappearance in the nocturnal sky to ancient cities and villages — the inhabitants of which were consigned to utter darkness, great dangers, and '• the terrors by night," during its absence, since they had no artificial means of lighting their roads — combined together to in- spire the nations of antiquity both with awe and grat- itude w'hen reflecting on these Avonderfid phenomena, and beholding the great blessings of the new moon. This is the reason why different nations, from the remot- est periods, consecrated the day or the evening which commences this renewal of the moon to the deity who ordained such wonders; just as the first and the begin- ning of every thing were devoted to the Author of all our blessings. There seems to be but little ground for founding on these traces of heathen usage the notion that the Hebrews derived it from the Gentiles, as Spen- cer and ]Michaolis have done ; and still less for attaching to it any of those symbolical meanings which have been imagined by some other writers (see Carpzov, Ajip. Crit. p. 425). Ewald thinks that it was at first a simple household festival, and that on this account the law does not take much notice of it. He also considers that there is some reason to suppose that the day of the full moon was similarly observed by the Hebrews in very remote tinies.
4. Litei-ntnre. — INIaimonides, Jad Ila-Chezaha, Ilil- choth Kiddush Ha-Chodesh (translated into Latin by De Veil [Paris, ItiGO; Amsterdam, 1701] and by Witter [Jena, 1703]) ; Abraljanel, Dissert, de Principio amii et consecrutione Noviluuii (W^hrow and Latin, ai>pended by Buxtorf to his translation of The Cosri [Basle. 1G59, p. 431 sq.]); Knobel, Conimentary on Erodiis and I.evilicvs (in Kiirzgefasstes exegetisches Ilandbiich zinn All. Test. [Lcipsic, 1858, p. 531 sq.], where a vast amouut of clas- sical information is brought together to show that this festival existe<l among many heathen nations of anti()- uity) ; Carpzov, Apparat. Hist. Crit. p. 423 ; Spencer,
NEW PELAGIANS
23
NEW TESTAMENT
De Leg. Heb. lib. iii, dissert, iv; Selden, De Ann. Civ. Ileb. iv, xi; Mishna, Jiog/i Hci^-Shana, ii, 338, ed. Siireii- hus. ; I3uxtorf, Sijnagoga Judaica, cap. xxii; Ewald, Alterthiimer, p.odi; Cudworth, 0?i the Lord's Supper, cap. iii ; Lightfoot, Temple Service, cap. xi.
New Pelagians is the name of a Christian sect which arose and spread chiefly in Holland after the Ref- ormation, and advocated Pelagian views in grace and free-will. They are sometimes espied Pelagiani Novi, and sometimes also Comaristce, after Theodore Comar- tius, secretary to the States-general, who died A.U. 1595. See Pelagians.
Ne^w■ Platonism. See Neoplatonism.
New-School Presbyterians. See Puesby- TERiAxs, and Theology.
New South Wales, a British colony in the south-eastern part of Australia, stretches along the South Pacific Ocean from Cape Howe to Point Danger, and is bounded on the north by the colony of Vic- toria, and on the west by the interior territory of the colony of South Australia. It extends between lat. 28° and 37° 30' S., and long. 141° and 15-1° E. Its greatest length, east and west, is about 780 miles; greatest breadth, north and south, C20 miles. The area, accord- ing to an official statement, is 3"23.437 square miles ; ac- cording to a planimetric calculation, believed to be more correct, 308,560. The population, according to the census of April 2, 1871, was 503,981 ; on January 1, 1873, it was officially computed at 539,190. The colony of Queensland, extending from lat. 26° to 30^ S., was formerly the Moreton Bay district of New South Wales, and was separated from the latter colony in June, 1859. In 1873 New South Wales was divided into 118 counties, of which twenty, which have been settled a long time, are called the old counties ; the others, called the new counties, are principally in the interior. The coast-line from Cape Howe to Point Danger is upwards of 700 miles long, and presents numerous good harbors formed by the estuaries of the rivers. Owing to the great ex- tent of the colony, stretching as it does over eleven de- grees of latitude, the climate is very various. In the northern districts, which are the warmest, the climate is tropical, the summer heat occasionally rising in inland districts to 120°, while on the high table-lands weeks of severe frost are sometimes experienced. At Sydney the mean temperature of the year is about 65°. The mean heat of summer, which lasts from the beginning of December to the lirst of Februar}', is about 80°, but it is much modified on the coast by the refreshing sea- breeze. The annual fall of rain is about 50 inches. Rain sometimes descends