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BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS.
^ treatise
ON THE
INTERr»RET^TI01Sr
OP THE
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS.
MILTON S. TERRY, S.T.D.,
r Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in Garrett Biblical Institute,
K ■^^'P^—
KEW YORK: PTIILLirS (t HUNT.
CmClNNA TT:
CRANSTO.y <£' ST OWE.
1885.
Copyright, 1883, by
PHILLIPS & HUNT,
New York.
PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT.
" I ^HE design of the Editors and Publishers of the -^ Biblical and Theological Library is to furnish ministers and laymen with a series of works, which, in connection with the Commentaries now issuing, will make a compendious apparatus for study. While the theology of the volumes will be in harmony with the doctrinal standards of the Methodist Episcopal Church, the aim will be to make the entire Library acceptable to all evanorelical Christians.
The following writers co-operate in the authorship of the series : Dr. Harman, on the " Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures ; " Dr. Terry, on "Biblical Hermeneutics ;" the Editors, on "Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology ; " Drs. Bennett and Whitney, on " Biblical, and Christian Archaeology ; " Dr. Latimer, on "Systematic Theology;" Dr. Ridgaway, on "Evidences of Christianity ; " Dr. Little, on "Chris- tian Theism and Modern Speculative Thought ;" Dr.
iv PUBLISHERS' ANNOUNCEMENT.
Crooks, on the " History of Christian Doctrine ; '' and Bishop Hurst, on the " History of the Christian Church."
In the case of every treatise the latest literature will be consulted, and its results incorporated. The works comprised in the series will be printed in full octavo size, and finished in the best style of typography and binding. A copious index will accompany each vol- ume. All the volumes are in process of preparation, and will be issued as rapidly as is consistent with thoroughness.
PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
■ »>» ■
The cordial welcome with which the first edition of this work has heen received is evidence that a treatise of its character and scope is needed in our theological literature. The plan of the volume was largely suggested by what appear to be the practical wants of most theological students. Specialists in exegetical learning* will push their way through all difficulties, and find delight in testing prin- ciples ; but the ordinary student, if led at all into long-continued and successful searching of the Scriptures, must become interested in the practical work of exposition. The bare enunciation of prin- ciples, with brief references to texts in which they are exemplified, is too dry and taxing to the mind to develop a taste for exegetical study; it has a tendency rather to repel. In arranging the plan 'of the present treatise, it was accordingly designed from the outset to make it to a noticeable extent a thesaurus of interpretation. The statement of principles is introduced gradually, and abundantly illustrated and verified by means of those difficult parts of Scrip- ture in the real meaning of which most readers of the Bible are supposed to be interested. It cannot be expected that all our interpretations will command unqualified approval, but our choice of the more difficult Scriptures for examples of exposition will en- hance the value of the work, and save it from the danger, too common in such treatises, of running into lifeless platitudes. With ample illustrations of this kind before him, the student comes by a natural process to grasp hermeneutical principles, and learns by practice and example rather than by abstract precept.
In order to make the work a complete manual for exegetical study, we have in Part First, under the head of Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics, a comparative estimate of other sacred books, an outline of the character and structure of the biblical lau-
3 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
guages, and two brief chapters on Textual Criticism and Inspiration. These topics are so connected with biblical interpretation, and some of them, esi^ecially a knowledge of the sacred tongues, lie so essen- tially at its basis, that our plan called for some such treatment as we have given them. The latest movements in the Higher Criti- cism approach the study of the Scriptures with the assumption that our sacred books and also the religion of Israel are nothing more than the sacred books and religions of other nations (Kuenen, Re- ligion of Israel, Eng. trans., vol. i, p. 5). The chapter on the sacred books of the nations exhibits the fallacy of such assumptions, and furnishes information which, being stored in many costly volumes, it is difficult to acquire.
It should be observed, further, that Part Third is not a history of Hermeneutics, but of Interpretation. It is designed to be supple- mentary in its character, and somewhat of the nature of a bibliogra- phy of exegetics. The different methods of interpretation which have obtained currency or note are presented under the head of Pi-inciples (Part Second, chap, ii), but we have attempted no genetic history of Hermeneutics. In fact, no extended genetic de- velopment of hermeneutical principles is traceable in history. AVe find excellent examples of exegesis in the early Church, and execra- ble specimens of mystical and allegorical exposition put forth in modern times. History shows no succession of schools of interpre- tation, except in recent controversies, and these appear in con- nection with the varying methods of rationalistic assault, narrated in our chapters on the exegesis of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
CONTENTS
AND
Ali^ALYTIOAL OUTLII^E.
PART FIRST.
INTRODUCTION TO BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS.
1.
2.
8.
4. 5.
6.
7.
CHAPTER I. Prelim inary.
Hermeneutics defined, 17.
General and Special Hermeneutics, 17.
Old and New Testament Hermeneutics should not be separated, 18.
Hermeneutics distinguished from Intro- duction, Criticism, and Exegesis, 19.
Hermeneutics both a Science and an Art, 20.
Necessity of Hermeneutics, 20, 21.
Rank and importance of Hermeneutics in Theological Science, 21, 22.
CHAPTER n. The Bible and other Sacred Books. . Knowledge of other Religious Litera- tures a valuable Preparation for her- meneutical Study, 23. ;. Outline of the Christian Canon, 24. ;. Contents and general character of other
Bibles:— d) The a vest a, 25-28.
(2) AssTRFAN Sacred Eecoeds, 28-33.
(3) The Veda, ;M-39.
(4) TnE Buddhist Canon, 40-45.
(5) CniNESE Sacred Books, 46-52.
(6) The Egyptian Book or the Dead, 53-57.
(7) The Koran, 57-61.
(8) The Eddas, 62-05.
. Each of these books must be studied
and judged as a whole, 66. . Notable Superiority of the Old and New
Testament Scriptures, 67, 68.
CHAPTER III. Languages of the Bible. 1. Acquaintance with the Original Lan- guages of Scripture the basis of all sound Interpretation, 69.
2. Origin and Growth of Languages: —
(1) Various Theories of the Origin of Lan-
guage, 69-71.
(2) Origin probably supernatural, 71.
(3) Confusion of Tongues at Babel, 71.
(4) Formation of New Languages, 72.
3. Families of Languages : —
(1) Indo-European family, 73.
(2) Scythian, 73.
(3) Semitic, 74, 75.
CHAPTER IV. The Hebrew Language.
1. Origin of the name Hebrew. 76, 77.
2. Peculiarities of the Ilebivvv tongue* —
(1) The Letters, 78.
(2) The Vowel-system, 79, 80.
(3) The Three-letter Root, 80.
(4) Conjuarations of the Verb, 80-S2.
(5) The two Tenses, 82-85.
(6) Gender and Number of Nouns, 86.
(7) Simplicity of Structure, 87.
(8) Omission of Copula, 88.
(!t) Order of Subject and Predicat'% 83. (10) Adjectives and Particles, 8d, 89.
3. Hebuew Poetry: —
(1) Old Testament largely poetical, 90.
(2) Parallelism tlie distinguishing feature, 91.
(3) Form essential to Poetry, 92-94.
(4) Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, 94.
(5) Structure of Hebrew Parallelism, 05-98.
1. SynoDymnns Pnrallclisiii. 9G.
2. AntithVtic P.Trallplism. 97.
3. Syntlietic Pnrallelisin. 9", 9S.
4. IrrofTuIar Structure, 99.
(6) Alphabetical Poems and Rhymes, 100.
(7) Vividness of Hebrew expressions. 101.
(8) Elliptical modes of expression, 102.
(9) Old Testament Anthropomorphism, 103.
4. Remarkable uniformity of the Hebrew
Language, 104.
5. Three Periods of Hebrew Literature,
104, 105.
6. Hebrew Language peculiarly adapted to
embody God's ancient Word, 1 ( '5, 1 06.
7. Its analogy with the Holy Land, ioO.
CONTENTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINE.
■ CHAPTER V. The Chaldee Language.
1. Eastern and Western Aramaic, 107.
2. Biblical Aramaic appropriately called
Chaldee, 107.
3. Early traces of Chalda^an speech, 108.
4. The Chaldee passages of Daniel, 109.
5. The Chaldee pas.sages of Ezra, 109, 110.
6. Grammatical peculiarities of the Bibli-
cal Chaldee, 111.
7. Foreign words, 112.
8. Historical and Apologetical value of the
Chaldee portions of the Bible, 113.
CHAPTER VI. The Greek Language.
1. Greek an Indo-European tongue, 114.
2. Language and Civilization affected by
climate and natural scenery, 114.
3. Greeks called Hellenes, 115.
4. Tribes and Dialects, 115.
5. Ionic Greek, 116.
6. Attic culture and taste, 116.
7. Decay of Attic elegance, 116, 117.
8. The later Attic or Common Dialect, 117.
9. Alexandrian culture, 118.
10. The Hellenists, 118.
11. Christian thought affecting Greek
speech, 119.
12. Controversy between Purists and He-
braists, 119.
13. Sources of Information, 120.
14. Peculiarities of Hellenistic Greek : —
(1) Foreign words, 121.
(2) Peculiar orthography, 121.
(3) Flexion of Nouns and Verbs, 121.
(4) Heterogeneous Nouns, 123.
(5) New and peculiar forms of words, 122. (0) Old dialects and new words, 122.
(7) New significations of words, 123.
(8) Hebraisms:—
1. In words, 125.
2. In foims of expression, 125.
3. In grammatical construction, 125.
15. Varieties of Style among New Testa-
ment writers, 126.
16. Greek the most appropriate Language
for the Christian Scriptures, 127.
17. The three Sacred Tongues compared,
128.
CHAPTER VIL Textual Criticism.
1. Higher and Lower Criticism distin-
guished, 129.
2. Interpretation often involves Textual
Critici.'^m, 129.
3. Causes of Vaiious Readings, 130.
4. Sources and Jleans of Textual Criti-
cism, ISO, 131.
5. Canons of Textual Criticism : —
(1) KxTKi-.NAi, F.viDKNOK, FouT Ilules, 1.32, 133.
(2) Intkrnai, KviDKNCK. Four lUilc'S, 133-13G.
6. These Canons are Principles rather than
Rules, 136.
CHAPTER Yin. The Divine Inspiration of the Bible.
1. Inspiration of Genius, 137.
2. Scripture Inspiration superior, 137.
3. Divine and Human in the Scrijitures,
138.
A. EVIDKNCES OF THE HtJMAN ELEMENT : —
(1) In Narration of historical facts, 138.
(2) In Style and Diction, 139.
(3) In Subject-matter, 130.
(4) In varying Forms of statement, 139.
B. EviDKNCKS OF THE DiviNE Eleme.nt; —
(1) In declarations of Paul and Peter, 140.
(2) In Old Testament claims, 141.
(3) In Jesus' words, 141.
4. Three important considerations : —
(1) The whole Bible God's Book for man,
142.
(2) Inspiration and Revelation are to be dis-
tinguished, 142.
(3) Inspiration a Particular Divine Provi-
dence, 143.
5. Divine Inspiration affects Language
and Style, 144.
6. Four kinds of Inspiration, 145.
7. Facts and ideas expressible in a vari-
ety of forms, 145.
8. Fallacy of trifling with minute details,
145," 146.
9. No conflict between the Divine and
Human, 146.
10. Verbal Variations no valid Argument
against Divine Inspiration, 147.
11. Various Readings no valid Argument
against the verbal Inspiration of the original Autographs, 148.
12. Inaccurate grammar and obscuiity of
style no valid Objection, 149
13. Error in Stephen's Address (Acts
vii, 16), 149, 150.
14. Quotation from Tayler Lewis, 150.
CHAPTER IX. Qualifications of an Interpreter.
1. Intellectual Qualifications: —
(1) A sound, well-balanced Mind, 151.
(2) Quick and clear Perception, 151.
(3) Acuteness of Intellect (Beugcl and De
Wette), 152.
(4) Imagination needed, but must be con-
trolled, 152.
(5) Sober Judgment, 153.
(()) Correctness and delicacy of Taste, 153.
(7) Right use of Reason, 153.
(8) Aptness to teach, 154.
2. Educational Qualifications: — Familiar acquaintance with Geography, His- tory, Chronology, Antiquities, Polit;<'s, Natural Science. Philosophy, Comparative Philology, and General Literature should be acquired, 154, 155.
3. S|)iritual (Qualifications: —
(1) Partly a gift, partly ac(iuired, 150. (•J) Desire to know the Trutb, 1.50.
(3) Tender alTection, 157.
(4) Eiitliusiasm for the Word of God, 157.
(5) Reverence for (iod, 157.
(ti) Connnunion and Fellow.ship with the Holy Spirit, 157, 158.
CONTENTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINE.
PART SECOIVD.
PRINCIPLES OF BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS.
CHAPTER I. Preliminary.
1. Hermeneutical Principles defir.ed, 161.
2. Importance of Sound Principles, 161.
3. True Method of determining Sound Prin-
ciples, 162.
4. Ennobling Tendency of hermeneutical
Study, 162.
» CHAPTER II. Different Methods of Interpretation.
1. Allegorical Interpretation(Philo, Clem-
ent), 163.
2. Mystical Interpretation (Origen, Mau-
rus, Swedenborg), 164, 165.
3. Pietistic Interpretation (Quakers), 165,
166.
4. The Accommodation-Theory (Semler),
166.
5. Moral Interpretation (Kant), 16V.
6. Naturalistic Interpretation (Paulus),
168. 1. The Mythical Theory (Strauss), 168- 170.
8. Other Rationalistic Theories (Baur,
Renan), 170, 171.
9. Apologetic and Dogmatic Methods,
171, 172. , 10. Grammatico-Historical Interpretation, 173.
(1) The Bible to be interpreted like other
books, 1~3.
(2) Principles of Interpretation grounded in
the Rational Nature of mau, 173, 174.
(3) The Bible, however, a peculiar book, 174.
* CHAPTER III.
The Primary Meaning of Words.
1. Words the Elements of Language, 175.
2. Value and Pleasure of etymological ■ studies, 175, 176.
(1) Illustrated by the word tKKT^rjala,
176, 177.
(2) Illustrated by the word 123, 177,
178.
3. Value of Comparative Philology, 178.
4. Rare words and u-rta^ leynnevn, 179.
5. Determining sense of Compound words,
ISO.
CHAPTER IV. The Usus Loquendi.
1. How the meaning of words becomes
changed, 181.
2. Importance of attending to Usus Lo-
quendi, 181.
3. Means of ascertaining the Usus Lo'
quendi : —
(1) By the writer's own Deflnitions, 181.
(2) By the iuiruediate (Jonte.xt, 182.
(3) By the Nature of the Subject, laS.
(4) By Antithesis or Contrast, 184.
(5) By Hebraic Parallelisms, 185.
(6) By relations of Subject, Predicate,
Adjuncts, 180.
(7) By comparison of Parallel Passages, 186.
(8) By common and familiar Usage, 187.
(9) By the help of Ancient Versions, 188, 189. (10) By Ancient (jlossaries and Scholia, 190.
CHAPTER V. Synonymes.
1. Some words have many Meanings, lyi.
2. Many different words have like xMeau-
ing, 191.
3. Seven Hebrew words for Putting to
Death, 192-194.
4. Twelve Hebrew words for Sin, or Evil,
194-197.
5. Synonymes of the New Testament : —
(1) KatvoQ and veo^, 198.
(2) Bwf and ^of), 199.
(3) 'AyrtTTuw and 0i/lew, 200.
(4) OlSa and ytvijaKG), 201.
(5) ^Apvia, npi);3aTa, and -irpojiuTia, 2nl.
(6) Boff/cu and Triufian>u, 20 1, 202.
• CHAPTER VI.
The Grammatico-historical Sense.
1. Grammatico-historical Sense defined, ;
203. Quotation from Davidson, 203, '204 General Principles and Method?
certaining the Grammatico-his
Sense, 204, 205. Words and Sentences can have but one
Meaning in one place, 205. Narratives of Miracles to be understood
literally, 205. Jephthah's daughter a Burnt-offering,
206. Jesus' Resurrection a literal historical
Fact, 207, 208. Grammatical Accuracy of the New Tes- tament, 208. Significance of the Greek Tenses, 208,
209.
CHAPTER VII.
* Context, Scope, and Plan. Context, Scope, and Plan defined, 210. The Scope of some Books formally an- nounced, 211.
Plan and Scope of Genesis seen in its Contents and Structure, 211, 212.
204. Is oi' as-\
listo.'L'al )
CONTENTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINE.
4. Plan and Scope oi' the Book of Exodus,
212, 218.
5. Subject and Plan of the Epistle to the
Romans, 213, 214.
6. The Context, near and remote : —
(1) Illustrated by Isa. lii, 13-liii, 13, 214, 215.
(2) lllustrateil by Matt, xi, 12, 21.V218.
(3) Illustrated by Gal. v, 4, 218, 219.
'7. The Connexion nuiy be Historical, Dog- matical, Logical, or Psychological, 219.
S. Importance of studying Context, Scope, and Plan, 2ly.
9. Critical Tact and Ability needed, 220.
CHAPTER VIII. Comparison of Parallel Passages.
1. Some Passages of Scripture without
logical connexion, 221.
2. Value of Parallel Passages, 221.
3. The Bible a Self-interpreting Book, 222.
4. Parallels Verbal and Real, 223.
5. All Parallels must have real Correspon-
dency, 223.
6. The word Hate in Luke xiv, 26, ex-
plained by Parallel Passages, 224, 225.
7. Jesus' words to Peter in Matt, xvi, 18,
explained by Parallel Texts, 225-229.
8. Large portions of Scripture parallel, 230.
CHAPTER IX. The Historical Standpoint. Importance of knowing the Historical
Standpoint of a writer, 231. Historical Knowledge essential, 231. Difficulty of transferring one's self into a remote age, 232.
4. Personal sanctity of ancient Worthies
often unduly exalted, 232.
5. Historical Occasions of the Psalms,
233, 234.
6. Places as well as Times to be studied : —
(1) Shown by Journevs and Epistles of Paul,
235, 236.
(2) Historical and (?eoj]rraphioal Accuracy of
Scripture proven by careful Research, 230, 237.
7. The Historical Standpoint of the Apoc-
alyijse :—
(1) External Evidence dependent solely on
Ireiiajus, 237, 238.
(2) .lohn's own Testimony (Rev. i, 9). 239. 0) Internal Evidence. Six Points. 240, 241. (4) (ircat delicacy of Discrimination neces- sary, 242.