in continuous torrents, and causes the rivers to rise to an extraordinary height. Sometimes the rains almost fail for two or three years in succession. Along the coast for 300 miles from the northern boundary the soil and climate are peculiarly adapted to the growth of cotton, and that plant has already been cultivated as fiir south as the River JNIan- ning (lat. 32° S.). Farther south the climate is more temperate, and is fitted to produce all the grain products of Europe. Immense tracts of laud, admirably adapted to agriculture, occur in the south-western interior ; while in the south-east coast districts the soil is celebrated for its richness and fertility. In the north, the cotton and tobacco plants, the vine and sugar-cane are grown, and pine-apples, bananas, guavas, lemons, citrons, and other tropical fruits are produced. In the cooler regions of the south, peaches, apricots, nectarines, oranges, grapes, pears, pomegranates, melons, and all tlie British fruits, are grown in perfection, and sometimes in such abun- dance that the pigs are fed with them. Wheat, barley, oats, and all the cereals and vegetables of Europe, are also grown. Hitherto, however, agriculture has been only of secondary importance, the predominating inter- est being the pastoral. The greatest produce of the colony is wool. In recent years wine-culture has been extensively engaged in, and the mineral wealth of the
soil has begun to be developed. The colony is self- governed, with a governor appointed by the queen, a responsible ministry, a legislative council nominated by the crown, and a House of Assemblj' elected by perma- nent residents. The capital is Sydney, with a popula- tion of 94,000 ; and the other chief towns are Parramat- ta, Bathurst, Goulburn, Maitland, Newcastle, Grafton, Armidale, and Alburj', with popidations ranging from 3000 to 8000.
New South Wales took its origin in a penal establish- ment formed by the British government in 1788 at Port Jackson, near Botany Baj' (lat. 34°). The prisoners, after their period of servitude or on being pardoned, became settlers, and obtained grants of land ; and these '•emancipists" and their descendants, together with free emigrants, constitute the present inhabitants. Since the establishment of the colony in 1787-8, the total number of convicts sent into it from Great Britain up to 1840, when the importation ceased, amounted to 00,700, of whom only 8700 were women. They were assigned as bond-servants to the free settlers, who were obliged to furnish them with a fixed allowance of clothing and food. In 1833 there were 23,000 free males and 13,560 free fe- males, to 22,000 male and 2700 female convicts ; and of the free population, above 10,000 were emancipists, ]Many whose progenitors went to New South Wales as prisoners are intelligent and estimable members of the community. Some of the emancipists, and several of their descendants, are among the wealthiest people in the colony. According to the census of 1856, barely a third of the population of New South Wales was born in Australia; about 75,000 were supplied by England and Wales, 50,000 by Ireland, 16,000 by Scotland, 5000 by Germany, and 2000 b}' China. The population now (1874) incluiles a large admixture of Chinese, many Americans, and some of almost all nationalities. From 1866 to 1872 the total number of immigrants exceeded 150,000, while about 100,000 emigrated. The emigra- tion included 4917 Chinese, while the number of Chinese immigrants was only 1520. The number of births in each of the seven years from 1856 to 1872 was more than double that of the deaths, and in 1870 and 1871 it was three times as large. In appearance and character the native-born part of the community bear a strong resemblance to those of Anglo-Saxon descent of the United States. As regards religion, all sects are on a footing of equality, and each receives aid from the state according to its numbers; but state aid is likely before long to cease. The religious division of the inhabitants in 1871 wasasfollows: Church of England, 229,243; Pres- byterians, 49,122; Wesleyans, 36,277; Congregation- alists, 9253 ; Roman Catholics, 147,627 ; Mohammedans, and other Asiatic creeds, 7455 ; the remainder belonged to various minor denominations. For information con- cerning the aborigines, the native animals, botany, geology, and history of New South Wales, see the arti- cle Australia in The American Cyclopcedia. See also Lang, New South Wales (new ed. Lond. 1875, 2 vols.) ; Meth. Qiiar. Rev. Jan. 1874, p. 155; Blackwood's Maga- zine, 1852, ii, 301 sq. ; Mission Life (Lond. 1866 sq.), i, 210 sq., 251 sq., 355 sq., 405 sq., 487 sq.
New Testament, The (>) Kaivi) SiaBqKr]), the general title appropriated by early and inveterate usage tliroughout the Western Church to the latter portion of the Holy Scriptures— to the collection of writings forming the authoritative records of the Christian, as contrasted with the earlier Jewish, revelation. As the various questions relating to the genuineness of the several books of the New Testament, their title to a place in the sacred volume, and their special character- istics, are discussed in the separate articles devoted to them [see Canon, and each book], we have now to speak only of those matters which relate to the collec- tion as a whole. For the title, see Testament.
I. Contents and A rrangemenf.— The New Testament differs remarkably from the Old in this respect, that while the writings comprehended in the earlier collec-
NEW TESTAMENT
24
NEW TESTAMENT
tion ranfje over a period of a thousand j'ears, those in- cluded in the later -were produced almost contempo- raneously, within the compass of one generation — most of themprobably between A.D. 50 and A.D. 70. The collection consists of twenty-seven writings, proceeding either from apostles or from persons who were intimately associated with the apostles in their labors. Five of the works are in the form of historical narratives; four of which relate the history of the Saviour's life on earth with such variety of form, and with such differences in the selection and treatment of materials, as seemed needful to meet the wants of different readers ; and the fifth describes the formation and extension of the Church by the ministry of the leading apostles. Twenty-one are epistolary. Thirteen of the letters express^ bear the name of Paul as their author; nine being address- ed to various Christian communities, three — called the Pastoral Epistles — to office-bearers in the Church, and one to a private individual (Philemon). An anony- mous letter addressed " to the Hebrews" is associated with the Epistles of Paul. Seven other letters — one bearing the name of James, two that of Peter, three that of John, and one that of Jude — are frequently com- prehended under the common name of Catholic (that is general) Epistles, as having been intended for the use of Christians in general, or as having (most of them at least) no express individual or local destination. The volume closes with a prophetic vision, the Apocal3'pse of John.
The writings thus associated in the New Testament seem to have at the first glance a somewhat uncon- nected and desultory character; and it may readily be admitted that the form in which the inspired records of Christianity have come down to us is not that which the wisdom of man would have conceived or expected. The Christian revelation has not assumed the shape — which men might have deemed, a imori, probable or desirable— of an abstract system of truth, of a formal didactic treatise elaborately setting forth doctrines in logical order, like the creeds and confessions in which men have striven at different times to define and com- prehend the fulness of the scriptural teaching; or en- joining duties in methodical succession, like those codes of law in which men seek to provide beforehand for every contingency. Its actual form exhibits a far more admirable accommodation to the conditions of human nature — in its history of a life, its records of personal experience, its teachings by concrete examples, its presenting Christianitj^ in action. The great majority of those for whose benefit a revelation is given have but little interest in pure theory or relish for abstract truth ; the pattern affects them more than the precept, and they apprehend the more readily whatever comes into contact with the wants, feelings, and exigencies of their daily life. The form of the New Testament — mainly narrative and epistolary — is one especially fitted to stimulate our attention, to enlist our sympathies, to quicken our human interest in its contents, and to bring the matters of which it treats home to us, not as sub- jects of theor}-, but as facts of experience, as personal and practical realities. " The book which shall have a deep and practical influence on real life must reflect its image, must present that real mixture of facts, thoughts, and feelings which is found to exist there."