?^.^ Questions of Historical Criticism in- volved, 242.
CHAPTER X. Figurative Language.
1. Tropes many and various, 243.
2. Origin and Necessity of Figurative Lan-
guage, 243, 244.
3. Figures of Sjieech suggestive of Divine
Harmonies, 244, 240.
4. Principal Sources of Scriptural Ima-
gery, 246, 247.
5. Specific rules for determining when
Language is Figurative are imprac- ticable and unnecessary, 247.
6. Figures of Words and Figures of
Thought, 248.
7. Metonymv : —
(1) Of Cause and Effect, 248.
(2) Of Subject and Adjunct, 249.
(3) Of tbe 8ign and tiie Thing Signlfled, 250.
8. Synecdoche, 250.
9. Personification, 251.
10. Apostrophe, 252.
11. Interrogation, 252.
12. Hyperbole, 253.
13. Irony, 253.
CHAPTER XI. Simile and Metaphor.
1. Simile defined and illustrated, 254.
2. Crowding of Similes together, 255.
3. Similes self-interpreting, 255.
4. Pleasure afforded by Similes, 256.
5. Assumed Comparisons or Illustrations,
257. G. Metaphor defined and illustrated, 258.
7. Sources of Scriptural Metaphors : —
(1) Natural Scenery, 259.
(2) Ancient Customs, 259.
(3) Habits of Animals, 259, 260.
(4) Ritual Ceremonies, 260.
8. Elaborated and Mixed Metaphors, 261.
9. Uncertain Metai)horical Allusions : —
(1) Loosing of locks (Judges v, 2). 252, 203.
(2) Boiling heart (Psa. xlv, 1), 263.
(3) Buried in Baptism i,Kum. vi, 4 ; Col. li, 12),
263, 264.
CHAPTER XIL Fables, Riddles, and Enigmas.
1. Of the more notable Tropes of Scrip-
ture, 265.
2. Characteristics of the Fable, 265.
(1) Jotham's Fable, 266.
(2) Jehoasli's Fable, 266, 267.
3. Characteristics of the Riddle, 268.
(1) Samson's Riddle, 268. ,
(2) Number of the Beast (Rev. xiii, 18), 269.
(3) Obscure Proverbs, 269.
(4) Lainech's Song, 270.
4. Enigma distiuguislied and defined, 270,
271. (!) Enigmatical element in Jesus' discourse with Nicodennis, 271.
(2) In bis discourse witli the Samaritan wom-
an, 272.
(3) Enigma of tlie Sword in Luke xxii, 36, 27.!.
(4) Enigmatical language addressed to Peter
in John xxi, '8, 273.
(5) Figure of the Two Eagles in Ezek. xvii,
274, 275.
CHAPTER XIII. Interpretation of Parables.
1. Pre-eminence of Parabolic Teaching,
276.
2. The Parable defined, 276, 277.
CONTENTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINE.
3. General Use of Parables, 277.
4. Special Reason and Purpose of Jesus'
Parables, 278, 279.
5. Parables serve to test Character, 280. ■6. Superior beauty of Scripture Parables,
280.
T. Three essential elements of a Parable, 281.
S. Three principal Rules for the Inter- pretation of Parables, 281, 282.
9. Principles illustrated in the Parable of the Sower, 282.
10. Parable of the Tares, and its Interpre-
tation, 283. (1) Things explained and things unnoticed
in the model Expositions of Jesus, 384. (8) We may notice some things which Jesus
did not emphasize, 884, 885.
(3) Suggestive Words and Allusions deserve
attention and comment, 885.
(4) Not specific Rules, but sound and dis-
criminating Judgment, must guide the Interpreter, 386.
11. Isaiah's Parable of the Vineyard, 287.
12. Parable of the Wicked Husbandman,
288. 18. Comparison of analogous Parables, 289. (1) Marriage of King's Son and Wicked Hus- bandman, 88'J, 890. (3) Marriage of King's Son and Great Sup- per, 890, 891.
14. Old Testament Parables, 292.
15. All the Parables of Jesus in the Syn-
optic Gospels, 293.
16. Parable of the Labourers in the Vine-
yard:— (1) Mistakes of Interpreters, 894. (3) Occasion and Scope, 394, 395.
(3) Prominent Points in the Parable, 296.
(4) The Parable primarily an Admonition to
the Disciples, 396, 897.
17. Parable of the Unjust Steward : — (1) Occasion and Aim, 39".
(3) Unauthorized Additions, 398.
(3) Jesus' own Application, 898.
(4) The Rich Man to be understood as Mam-
mon, 300.
(5) (Jeikie's Comment, 801.
» CHAPTER XIV. Interpretation of Allegories.
1. Allegory to be distinguished from Par-
able, 302.
2. Allegory a continued Metaphor, 202,
303.
3. Same hermeneutical Principles apply to
Allegories as to Parables, 304.
4. Illustrated by Prov. v, 15-18: — (1) Main Purpose to be first sought, .304.
(3) Particular Allusions to be studied in the light of Main Purpose, 305, 306.
5. Allegory of Old AgeinEccles. xii,3-7: — (1) Various Interpretations, 306.
(3) The old age of a Sensualist, 307.
(3) Uncertain Allusions, 307.
(4) Blending of Meaning and Imagery, 308.
(5) The Hermeneutical Principles to be kept
in \iew, 309.
6. Allegory of False Prophets in Ezek.
xiii, 10-15.
7. Allegory of 1 Cor. iii, 10-15:—
(1) Are the materials Persons or Doctrines?
311. (8) Both views allowable, 311, 318.
(3) The Passage paraphrased, 313.
(4) A Warning rather than a Piophecy, 313,
314.
8. Allegory of 1 Cor. v, 6-8 :— (1) The Context, 315.
(8) The Passage paraphrased, 315. (3) The more important Allusions to be care- fully studied, 316.
9. Allegory of the Christian Armour
(Eph. vi), 316.
10. Allegory of the Door and the Good
Shepherd, (John x): —
(1) Occasion and Scope, 317.
(2) Import of particular parts, 31S.
(3) Jesus' Explanation enigmatical, 319, 330.
11. Paul's Allegory of the Covenants: — (1) It is Peculiar and Exceptional, 381.
(8) The historical Facts are accepted as true, 331.
(3) The Correspondent Clauses, 338.
(4) Paul's example as Authority in Allego-
rizing Scripture narratives, 388, 38:1
(5) Such methods to be avoided, or used most
sparingly, 384.
12. Interpretation of Canticles: — (1) Allegorical Methods, .384, 335.
(3) Objections to the Allegorical Method, 325. (■3) Canticles a Dramatic Parable, 386.
(4) A literal basis under oriental Poetry, 327.
(5) Details not to be pressed into mystic Sig-
nificance, 387.
CHAPTER XV. Proverbs and Gnomic Poetry.
1. Proverbs defined and described, 328,
329.
2. Their Use among most ancient Nations,
329.
3. Hermeneutical Principles to be ob-
served : — (1) Discrimination of Form and Figure, 330. (8) Critical and Practical Sagacity, 331.
(3) Attention to Context and Parallelism, 332.
(4) Common Sense and sound Judgment, 333,
333.
CHAPTER XVI. Interpretation of Types.
1. Types and Symbols Defined and Dis-
tinguished :—
(1) Crabb's Definition, 334.
(2) Examples of Types and Symbols, .3:i4.
(3) Analogy with certain Figures of Speech,
3.35.
(4) Principal Distinction between Types and
Symbols, 336.
2. Essential Characteristics of the Type : —
(1) Notable Points of Resemblance between
Type and thing typified, 337.
(2) Must be Divinely Appointed, .337.
(3) Must prefigure something Futin-e, 338.
3. Classes of Old Testament Types : — (1) Typical Persons, 3:38.
(3) Typical Institutions, 339. (3i Tvpical Offlc(--<, 3:i<).
(4) Typical Events, 339.
(5) Typical Actions, 339 340.
8
CONTEXTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINE.
4. Hermeneutical principles to be ob-
served : —
(1) All real Points of Resemblance to be
noted : —
1. The Brazen Serpent (Num. xxi, 4-9), 341.
2. Melchizedek and Christ (lleb. vii), 342.
(2) Notable Differences and Contrasts to be
observed :—
1. Moses and Christ (Ileb. iii, 1-6), 343.
2. Adam and Christ (Rom. v, 12--il), 343.
5. Old Testament Types fully apprehended
only by the Gospel revelation, 344.
6. Limitation of Types : —
(1) Bishop Marsh's" Statement, 345.
(2) Too restrictive a Principle, 345.
(3) A broader Principle allowable, 346.
(4) Qualifying Observation, 34U.
CHAPTER XVII.
Interpretation of Symbols.
1. Difficulties of the Subject, .347.
2. Principles and Methods of procedure,
347.
3. Classification of Symbols, 347, 348.
4. Examples of Visional Symbols : — (1) The Almond Rod (Jer. i.'ll), 348. (a) The Seething Pot (Jer. i, 13), 349.
(3) The Good and Bad Figs (Jer. xxiv),
349.
(4) The Summer Fruit (Amos viii, 1), 349.
(5) Resurrection of Dry Bones (Ezek.xxxvil),
350.
(6) The Golden Candlestick, 350.
(7) The Two Olive Trees (Zech. iv), 350,
351 .