But we have to recognise in the composition of the New Testament a further peculiarity, deviating from what we should perhaps have expected, but constitut- ing in reality the most remarkable evidence of the di- vine superintendence that shaped the whole. The books of the New Testament present no formal bond of unity, profess no absolute completeness, make no direct claim, in most cases, to universal acceptance. On the con- trary, they seem to have originated independently of each other, and to have been prepared with immediate reference to local or temporary objects — to the special circumstances and wants of churches, or even of in- dividuals. Christ himself wrote nothing; and we do
not find in what his disciples have left any professed design of giving a full record of his teaching or a con- tinuous and perfect exposition of his doctrine. No apostle or evangelist avows it as his purpose to furnish an authentic standard of Christian doctrine and duty for all future time. Their works, moreover, bear no traces of mutual concert or prearranged co-operation towards a common object. They address themselves to matters in which tliey feel a personal interest, and to persons with whom they have more immediate re- lations; and they write seemingly with reference to these alone, betraying no consciousness of any ulterior aim or further destination. Their writings present the appearance of having been as casual in origin as they are occasional in form. But this very occasional and seemingly accidental character impressed on the in- dividual elements of the New Testament as human writings will be found, when we examine them more close!}', to yield the highest evidence of tlie divine origin and purpose of the whole, and to furnish varied means for the illustration and confirmation of their truth. The parts, regarded in themselves, seem isolated and frag- mentary ; but the whole, which results from their com- bination, reveals a unity and completeness that can only be explained through the hidden but all-pervading agency of one divine Designer. The several narratives and letters have been obviously produced without any concert among the writers; each bears the stamp of in- dividuality and independence ; and yet, when they are placed side by side, they are found so marvellously to fit into each other, to sustain such mutually complementarj' relations, to be knit by so many links of connection, and to exhibit so entire a harmony of general design, that the unbiassed reader cannot but recognise in their deeper interdependence a providential arrangement, and refer the whole to the common inspiration of one and the same Spirit guiding the several agents in their parts for the furtherance of his own gracious purposes. These occasional writings, proceeding from different authors, and brought together from different localities, con- stitute, when combined, an organized body fitly joined together and pervaded by one inward life. " When it is felt," as has been well said, "that these narratives, letters, visions, do in fact fulfil the several functions, and sustain the mutual relations, which would belong to the parts of one design, coalescing into a doctrinal scheme which is orderlj-, progressive, and complete, then is the mind of the reader in conscious contact with the mind of God ; then the superficial diversity of the parts is lost in the essential unity of the whole; the many writings have become one Book; the manj' writers have become one Author" (Bernard, Bumptmi Lecture for 18G4, p. 235).
The variety of the individual elements that make up the New Testament serves several important ends. The different parts of Scripture thereby illustrate, support, and explain each other; and it thus carries within it- self manifold and varied evidence of its truth self-con- sistent, harmonious, divine. The four narratives of the life of Christ present that combination of substantial unity with circumstantial variety that marks the tes- timony of independent witnesses; and, written with special reference to the circumstances and wants of their original readers, and bringing into prominence the different aspects of the Saviour's character, they at once supplement and confirm each other. They present to us, as has been observed, " four aspects, but one portrait; for, if the attitude and the accessories vary, the features and the expression are the same." The Gospel of IMat the w— according to early tradition the Hebrew Gospel — exhibits Jesus as the Jfessiah fid- filling the law and tlie prophets; that of Mark, deriving its lifelike details from the communications of Peter, and written primarily for Roman use, depicts to us in rapid but vivid outlines Jesus putting forth his mighty power in action; that of Luke, the close companion of Paul, prepared for the use of the Greek world, portrays
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Jesus as the Friend of man, the universal Saviour; while that of John, written late in life at Ephesus for the fuller instruction of those already within the Church, completes the picture by presenting Jesus pre- eminently as the Son of God, and revealing to us the highest aspects of his teaching in the circle of his chosen disciples. In the book of Acts we find that the facts of the Saviour's life and deatli and resurrec- tion have become the fundamental doctrines of the Church ; their significance is proclaimed and their pow- er attested. The foundation of the Cluirch is followed by its organization and training, as developed in the Epistles. The truths announced in the Gospels and proclaimed in the Acts are here expanded, defined, vindicated in opposition to error or misunderstanding, and brought to bear on the manifold relations of life. In the Epistles we tind the different aspects of the truth apprehended and applied by men under various phases of experience and with reference to various exi- gencies; and while the Epistles thus form a practical supplement to the Gospels, they are complementary to each other, and fill up through their combination the perfect image of the faith, hope, and love represented by Paul, Peter, and John.
From various early notices it would appear that the books were, as was natural, first grouped imder the two general divisions of evangelic and apostolic writings {ivayyiXiov and o cnruffroXoi; or to. axonroKiKo). The more detailed information which we obtain from the oldest extant MSS., versions, and catalogues of the books given by the fathers exhibits substantially the same arrangement as that now followed in our Bibles. But few copies contained the whole New Testament; most frequently the Gospels were contained in one volume, the Acts and Epistles in another; while the Apocah'pse, which was less employed in public worship, was com- paratively seldom associated with the other books. The general order of the books was as follows : Gospels, Acts, Catholic Epistles, Pauline Epistles, Apocalypse. From this arrangement there are, no doubt, individual deviations, especially as regards the position of the book of Acts; and several of the ancient versions and most of the catalogues place the Epistles of Paul, as the\' stand in the English Bible, before the Catholic Epistles. The order followed within these larger groups seems to have been from an early period very much the same as at present. The four Gospels are almost constantly found in their familiar order; and in the Pauline Epis- tles the letter to the Hebrews exhibits almost the only variation, being sometimes — and indeed most frequently — inserted before the Pastoral Epistles, sometimes an- nexed at the close (see Scrivener's IntTod. to Criticism of N'. T. p. 60, etc.). The arrangement, in the case of the Gospels, was probably based on the order in which they were supposed to be written; in the case of Paul's Epistles, on the relative importance of the churches or individuals addressed. The Apocalypse has always, when received, been placed appropriately at the end. We can hardly fail to recognise the Provi- dence by which the Church has been guided in the in- ternal arrangement of her sacred records, so that they shall present a consecutive teaching; the main outlines of which are well set forth by one who has recently ap- plied himself to illustrate the value of the order of the New Testament in this respect. The New Testament " begins with the person of Christ, and the facts of his manifestation in the flesh, and the words which he gave from his Father; and accustoms us by degrees to be- hold his glory, to discern the drift of his teaching, and to expect the consequences of his work. It passes on to his body, the Church, and opens the dispensation of his Spirit, and carries us into the life of his people, yea, down into the secret places of their hearts; and there translates the announcements of God into the experi- ences of men. and discovers a conversation in heaven and a life which is hid with Christ in God. It works out practical applications, is careful in the details of
duty, provides for difficulties and perplexities, suggests the order of churches, and throws up barriers against the wiles of the devil. It shows us tilings to come, the course of the spiritual conflict, the close of this transient scene, the coming of the Lord, the resurrection of the dead, the eternal judgment, the new creation, and the life everlasting. Thus it is furnished for all emergen- cies, and prepared for perpetual use" (Bernard, ut siq). p. 31). — Fairbairn.
II. Early History of the Text. — 1. The Orir/inal Au- tographs. — The early history of the apostolic writings offers no points of distinguishing literary interest. Ex- ternally, as far as it can be traced, it is the same as that of other contemporary books. Paul, like Cicero or Pliny, often employed the services of an amanuensis, to whom he dictated his letters, affixing the salutation '• with his own hand" (1 Cor. xvi, 21 ; 2 Thess. iii, 17 ; Col. iv, 18). In one case the scribe has added a clause in his own name (Rom. xvi, 22). Once, in writing to the Galatians, the apostle appears to apologize for the rudeness of the autograph which he addressed to them, as if from defec- tive sight (Gal. vi, 11). If we pass onwards one step, it does not appear that any special care was taken in the first age to preserve the books of the N. T. from the various injuries of time, or to insure perfect accuracy of transcription. They were given as a heritage to man, and it was some time before men felt the full value of the gift. The original copies seem to have soon perish- ed ; and we may perhaps see in this a providential pro- vision against that spirit of superstition which in ear- lier times converted the symbols of God's redemption into objects of idolatry (2 Kings xviii, 4). It is certain- ly remarkable that in tlie controversies at the close of the 2d century, which often turned upon disputed read- ings of Scripture, no appeal was made to the apostolic originals. The few passages in which it has been sup- posed that they are referred to will not bear examina- tion. Ignatius, so far from appealing to Christian ar- chives, distinctly turns, as the whole context shows, to the examples of the Jewish Church (rd dpxcna — ad Philad. 