(8) The Great Image of Nebuchadnezzar's
Dream (Dan. ii), 352.
(9) The Four Beasts of Dan. vii, .353.
(10) Riders, Horns, and Smiths of Zech.i, 353,
354.
(11) The Flying Roll and Ephah (Zech. v), 351,
355.
(12) The Four Chariots (Zech. vi), 355.
5. The above Examples, largely explained
by the Sacred Writers, authorize three fundamental Principles : —
(1) The Names of Symbols are to be under-
stood literally," 356.
(2) Symbols always denote something differ-
ent from themselves, 356.
(3) A Resemblance, more or less minute, is
always traceable between Symbol and thing Symbolized, 356.
6. No minute set of Hermeneutical Rules
practicable, 356.
7. Three general Principles all-import-
ant : —
(1) A stiict regard to the Historical Stand-
point of the Writer or Prophet, 2.57.
(2) Like regard to Scope and Cont(ixt, 257.
(3) Like r(>gard to Analogy and Import of
similar Symbols and Figures cUicvhere used, 2.57.
8. Fairbairn's Statement of general Prin-
ciples : —
(1) The Image must be contemplated in its
broader Aspects, 3.57.
(2) Uniform and consistent Manner of In-
terpretation, 1357.
9. Same Principles for explaining Mate-
rial Symbols, 357. 10. The Svmbolism of Blood, 358.
U. The Symbolism of the Tabernacle: —
(1) Names of the Tabernacle and their Sig-
nificance, 359.
(2) A Divine-human Relationship symbol-
ized, 360, 361.
(3) The Two Apartments, .361.
A. The Most Holv Place and its Sym-
bols:—
1. The Aik, 361,. 362.
2. Tlie Capporoth or Mercvseat. 3C2.
3. The Cherubim, 30-.'. A&i.
B. The Holy Place and its Symuols: —
1. The Talile ofSliowbiead. 364.
2. Tlic Golden Candlestick. 364.
3. Tlie Altjir of Incense. 365.
(4) Great Altar and Laver in the Court, 365.
(5) Symbolico-typical Action of High Priest,
366, ;:!(i7.
(6) Graduated Sanctity of the Holy Places,
367, 368.
CHAPTER XVIII. Symbolico-Typical Actions.
1. Acts performed in Visions, 3(50.
2. Symbolico-typical Acts of Ezekiel iv
and v : —
(1) The Actions Outward and Real, 370, 371.
(2) Five Objections considered, 371, 372.
3. Hosea's Symbolical Marriages : —
(1) The Language implies a Real Event, 373,
(2) Supposed Impossibility based on JUsap-
prehension of Scope and Import, 374.
(3) The names Gomer and Diblaim not Sym-
bolical, 375.
(4) Hengstenberg's Unwarrantable Asser-
tions, 375.
(5) The Facts as Stated not unsupposable, 376.
(6) Scope of the Passage indicated, 377.
(7) The Symbolical Names (Jezreel, Lo-ru-
hamah, and Lo-ammi), 377.
(8) The Prophet's second Marriage to be
similarly explained, 378, 379.
4. Our Lord's Miracles Symbolical, 379.
CHAPTER XIX. Symbolical Numbers, Names, and Colours.
L Process of ascertaining the Symbolism of Numbers, 380.
2. Significance of Three, Four, Seven,
Ten, and Twelve, 380, 383.
3. Symbolical does not always exclude
literal sense of Numbers, 384.
4. Time, Times, and Half-a-Time, 384.
5. Forty-two Months, 384.
6. The Numbers Forty and Sc\ cnty, 385.
7. Prophetic Designations of Time, 383.
8. The Year-Day Theory :—
(1) Has no support in Num. xiv and Ezek. iv,
aS6, 387.
(2) Not sustained by Prophetic Analogy, 387,
388.
(3) Daniel's Seventy Weeks not parallel, 3S8.
(4) Days nowhere properly mean Years, 388.
(5) Disproved bv repeated failures in Inter-
pretation, "389, :W0.
9. The Thousand Years of Rev. xx, 390. 10. Symbolical Names : —
(1) 'Sodora and Egypt, 391.
(2) Babylon and Jerusalem, 391.
(3) Returning to Egypt, 392.
(4) David and Elijah, 392. (.5) Ariel, 392.
(6) Leviattian, 392.
CONTENTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINE.
11. Symbolism of Colours: —
(1) Rainbow and Tabernaclw Colours, 393.
(2) Import of Colours inferred from their
Associations :—
1. Blue and its Associations, 393.
2. Purple and Scarlet, 393, 394.
3. White as symbol of Purity, 394.
4. Black and Red, 394.
12. Symbolical Import of Metals and Jew-
els, 395.
CHAPTER XX.
Dreams and Prophetic Ecstasy.
1. Methods of Divine Revelation, 396.
2. 'the Dreams of Scripture, 396, 397.
3. Dreams evince latent Powers of the
Soul, 397.
4. Jacob's Dream at Bethel, 397, 398.
5. Repetition of Dreams and Visions, 398,
399.
6. Prophetic or Visional Ecstasy : —
(1) David's Messianic Revelations, 399.
(2) Ezelclel's visional Rapture, 400.
(3) Other Examples of Ecstasy, 400, 401.
(4) The Prophet impersonating God, 403.
*!. New Testament Glossolaly, or Speaking with Tongues : —
(1) The Facts as recorded, 402, 403.
(2) The Pentecostal Glossolaly symbolical,
403.
(3) A mysterious Exhibition of Soul-powers,
404.
CHAPTER XXI.
Prophecy and its Interpretation.
1. Magnitude and Scope of Scripture
Prophecy, 405.
2. Prophecy not merely Prediction but
Utterance of God's Truth, 406.
3. Only Prophecies of the Future require
special Hermeneutics, 407.
4. History and Prediction should not be
Confused, 407.
5. Organic Relations of Prophecy : —
(1) Progressive Character of Messianic Proph-
ecy, 408.
(2) Repetition of Oracles against Heathen
Powers, 409.
(3) Daniel's Two Great Prophecies (chaps, ii
and vii) compared, 409, 410.
(4) The Little Horn of Dan. vii, 8, and viii, 9,
the same Power under dilTerent As- pects, 410.
(5) Other Prophetic Repetitions, 411.
6. Figurative and Symbolical Style of
Prophecy : —
(1) Imagery the most natural Form of ex-
pressing Revelations obtained by Vis- ions and Dreams, 412.
1. Illustrated by Gen. iii. 15. 412.
2. Pairbairn on the Passajre, 413.
(2) Poetic Form and Style of several Proph-
ecies instanced, 413.
1. Isaiah xiii. 2-13 quoted. 414,
2. Refers to the Overthrow of Babylon. 414,
415.
(3) Prominence of Symbols in the Apocalyptic
Books, 415.
(4) The Hermeneutical Principles to be ob-
served, 415.
7. Analysis and Comparison of Similar Prophecies : —
(1) Verbal Analogies, 416.
(2) Double Form of Apocalyptic Visions, 416.
(3) Analogies of Imagery, 417.
(4) Like Imagery applied to Different Ob-
jects, 417.
(5) General Summary, 418.
CHAPTER XXII. Daniel's Vision of the Four Empires.
1. Value of Daniel's Twofold Revelation
in illustrating Hermeneutical Prin- ciples, 418.
2. Three different Interpretations, 41i>.
3. Arguments for the Roman Tiieory con-
sidered, 420, 421.
4. Subjective Presumptions must be set
aside, 421.
5. Daniel's Historical Stand[;oint, 422.
6. Prominence of the Modes, 422.
7. The Varied but parallel Descriptions,
422, 423.
8. The Prophet should be allowed to ex-
plain himself, 423, 424.
9. The Prophet's Point of View in Dan.
viii, 424.
10. Inner Harmonv of all the Visions, 424,
425.
11. Alexander's Kingdom and that of his
Successors not two different World-
Powers, 425, 426. 13. Conclusion: A Median World-Power
to be recognised as succeeding the
Babylonian, 426. 13. Each Book of Prophecy to be studied
as a Whole, 426.
CHAPTER XXTII. Old Testament Apocalyptics.
1. Biblical Apocalyptics defined, 427.
2. Same Hermeneutical Principles required
as in other Prophecy, 428.
3. The Revelation of Joel : —
(1) Joel the oldest formal Apocalypse, 428.
(2) Analysis of Joel's Prophecy, 429-431.
4. Ezekiel's Visions : —
(1) Peculiarities of Ezekiel, 432.
(2) Analysis of Ezekiel's Prophecies, 432-437.
5. The Artistic Structure to be Studied,
437.
CHAPTER XXIV. The Gospel Apocalypse.
1. Occasion of Jesus' Apocalyptic Dis-
course (Matt, xxiv), 438.
2. Various Opinions, 438, 439.
3. Lange's Analysis, 439, 44(i.
4. The Question of the Disciples, 440.
5. Meaning of the End of the Age, 441.
6. Analysis of Matt, xxiv, xxv. 442, 343.
7. Time-Limitation of the Prophecy, 443. S. Import of Matt, xxiv, 14, 444.
9. Import of Luke xxi, 24, 445.
10
CONTENTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINI
10. Import of Matt, xxiv, 20-31 :—
(1) Literal Sense as urged by many Exposi-
tors, 445.
(2) Analogous Prophecies compared, 440.