8). TertuUian again, when he speaks of " the authentic epistles" of the apostles (Z)e Prcescr. Ilcer. xxxvi, " Apud quas ipsa? authenticm littcra; eorum reci- tantur"), uses the term of the pure Greek text as con- trasted with the current Latin version (comp. De Monog. xi, " Sciaraus plane non sic esse in Grajco authentico"). The silence of the sub-apostolic age is made more strik- ing by the legends which were circulated afterwards. It was said that when the grave of Barnabas in Cyprus was opened, in the 5th century, in obedience to a vision, the saint was found holding a (Greek) copy of Matthew written with his own hand. The copy was taken to Constantinople, and used as the standard of the sacred text (Credner, Einl. § 39 ; Assem. Bibl. Or. ii, 81). The autograph copy of John's Gospel (avro to iSioxitpov Tov (vayyiXtarov) was said to be preserved at EjJiesus " by the grace of God, and worshipped (jrpotTicvveXrai) by the faithfid there," in the 4th century (?) (Petr. Alex. p. 518, ed. Migne, quoted from Chron. Pasch. p. 5) ; though according to another account it was found in the ruins of the Temple when Julian attempted to re- build it (Philostorg. vii, 14). A similar belief was cur- rent even in the last century. It was said that parts of the (Latin) autograph of Mark were preserved at Venice and Prague; but on examination tliese were shown to be fragments of a MS. of the Vulgate of the Cth century (Dobrowsky, Fragmentum Pragense Ec. S. Marci, 1778).
In the natural course of things the apostolic auto- graphs would be likely to perish soon. The material which was commonly used for letters, the papyrus-paper to which John incidentally alludes (2 John 12, cud x«|0- Tov Kai fiiXavoc; comp. 3 John 13, Sid fieXavoc Kai KaXai-iov), was singularly fragile, and even the stouter kinds, likely to be used for the historical books, were not fitted to bear constant use. The papyrus fragments which have come down to the present time have been
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preserved under peculiar circumstances, as at Hercula- neum or in K!;y[)tian tombs; and Jerome notices that the library of Famphilus at C;esarea was already in part destroyeil (ex parte corruptam) when, in less than a century after its formation, two presbyters of the Church endeavored to restore the papyrus IMSS. (as the context implies) on parchment ("in membranis," Jerome, Ep. xxxiv (Ml),(iuoted by Tischendorf in llerzog's Encyli. " Bibeltoxt des N.T," p. 159). Parchment (2 Tim. iv, 13, fici-ifSpdj'a), which was more durable, was proportion- ately rarer and more costly. In the tirst age the writ- ten word of the apostles occupied no authoritative posi- tion above tlieir spoken word, and the vivid memory of their personal teaching. When the true value of the apostolic writings was afterwards revealed by the prog- ress of the Church, then collections of "the divine ora- cles" would be chiefly sought for among Christians. On all accounts it seems reasonable to conclude that the autographs perished during that solemn pause which followed the apostolic age, in which the idea of a Chris- tian Canon, parallel and supplementary to the Jewish Canon, was first distinctly realized.
2. The First Copies. — In the time of the Diocletian persecution (A.D. 303) copies of the Christian Scriptures were sufficiently numerous to furnish a special object for persecutors, and a characteristic name to renegades who saved themselves by surrendering the sacred books (traditores, August. Ep. Ixxvi, 2). Partly, perhaps, ow- ing to the destruction thus caused, but still more from the natural effects of time, no MS. of the N. T. of the first three centuries remains. Some of the oldest extant were certainly copied from others which dated from within this period, but as yet no one can be placed further back than the time of Constantine. It is re- corded of this monarch that one of his first acts after the foundation of Constantinople was to order the prep- aration of fifty MSS. of the Holy Scriptures, required for the use of the Church, "on fair skins (tv Si^^tpaig evKaraGKtvoic) by skilful caligraphists" (Euseb. Vit. Const, iv. 3G) ; and to the general use of this better ma- terial we probably owe our most venerable co))ies, which are written on vellum of singular excellence and fineness. But though no fragment of the N. T. of the 1st century still remains, the Italian and Egyptian papyri, which are of that date, give a clear notion of the caligraphy of the period. In these the text is written in columns, rudely divided, in somewhat awkward capital letters (unciak), without any punctuation or division of words. The /o/rt, which was afterwards subscribed, is commonly, but not always, adscribed; and there is no trace of ac- cents or breathings. The earliest MSS. of the N. T. bear a general resemblance to this primitive type, and we may reasonably believe that the apostolic originals were thus written.