(3; Language of Matt, xxiv, 30, taken from L>au. vli, 13, 446, 447.
(4) The Facts of Matt, xxiv, 31, not neces-
sarily visible to human ej'es, 447, 448.
(5) Import of tit^ewf, immediately (verse
~'i)), 448.
11. The Judgment of the Nations (Matt.
XXV, y 1-4(3):— (1) The Scripture Doctrine of Judgment, 449. (i) Not limited to one Last Day, 4o0.
(3) A Divine Procedure which begins with
Christ's Enthronement, and must con- tinue until he delivers up the Kingdom to the Father, 450.
12. The Parousia coincident witli the Ruiu
of the Temple and the End of the Pre-Messiauic Age, 450, 451.
IS. Thi.s Interpretation harmonizes all the New Testament Declarations of the Nearness of the Parousia, 452.
14. No valid Objections, 453.
CHAPTER XXV. The Pauline Eschatology.
1. Import of 1 Thess. iv, 13-17:—
(1) Literal Translation, 4.54.
(2) Four Things clearly expressed, 454.
(3) Iniport of we. tite Uruiu, wlio remain :—
1. A ic'Wis ot'Luneiiiann and Alford, 455.
2. View of Ellicott. 456.
3. The Two Opinions compHred, 45C.
4. Tiie words imply an Expectation of a
Speedy Coming of the Lord, 450.
5. The Hxegctical Dilemma, 45T.
G. The Apostle's doctrine based on most em- phatic Statements of Jesus, 457, 45S.
2. All here described may have occurred
in Paul's generation, 458.
3. Not contradicted by 2 Thess. ii, 1-9,
459.
4. The Apostasy an event of that gen-
eration, 4(10.
6. The Man of Sin described in language appropriated from Daniel's Proph- ecy of Antiochus Epiphanes, 460.
f). The Prophecy fulfillecl in Nero: —
(1) Nero a revelation of Antichrist, 460.
(2) The Language not unsuitable to the
Death of Nero, 460.
(3) Equivalent to Language of Dan. vii, 11,
461.
(4) Nero's Relations to Judaism and Chris-
tianity, 403. 1. Import of 1 Cor. xv, 20-28, 462, 463.
8. Import of Phil, iii, 10, H, 464.
9. Import of Luke xx, 35, 464.
10. Import of John v, 24-29, 464, 465.
CHAPTER XXVI. The Apocalypse of John.
1. Systems of Interpretation, 466.
2. Historical Standpoint of the Writer,
4 (;(•>, 407.
3. Plan of tlu' Apocalypse, 467.
4. Aitilicial Form of the Apocalypse, 408.
I. The Great Theme is announced (chap, i, 7) in the language of Matt, xxiv, 30, 468.
I. Part I. Revelation of the Lamb: —
(1) In the Epistles to the Seven Churches, 469.
(2) By the Opening of the Seven Seals, 46'.', 470.
1. The Martyr Scene (vi. 9, 10). 470.
2. The Sixth Sial (vi. l'J-17), 4Tl>.
3. Striking Analogies of Jesus' Words, 470, 471.
(3) Byj,he Sounding of the Seven Trumpets,
471.
1. The Plague from the Abyss, 471. 472.
2. The Annies of the Enjihiates. 472.
3. The Miglity Aiigel arrayed with Clou.i and Lain bow, 473.
4. The Last Trumjiet, 474. '. Part II. Revelatio.n ok the Bride: —
(1) Vision of the Woman and the Dragon, 475.
(2) Vision of the Two Beasts, 470.
(3) Vision of Moimt Zion, 477.
(4) Vision of the Seven Last Plagues, 478.
(5) Vision of the Mystic Babylon. 478.
1. Mystery of the Woman and the Beast. 479.
2. The Beast from the Abyss, 4S0, 481.
3. Fall of the Mystic Babylon, 4S2, 4nS.
(6) Vision of Parousia, Millennium, and Ji;dg- ment, 483.
1. A Sevenfold \ i^ion, 48S.
2. The Millennium is the Gospel Period or Ai:e. 4S4.
3. The Chiliastic Interpretation, 4S4. 485.
4. Chiliastic Interpretation \vith<.ut .-utlieient warrant. 485.
5. The Last Judgment. 4S6.
6. S(iiiie of these Visions Iransei lul the Time- limits of the Book, 4s7.
7. The Millennium of Kev. .\x now in prog- ress, 4S7. 488.
(7) Vision of (he New Jerusah-m. 48S.
1. Meaning of the >iew ,)eru.~aiuii. Three
views, 489.
2. Comp.arlMin of Hag. ii, 6. 7. and Ihb. .\ii.
L'6-28, 4s9. 490.
3. Allusion oflleb. xii. 22. 23. 49.i. 491.
4. New Jerusalem the lleavenl\ Out ine of
what the Tabernacle .--vmbiilized. 4'.n.
5. It is the New Testament ( liureh and
Kingdom of God, 492. 8. Summary of New Testanjcnt Ai)oca]yp- tics and Eschatology, 492, 493.
CHAPTER XXVII. No Double Sense in Prophecy.
1. Theory of a Doul)le Sense unsettles all
sound Interpretation, 493.
2. Typology and Double Sense of Lan-
guage not to be confounded, 494.
3. The suggestive Fulness of the Prophetic
Scriptures no Proof of a Double Sense, 495.
4. No misleading Designations of Time in
Prophecy, 495, 496.
5. Misuse of Peter's language in 2 Pot.
iii, 8, 496.
6. Bengel's fallacious treatment of Matt.
xxiv, 39, 497, 498.
7. Practical Api)licati()ns of Prophecy may
be many, 498.
8. MistaUeii Notions of the Bible itself the
Cause of much False Exposition, 499.
CONTENTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINE.
11
CHAPTER XXVIII. Scripture Quotations in the Scriptures.
1. Four Classes of Quotations: —
(1) Old Test. Quotations in Old Test., 500.
(2) New Test. Quotations from Old Test., 500.
(3) New Test. Quotations in New Test., 501.
(4) Quotations from Apocryphal Sources, 501.
2. Only the Old Testament Quotations in
the New Testament call for special hermeneutical treatment, 502.
3. Sources of New Testament Quotation : —
(1) Hebrew Text, M2.
(2) Septuagint Version, 502.
4. No uniform Method of Quotation, 502,
503.
5. Inaccurate Quotations may become cur-
rent, 503.
6. Formulas and Methods of Quotation,
504, 505.
7. The formula i'lia 77 /l??pwi9r/ : —
(1) Peculiar to Matthew and John, 505.
(2) Views of Bengel and Meyer, 50G.
(3) The Telle force of Iva generally to be
maintained, 506, 507.
(4) Tlie Ecbatic sense negd not in all cases be
denied, 507.
(5) "Iva telic in formulas of Prophetic cita-
tion, 508.
(6) Supposed exception of Matt, ii, 15, .508, 509.
8. Purposes of Scripture Quotation : —
(1) For showing its Fulfilment, 509.
(2) For establishing a Doctrine, 510.
(3) For confuting Opponents, 510.
(4) For Authority, Rhetorical purposes, and
Illustration, 510.
CHAPTER XXIX.
The False and the True Accommodation.
1. Rationalistic Theory to be repudiated,
511.
2. The True Idea of Accommodation, 512.
3. Illustrated by Jer. xxxi, 15, as quoted
in Matt, ii,' 17, 18, 512, 513.
CHAPTER XXX. Alleged Discrepancies of the Scriptures.
1. General Character of the Discrepan-
cies, 514.
2. Causes of the Discrepancies : —
(1) Errors of Copyists. 514.
(2) Various Names to one person, 514.
(3) Different ways of reckoning Time, 514.
(4) Different Standpoint and Aim, 514.
3. Discrepancies in Genealogical Tables : —
(1) Jacob's Family Record :—
1. The different Lists compared, 515-517.
2. The Historical Standpoint of each List, 517,
518.
3. Hebrew Style and TJsase. 518, 519.
4. Substitution of Names, 519.
5. Desire to have a definite and suggestive
Number, 520.
(2) The Two Genealogies of Jesus : —
1. Different Hypotheses, 521.
2. Views of Jerome and Africanus. .522.
3. No Hypothesis can claim absolute CVi-tain-
tv. 523.
4. Hei-vcy's Theory. .523, 524.
(3) Genealogies not Useles.-s Scripture, .524.
4. Numerical Discrepancies, 525.
5. Doctrinal and Ethical Discrepancies : —
(1) Supposed Contlict between Law and Gos-
pel, .520.
(2) Civil Rights maintained by Jesus and
Paul, 527. ■
(3) The Avenging of Blood, 528.
i4) Difleience between Paul and James on Justification :—
1. Different Personal Experiences. 529, 530.
2. Ditl'ereut Modes of A|)i)iehendin^ uad Kx-
pressins (ireat Trullis. 5.i0.
3. Ditt'eivur Aim of each writer, 531.
4. Individual Freedom of each writer, 531.
6. Value of Biblical Discrepancies : —
(1) To stimulate Mental Effort, 532.
(2) To illustrate Harmony of Bible and Na-
ture, 352.
(3) To prove the absence of Collusion, 352.
(4) To show the Spirit above the Letter, 352.
(5) To serve as a Test of Moral Charactei', 352.
CHAPTER XXXI. Alleged Contradictions of Science.
1. Statement of Allegations and Issuesi
533.
2. Attempts at Reconciliation, 533.
3. Fundamenttil Considerations, 533, 534.
4. Three Principal Points of Contro-
versy:—
A. The Record of Miracles: —
(1) Assumed Impossibility of Miracles, 534.
(2) No common Ground between Atheist,
Pantheist, and Christian, 535.
(3) Deist cannot consistently deny the Possi-
bility of Miracles, 535.
(4) Three important Considerations :—
1. Miracles Parts of a Divine Order, 535, .530.
2. God's Ptevelation involves tlie Plan of a
great Historical Movement of which Mir- acles form a Part, .53<!. .'")■. T.
3. Scripture Miracles wortliy of God. .537, 53S.
B. Descriptions of Physical phe.no.m-
ENA :—
(1) Supposed Evidences of False Astronomy,
538.
(2) standing Still of the Sun and Moon, 540.
(3) Narrative of the Deluge :—
1. Objections to its Universality. 541, 542.
2. Universal terms often applied in Scripture
to Limited Are.is, 543.
3. The No.achic Delujre local, but probably
Universal as to tlie Human Race, 543.
C. The Oririx of the World and op
Man :—
(1) The Mosaic Narrative of Creation, 544.
(2) Geological Method of Interpretation, 544,
545. (.3) Cosmological Method of Interpretation, 545, 546.
(4) Idealistic Method of Interpretation, 540-
548.
(5) Grammatico-historical Interpretation :—
1. Meaning of Heavens, Land, and Ci;eati%
549.
2. Biblical Narrative not a universal Cosmog-
ony. 549, 550.
3. It describes the Formation of the Land of
Eden, .550.
4. This view not a Hypothesis, but requii-ed
by a strict Interpretation of the Hebrew record, 551.
5. Doctrines and far-reachinj; Implications of
tile Narrative. .551. .5.52.
6. No valid I'resuniptioii against a limited
Creation more than against a limited Flood. 552.
12
CONTEXTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINE.
CHAPTER XXXII. Harmony and Diversity of the Gospels.
1. The Life of Jesus a Turning Point in
the History of the World, 553.
2. The Gospels the Chief Ground of Con-
flict between Faith and Unbelief, 553, 554.
3. Attempts at constructing Gospel Har-
monies, 554.
4. Use of such Harmonies, 555.
5. Three Points uf Consideration: —
(1) The Origin of the Gospels: —
1. An ongin;il Oral Gospel, 556.
2. No absolute Certainty as to the Particular
Origin of each Gospel. S57.
3. Probable Suppositions, 557, 65S.
(2) Distinct Plan and Purpose of each
Gospel:^
1. Tradition of the Early Church, 55S.
2. Matthew's Gospel adapted to .tews. 559.
3. Mark's Gospel adapted to Roman taste, .0.59.
4. Luke's, the Pauline Gospel to the Gentiles,
560.
5. John's, the Spiritual Gospel of the Life of
Faith, 560, 561.
(3) CnARACTEMSTlCS OF TUB Sf.VERAL EvAN-
OELISTS:^
1. Noticeable Characteristics of Matthew's
Gospel, 561, b&l
2. Oini>sions of the earlier Gospels may have
had a Purpose. 502, 56^3.
3. Harmony of the Gosiiels enhanced by their
Diversit}', 563, 56-1.
6. Unreasonableness of Magnifying tlie al-
leged Discrepancies of the Gospels, 565.
CHAPTER XXXIII. Progress of Doctrine and Analogy of Faith.
1. The Holy Scriptures a Growth, 5G6.
2. Genesis a Series of Evolutions and
Revelations, 567, 5G8.
3. The Mosaic legislation a New Era of
Revelation, 568. n) Doctrine of God, 568, 569. ('2) Suiierlor Ethical and Civil Code, 569. (3) Pentateuch fundanientiil to Old Testa;- luent Revelations, 570.
4. Divine Revelation continued after
Moses, 570.
5. Theology of the Psalter, 570, 671.
6. The Solomonic Proverbial Philosophy,
571.
7. Old Testament Revelation reached its
highest Spirituality in the Great Prophets, 57'2-575.
8. Proplietic link between the Old and
Kew Testaments, 575.
9. Christ's teachings the Substance- but
not the Finality of Christian Doc- trine, 575.
10. Revelations continued after Jesus'
Ascension, 576.
11. The Epistles contain the elaborated
Teachings of the Apostles, 576. 577.
12. The A])ocalypse a fitting Conclusion
of the New Testauicut Canon, .")77, 578.
13. Attention to Progress of Doctrine a
Help to Interpretation, 578.
14. The Analogy of Faith : —
(1) Progress of Doctrine explains the true
Analogy of Faith, 579.
(2) Two Degrees of the Analogy of Faith :—
1. Positive, 5S0.
2. General, 5S0.
(3) Limitation and Use of the Analogy of
Faith as a Principle of Interpretation, 581.
CHAPTER XXXIY. Doctrinal and Practical Use of Scripture.
1. Paul's Statement of the Uses of Scrip-
ture ('2 Tim. iii, 16), 582.
2. Roman Doctrine of Authoritative In-
terpretation, 582.
3. The Protestant Principle of Using
one's own Reason, 58.'x
4. Statement and Defence of Scripture
Doctrine must accord with correct Hermeneutics, 583.
5. Biblical and Historical Theologv dis-
tiiiguished, 684.
6. Human Tendency to be wise above
what is written, 585.
7. True and False Methods of ascertain-
ing Scripture Doctrine: —
(1) The Doctrine of God, 585, 5S6.
1. Citation from the Athanasian Creed, 3S5.
2. Doetrin.il Symbols nut iniscni)tural. .5S6.
3. Plural Form olthe word Eloliiiii, 5?7.
4. Language of Gen. .\ix. '24, 5bT.
5. The Angel of Jehovah, 5s8.
(i. New Testament Doctrine of God, 5S8.
7. Mysterious Distinctions in the Divine Xa-
tiu-e. 5S9.
8. We should .-ivoid dogmatic Assertion .and
doubtful te.xts or readings, 590.
(2) The Doctrine of Vicarious Atonement,
590, 591.
(3) The Doctrine of Eternal Pum'shmont. tm.
1. Absence of Scriptural Hope liu- the Wick-
ed. .592.
2. Import of M.att. sii, 32, and Mark iii, 29,
592.
3. Preaching to the Siiirits in Prison, 592.
(4) Doctrine not con lined to one portion,
class, or style of Scriptures, 59.3.
(5) Eschatology taught chiefly in Figurative
Language. 59 1.
(6) Doctrine of the Resurrection of the Dead,
594.
(7) Freedom from Prepossessions and Pre-
sumptions, .595.
(8) Texts not to be cited ad lUntnm.
8. Xew Testament Doctrine not dear
without the help of the Old, and vire vcr.m, 5V1(), 5117.
9. Confusion of Hebrew and Aryan Modes
of Thought, 597. 10. Practical and Homiletical Use of Scrip- ture : —
(1) Must be based on true grammatical In-
terpretation, ,508.
(2) Personal Experiences. Promises, Admo-
nitions, and Warnings have lessons for Mil time, 5;»S, 59(1. (.'?) I'i-:i(-tical .\|iplii-u;io!is of Scrij'turc if btdlt upmi erroneous Intel pi:'I"tion, are thei'cby made of no ellect, GOO.
CONTENTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINE.
13
PART THIRD.
HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION.
CHAPTER I. Ancient Jewish Exegesis.
1. Value and Importance of History of
Interpretation, 603.
2. Origin and Variety of Interpretations,
(503.
3. Ezra and the Great Synagogue, 604,
605.
4. Tlie Halachah and Hagadah, 606-610.
5. Philo JudiEus and his Works, 611-613.
6. The Targums, 614.
v. Tlie Talmud, 615-617.
CHAPTER II. Later Rabbinical Exegesis.
1. The Sect of the Karaites (Saadia, Ben
AH), 618, 619. ii. Schools of Tiberias, Sora and Pumba-
ditha, 620.
3. Noted Rabbinical E.Kegetes : —
Rashi, Aben Ezra, Maimonides, Kimchi, Cas- pi, Tanchum, Ralbag, Abrabanel, Levita, Mendelssohn, 620-638.
4. Modern Rationalistic Judaism, 628.
5. General Summary, 628.
CHAPTER IIL The Earliest Christian Exegesis.
1. Indicated in the New Testament Scrip- tures, 629, 630.
•2. Allegorizing Tendency of the Post-Apos- tolic Age, 630.
3. Apostolic Fathers : —
(1) Clement of Rome, Barnabas, Ignatius,
631, 632.
(2) Value of the Apostolic Fathers, 633, 633.
4. Justin Martyr, Theophilus, Melito, and
Irenaeus, 633-636.
CHAPTER IV. Later Patristic Exegesis.
1. School of Alexandria, 63Y.
Clemeut, Origen, Dionysius, Pierius, Peter Martyr, Uesychius, 638-643.
2. School of Coesarea, 642.
Gregory Thaumaturgus, Pamphilus, Eusebi- us, Cyril of Alexandria, 643, 644.
3. The School of Antioch, 644. Africanus, Dorotheus, Lucian, Eustathius,
Diodorus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Chry- sostom, Isidore, Theodoret, 644-64!).