3. Earhj Vai-iations. — In addition to the later MSS., the earliest versions and patristic quotations give very important testimony to the character and history of the ante-Nicene text. Express statements of readings which are found in some of the most ancient Christian writers are, indeed, the first direct evidence which we have, and are consequently of the highest im])ortance. But till the last quarter of the 2d century this source of infor- mation fails us. Not only are the remains of Christian literature up to that time extremely scanty, but the practice of verbal quotation from the N. T. was not yet prevalent. The evangelic citations in the apostolic fathers and in Justin Martyr show that the oral tra- dition was still as widelj' current as the written Gospels (comp. Westcott's Canon of the N. T. p. 125-195), and there is not in those writers one express verbal citation from tlie other apostolic books. This latter phenome- non is in a great measure to be explained by the nature of their writings. As soon as definite controversies arose among Christians, the text of the N. T. assumed its true importance. The earliest monuments of these remain in the works of Irenaius, Hippolytus (Pseudo- Origen), an<l Tertullian, who (juote many of the argu-
ments of the leading adversaries of the Church. Charges of corrupting the sacred text are urged on both sides with great acrimony. Dionysius of Corinth (f cir. A.D. 17G, ap. Euseb. //. E. iv, 23), Irenieus (cir. A.D. 177 ; iv, 6, 1), Tertullian (cir. A.D. 210; De Came Christi, 19, p. 385 ; A dv. Marc, iv, v, passim), Clement of Alexandria (cir. A.D. 200; Strom, iv, G, § 41), and at a later time Ambrose (cir. A.D. 375 ; Le Spir. S. iii, 10), accuse their opponents of this offence; but with one great exception the instances which are brought forward in suj)port of the accusation generally resolve themselves into various readings, in which the decision cannot always be given in favor of the catholic disputant; and even where the unorthodox reading is certainly wrong it can be shown that it was widely spread among writers of different opinions (e. g. Matt, xi, 27, " nee Filium nisi Pater et cui voluerit Filius revelare;" John i, 13, of — tyd't'tj^i]). Wilful interpolations or changes are extremely rare, if they exist at all (comp. Talent, ap. Iren. i, 4, 5, add. ^toTtjric, Col. i, IG), except in the case of Marcion. His mode of dealing with the writings of the N. T., in which he was followed by his school, was, as Tertullian says, to use the knife rather than subtlety of interpretation. There can be no reasonable doubt that he dealt in the most arbitrary manner with whole books, and that he removed from the Gospel of Luke many passages which were opposed to his peculiar views. But when these fundamental changes were once made he seems to have adhered scrupulously to the text which he found. In the isolated readings which he is said to have altered, it happens not unfrequentb/ that he has retained the right reading, and that his opponents are in error (Luke V, 14 om. TO Swpov; Gal. ii, 5, olc oude ; 2 Cor. iv, 5?). In very many cases the alleged corruption is a various reading, more or less supported by other authorities (Luke xii, 38, f(T7rf(0M'»;; 1 Cor. x, 9, XpiOTOv; 1 Thess. ii, 15, add. lUiovc). Where the changes seem most ar- bitrary there is evidence to show that the interpolations were not wholly due to his school (Luke xviii, 19, o TTrtD/p; xxiii, 2; 1 Cor. x, 19 [28], add. Jfpo^uro)'). (Comp. Halm. Evanrjelium Marcionis ; Thilo, Cod. Aptocr. i, 403-48G; Eitschl, Das Evang. Marc. 1846; Yolckmar, Das Evang. Marc. Leipsic, 1852 : but no examination of Marcion's text is completely satisfac- tory.)