4. Schools of Edessa and Nisibis, 650. Ephraem Syrus, Barsumas, Ibas, 651.
5. Other eminent Fathers : — Athanasius, Epiphanius, Basil, Gregory, Ul-
philas, Andreas, .\rethas, 651, 653.
6. Fathers of the Western Church : — Hippolytus, Tertulhan, Cyprian, Vlctorlnus,
Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Pe- lagius, Tichouius, Vincent, Cassiodorus, Gregory the Great, 653-659.
7. General Character of Patristic Exege-
sis, 660.
CHAPTER V.
Exegesis of the Middle Ages.
1. No great Exegetes during this Period,
661.
2. The Catenists : —
Procoplus of Gaza, Bede, Alcuin, Maurus, Haymo, Strabo, Druthmar, tEcumeuius, Theophylatt, Lanfrauc, Willeram, Rupert, Lombard, Zigabenus, Joachim, Aquinas, Bonaventura, Hugo, Albert, 661-66r.
3. Writers of the Fourteenth and Fif-
teenth Centuries : — Nicholas de Lyra, Wycliffe, Huss, Wessel, Gerson, Laurentius Valla, Reucblln, Eras- mus, Lefevre, Mirandula, Sanctes Fag- nlnus, 6137-672. 4- The First Polyglots, 672.
CHAPTER VI. Exegesis of the Reformation.
1. The Dawn of a New Era, 673.
2. The great Expositors of tliis Period : — Luther, Melanchthnn, Zwlugle, fficolampa-
dius, Pellican, Minister, Calvin, Beza, Cas- tellio, Bullinger, Flacius, Piscator, Junius, Marlorat, Maldonatus, 673-680.
3. Translations of the Bible. 680, 681.
4. Antwerp and Nuremberg Polyglots, 681.
5. Tendencies of Lutheran and Reformed
Parties, 681, 682.
CHAPTER VII.
Exegesis of the Seventeenth Century.
1. Progress of Biljlical Studies, 683.
(1) Hebrew Philology promoted by Buxlorf,
Schindler, VatabluSf De Dieii, Drusius, and Scaliger, 683.
(2) King James' English Version, 683.
(3) Paris and London Polyglots, 684.
(4) Critici Sacri and Poole's Synopsis, 684, 035.
2. Distinguished English Exegetes : — Lightfoot, Pocock, Hammond, -Ainsworth,
Gataker, Usher, Owen, Mede, 685-688.
3. French Biblical Schohirs, 688. Casaubon, Cappel, Simon, Bochart, 088, 689,
4. Biblical Scholars in Holland : — Arminjus, Grotius, Voetius, Cocceius, Leus-
den, 6S9-693.
5. German Biblical Scholars : — Olearius, Glassius, Schmidt, Pfeifter, 693.
0. Progress of Free Thought, 694.
14
CONTENTS AND ANALYTICAL OUTLINE.
CHAPTER Vlir. Exegesis of the Eighteenth Century.
1. Eighteenth Century a period of En-
lightenment, 695.
2. Dutch, German, and French Biblical
Scholars : — Vitringa, Witsius, Lampe, Veneiua, Le Clerc, Scti aliens, Uelaud, Sctioettgeii, Aleiischen, Surentiuslus, Leydecker, We-ssfimg, J. C. Wolf, Alberti, JKypke, Ualmel, lieausobre, Quesnel, ()95-ti97. 8. Progress in Textual Criticism : — Houbigant, Kennicott, De Rossi, Mill, Bent- ley, Bengel, Welstein, Griesliacli, GUd-iOO.
4. Textual Criticism opposed by ilie Voe-
tian School, VUO.
5. English Exegetes : —
Patrick, Whitby, W. Lowth, R. T,(jvvt!i, Henry, Doddridge, Uodd, Scott, Gill, Cbandler, Pearce, Mackniglat, Campbell, Newcouie, Blayney, Green, Wells, Wesley, roo-7t>3.
6. English Deistical Writers : — Blount, Toland, Shaftesbury, Collins. Wool-
ston, Tindal, Morgan, Chubb, Boling- broke, Hume, 703, 704. V. English Anti-deistical Writers :— Chandler, Sherlock, Butler, Conybeare, Le- land, Waterland, Warburton, 705.
8. French Unbelief: —
Condillac, Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Vol- ney, 705.
9. Rise and Decline of Pietism : — Spener,Franeke, Michaelis, Mosheim, Koppe,
Emesti, Keil, Herder, C.von Wolf, Lange, Berleburg Bible and Wertheim Bible, Baumgaiten, 705-709.
10. Growth of German Rationalism : — Sem'.er, Edelmann, Bahrdt, Nigolai, Wolfen-
biittel Fragments, Teller's Lexicon, Schol- arly form of Rationalism, 710, 711.
11. Immanuel Kant and Philosophical
Criticism, 712.
CHAPTER IX. Exegesis of the Nineteenth Century.
1. Progress of Biblical Science, 7lo.
2. German Rationalistic School of Inter-
preters : — Eichhorn, Paulus, Critics of the Pentateuch (Astruc, Vater, etc.), Heyue, Gable--, G. L. Bauer, Sirau.s.,, V.'eisse, Bruno Baur, V. C. Baur and the Tiibiugen School, French Critical School (Renan, etc.), 713-717.
3. German Mediation School of Interpre-
ters : — Schleiermacher, Neander, De AVette, Liickc, Rosenmiiller, Maurer, Berthohlt, Lcn- gerke, Kuinoel, Gesenius, Ewaid, Hupielu, Hofifmann, 717-723.
4. German Evangelical School of Inter-
preters : — Storr and Old Tiibingen School, Hengsten- berg, Havernick, Bleek, Umbreit, Ullmann, Tholuck, Stier, Olshausen, Baumgarten, Philippi, Winer, Meyer, Auberlen, Kurtz, Keil, Delitzsch, J. P. Lange, Godet, Lut- hardt, 7'2.3-72('.
5. English Exegetes : —
Adam Clarke, Benson, Watson, Henderson, Bloomfleld, Kitto, Home, Davidson, .\!- foid, Wordsworth, Trench, Ellicott, J. B. Lightfoot, Eadie, Gloag, Murphy. Morison, Perowne, Jamieson, Cook, Stanley, Joviett, Convbeai'e. Howsou, Lewin, Elliott, Ka- liscli, Ginsburg, 728-733.
6. American Exegetes : —
Stuart, Robinson, Alexander, Norton, Hodge, Turner, Bush, Barnes, Jacobus, Owen. Whedon, Cowles, Conant, Strong, (iardi- ner, Shedd, 733-735. ,
7. New Testament Textual Ci'iticism : — Knapp, Schulz, Scholz, Lachnianu. Tischen-
dorf, Tregelles, Westcottand Hort, 73.j, 73d,
8. The Revised English Version, 737.
9. Present Condition and Demands of Bib-
lical Interpretation, 737, 738.
1. Bibliography of Hermeneutics 739
2. Index of Scripture Texts 153
3. General Index 770
PART FIRST.
INTRODUCTION TO BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS.
It vjcre indeed meet for us -not at all to require the aid of the written Word, hut to exhibit a life so pure that the grace of the Spirit should he instead of hooTcs to our souls, and that as these are inscribed with ink, even so should our hearts he with the Spirit, ^ut, since we have utterly put away from us this grace, come, let us at any rate emhrace the second-hest course. For if it he a hlame to stand in need of written words, and not to have hrought down on ourselves the grace of the Spirit, consider how heavy the charge of not choosing to profit even after this assistance, hut rather treating what is written with neglect, as if it were cast forth without purpose, and at random, and so bringing down upon ourselves our punishment with increase. ^ut that no such effect may ensue, let us give strict heed unto the things that are written ; and let us learn how the Old Xjaw was given on the one hand, and how, on the other, the JTew Covenant. — Ciikysostou.
INTEODUCTION
TO
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS.
CHAPTER I.
PRELIMINARY.
Hekmeisteutics is the science of interpretation. The word is usu- ally applied to the explanation of written documents, and may tiierefore be more specifically defined as the science of nermeneutics interpreting an author's language.' This science as- defined, sumes that there are divers modes of thought and ambiguities of expression among men, and, accordingly, it aims to remove the ' supposable differences between a writer and his readers, so that the meaning of the one may be truly and accurately apjirehended by the others.
It is common to distinguish between General and Special Her- meneutics. General Ilermeneutics is devoted to the ^,
General and
general principles which are applicable to the inter^^re- special Her- tation of all languages and writing. It may appropri- ™ ° " ately take cognizance of the logical operations of the human mind, and the philosophy of human speech. Special Hermeneutics is de- voted rather to the explanation of particular books and classes of writings. Thus, historical, poetical, philosophical, and prophetical writings differ from each other in numerous particulars, and each class requires for its projDer exposition the application of principles and methods adapted to its own peculiar character and style. Special Hermeneutics, according to Cellerier, is a science practical and almost empirical, and searches after rules and solutions ; while General Hermeneutics is methodical and philosojihical, and searches for principles and methods.^
' The word hermeneutics is of Greek origin, from epfiTjvevu, to interpret, to ex- plain ; thence the adjective ?/ epfirji'EVTiuTi (sc. Texvr]\ that is, the hermeneuiieal art, and thence our word hermeneutics, the science or art of interpretation. Closely kin- dred is also the name '■E/jfir/r, Ilermcs, or Mercury, who, beai'ing a golden rod of magic power, figures in Grecian mythology as the messenger of the gods, the tutelary deity of speech, of writing, of arts and sciences, and of all skill and accomplishments.