Several very important conclusions follow from this earliest appearance of textual criticism. It is, in the first place, evident that various readings existed in the books of the N. T. at a time prior to all extant authori- ties. History affords no trace of the pure apostolic orig- inals. Again, from the preservation of the first varia- tions noticed, which are often extremely minute, in one or more of the primary documents still left we may be certain that no important changes have been made in the sacred text which we cannot now detect. The ma- terials for ascertaining the true reading are found to be complete when tested by the earliest witnesses. Yet further : from the minuteness of some of the variations which are urged in controversy, it is obvious that the words of the N. T. were watched with the most jealous care, and that the least differences of phrase were guard- ed with scrupulous and faithfid piety, to be used in af- ter-time by that wide-reaching criticism which was foreign to the spirit of the first ages.
4. First Critical Labors. — Passing from these isolated quotations, we find the first great witnesses to the apos- tolic text in the early Syriac and Latin versions, and in the rich quotations of Clement of Alexandria (f cir. A.D. 220) and Origen (A.D. 184-254). See Veusions. The Greek quotations in the remains of the original text of Irena'us and in Hippolytus are of great value, but yield in extent and importance to those of the two Alexandrine fathers. From the extant works of Ori- gen alone no inconsiderable portion of the whole N. T., with the excci)tion of James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and the Apocalypse, might be transcribed, and the recur- rence of small variations in long passages proves that
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the quotations were accurately made, and not simply from memory.
The evangelic text of Clement is far from pure. Two chief causes contributed especially to corrupt the text of the Gospels — the attempts to harmonize parallel nar- ratives, and the influence of tradition. The former as- sumed a special importance from the Diatessaron of Tatian (cir. A.D. 170. Comp. Westcott, A^.-T". Canon, p. 358-3G2; Tischendorf on Matt, xxvii, 49), and the lat- ter, which was, as has been remarked, very great in the time of Justin Martyr, still lingered. The quotations of Clement suffer from both these disturbing forces (Matt, viii, 22; x, 30; xi, 27; xix, 24; xxiii, 27; xxv, 41 ; X, 2G, omitted by Tischendorf Luke iii, 22), and he seems to have derived from his copies of the Gospels two sayings of the Lord which form no part of the ca- nonical text (comp. Tischendorf on Matt, vi, 33 ; Luke xvi, 11). Elsewhere his quotations are free, or a con- fused mixture of two narratives (Matt, v, 45; vi, 26, 32 sq. ; xxii, 37 ; Mark xii, 43), but in innumerable places he has preserved the true reading (Matt, v, 4, 5, 42, 48 ; viii, 22 ; xi, 17 ; xiii, 25 ; xxiii, 26 ; Acts ii, 41 ; xvii, 26). His quotations from the Epistles are of the very highest value. In these tradition had no prevailing power, though Tatian is said to have altered in parts the language of the Epistles (Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. iv, 29) ; and the text was left comparatively free from cor- ruptions. Against the few false readings which he sup- ports (e. g. 1 Pet. ii, 2, XjOuroc ; Rom. iii, 26, 'lijaovv ; viii, 11, oia rov tvoiK. ttv.) may be brought forward a long list of passages in which he combines with a few of the best authorities in upholding the true text (e. g. 1 Pet, ii, 2 ; Ptom. ii, 17 ; x, 3 ; xv, 29 ; 1 Cor. ii, 13 ; vii, 3, 5, 35, 39 ; viii, 2 ; x, 24).
But Origen stands as far first of all the ante-Nicene fathers in critical authority as he does in commanding genius, and his writings are an almost inexhaustible storehouse for the history of the text. In many places it seems that the printed text of his works has been modernized; and till a new and thorough collation of the MSS. has been made, a doubt must remain whether his quotations have not suffered by the hands of scribes, as the MSS. of the N. T. have suffered, though in a less degree. The testimony which Origen bears as to the corruption of the text of the Gospels in his time differs from the general statements which have been already noticed as being the deliberate judgment of a scholar, and not the plea of a controversialist. "As the case stands," he says, " it is obvious that the difference be- tween the copies is considerable, jiartly from the careless- ness of individual scribes, partly from the wicked daring of some in correcting what is written, partly also from