^ Manuel d'Hermenoutiquc Biblique, p. 5. Geneva, 1852. 2
18 INTRODUCTION TO
Biblical or Sacred Hermeneutics is the science of interpreting the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments.
Biblical or Sa- "i , m . tit • i- ^
cred Heme- Inasmuch as these two lestaments difter m form, lan« neutics. guage, and historical conditions, many writers have
deemed it preferable to treat the hermeneutics of each Testament separately. And as the New Testament is the later and fuller rev- elation, its interpretation has received the fuller and more frequent attention/ But it may be questioned whether such a separate treatment of the Old and New Testaments is the better course. It Old and New ^^ ^^ *^^® ^^'^^ importance to observe that, from a Christ- Test. Herme- ian point of view, the Old Testament cannot be fully iTfe separ- apprehended without the help of the New. The mys- ated. tery of Christ, which in other generations was not made
known unto men, was revealed unto the apostles and prophets of the New Testament (Eph. iii, 5), and that revelation sheds a flood of light upon numerous portions of the Hebrew Scriptures. On the other hand, it is equally true that a scientific interpi-etation of the New Testament is imjjossible without a thorough knowledge of the older Scriptures. The very language of the New Testament, though belonging to another family of human tongues, is notably liebraic. The style, diction, and spirit of many parts of the Greek Testament cannot be properly appreciated without acquaintance with the style and spirit of the Hebrew prophets. The Old Testament also abounds in testimony of the Christ (Luke xxiv, 27, 44 ; John v, 39 ; Acts X, 43), the illustration and fulfillment of which can be seen only in the light of the Christian revelation. In short, the whole Bible is a divinely constructed unity, and there is danger that, in studying one part to the comparative neglect of the other, we may fall into one-sided and erroneous methods of exposition. The Holy Scrip-
' Among the more important modern works on the hermeneutics of the New Testa- ment are: Ernesti, Institutio Interpretis Novi Testament! (Lips., 1761), translated into English by M. Stuart (Andover, 1827), and Terrot (Edin., 1843); Klausen, Ilerme- neutik des neucn Testamontes (Lpz., 1841); Wilke, Die Hermeneutik des neuen Tcs- Jamentes systcmatisch dargestellt (Lpz., 1843) ; Doedes, Manual of Hermeneutics for the Writings of the New Testament, translated from the Dutch by Stegmann (Edin., 1867); Fairbairn, Hermeneutical Manual of the New Testament (Phila., 1859); Im- mer, Hermeneutics of the New Testament, translated from the German by A. H. New- •man (Andover, 1877). The principal treatises on Old Testament hermeneutics are: Meyer, Versuch einer Hermeneutik des alten Testaments (1790); Pareau, Institutio Interpretis Veteris Testamenti (1822), translated by Forbes for the Edinburgh Biblical Cabinet. The hermeneutics of both Testaments is treated by Seller, Biblical Her- meneutics, or the Art of Scripture Interpretation, translated from the German by Wright (Lond., 183.5); Davidson, Sacred Hermeneutics (Edin., 1843), Cellerier's Man- ual, mentioned above, recently translated into English by Elliott and Harsha (N. Y., 1881), and Lange, Grundrissderbiblischen Hermeneutik (Heidelb., 1878).
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 19
tures should be studied as a whole, for their several parts were giv- en in manifold portions and modes (noXvfiepibg Kai TroXvTpoTTCjg, Heb. i, 1), and, taken all together, they constitute a remarkably self -in- terpreting volume.
Biblical Hermeneutics, having a specific field of its own, should be carefully distinguished from other branches of theo- Bisunguished logical science with which it is often and quite naturally yo'"c"r '^"'^" associated. It is to be distinguished from Biblical In- and Exegesis. troduction. Textual Criticism, and Exegesis. Biblical Introduction, or Isagogics, is devoted to the historico-critical examination of the different books of the Bible. It inquires after their age, author- ship, genuineness, and canonical authority, tracing at the same time their origin, preservation, and integrity, and exhibiting their con- tents, relative rank, and general character and value. The scien- tific treatment of these several subjects is often called the " Higher Criticism." Textual Criticism has for its special object Textual cnti- the ascertaining of the exact words of the original texts cism. of the saci'ed books. Its method of procedure is to collate and compare ancient manuscripts, ancient versions, and ancient scripture quotations, and, by careful and discriminating judgment, sift con- flicting testimony, weigh the evidences of all kinds, and thus en- deavour to determine the true reading of every doubtful text. This science is often called the "Lower Criticism." "Where such criticism ends, Hermeneutics j^roperly begins, and aims to establish the principles, methods, and rules which are needful to unfold the sense of what is written. Its object is to elucidate Avhatever may be obscure or ill-defined, so that every reader may be able, by an intelligent process, to obtain the exact ideas intended by the author. Exegesis is the application of these principles and laws, Exegesis and the actual bringing out into formal statement, and by Exposition, other terms, the meaning of the author's words. Exegesis is re- lated to hermeneutics as preaching is to homiletics, or, in general, as practice is to theory. Exposition is another word often used synonymously with exegesis, and has essentially the same significa- tion ; and yet, perhaps, in common usage, exposition denotes a more extended development and illustration of the sense, dealing more largely M'ith other scriptures by comparison and contrast. We observe, accordingly, that the writer on Biblical Introduction ex- amines the historical foundations and canonical authority of the books of Scripture. The textual critic detects interpolations, emends false readings, and aims to give us the very words which the sacred writers used. The exegete takes up these words, and by means of the principles of hermeneutics, defines their meaning, elucidates the
20 INTRODUCTION TO
scope and plan of each writer, and brings forth the grammatico- historical sense of what each book contains. The expositor builds upon the labours both of critics and exegetes, and sets forth in fuller form, and by ample illustj*ation, the ideas, doctrines, and moral lessons of the Scripture.'
But while w^e are careful to distinguish hermeneutics from these kindred branches of exegetical theology, we should not fail to note that a science of interpretation must essentially de2:)end on exegesis for the maintenance and illustration of its principles and rules. As the full grammar of a language establishes its principles by sufficient examples and by formal praxis, so a science of hermeneutics must needs verify and illustrate its jDrinciiDles by examjjles of their prac- tical application. Its province is not merely to define principles and methods, but also to exemj^lify and illusti*ate them. Herme- neutics, therefore, is both a science and an art. As a
Hermeneutics , ' ^ /
both a Science Science, it enunciates principles, investigates the laws an an . ^£ thought and language, and classifies its facts and results. As an art, it teaches what application these principles should have, and establishes their soundness by showing their prac- tical value in the elucidation of the more difficult scriptvxres. The hermeneutical art thus cultivates and establishes a valid exegetical procedure.
The necessity of a science of interpretation is apparent from the Necessity of diversities of mind and culture among men. Personal Hermeneutics. intercourse between individuals of the same nation and language is often difficult and embarrassing by reason of their dif- ferent styles of thought and expression. Even the Apostle Peter found in Paul's epistles things which were difficult to understand (dvavorjra, 2 Pet. iii, 16). The man of broad and liberal culture lives and moves in a diffei'cnt world from the unlettered peasant, so much so that sometimes the ordinnry conversation of the one is scarcely intelligible to the other. Different schools of metaphysics and opposing systems of theology have often led their several ad- vocates into strange misunderstandings. Tlie speculative philoso- pher, Avho ponders long on abstract themes, and by deep study
' Docdes thus iliseriminatos between explaining and interpreting: " To explain, properly signifies the unfolding of what is contained in the words, and to' interpret, the making clear of what is not clear by casting light on that which is obscure. Very often one interprets l)y means of explaining, namely, when, by unfolding the sense of the words, liglit is reflected on what is said or written; but it cannot be said that one explains by interpreting. While explaining generally is interpreting, interpreting, properly speaking, is not explaining. But we do not usually observe this distinction in making use of these terms, and may without harm use them promiscuously." Manual of Hermeneutics, p. 4.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 21
constructs a doctrine or system clear to his own mind, may find it difficult to set forth his views to others so as to prevent all miscon- ception. His whole subject matter lies beyond the range of com- mon thought. The hearers or readers, in such a case, must, like the philosopher himself, dwell long upon the subject. They must have terms defined, and ideas illustrated, until, step by stej:), they come to imbibe the genius and spirit of the new philosophy. But especially great and manifold are the difficulties of understanding the writings of those who differ from us in language and national- ity. The learned themselves become divided in their essays to decipher and interpret the records of the past. Volumes and li- braries have been written to elucidate the obscurities of the Greek and Roman classics. The foremost scholars and linguists of the pres- ent generation are busied in the study and exposition of the sacred books of the Chinese, the Plindus, the Parsees, aifcd the Egyptians, and, after all their learned labours, they disagree in the translation and solution of many a passage. How much more might we ex- pect great differences of opinion in the interpretation of a book like the Bible, composed at sundry times and in many parts and modes, and ranging through many departments of literature! What obstacles might reasonably be expected in the interpretation of a record of divine revelation, in which heavenly thoughts, un- known to men before, were made to express themselves in the im- perfect formulas of human speech! The most contradictory rules of interpretation have been propounded, and expositions have been made to suit the peculiar tastes and prejudices of writers or to main- tain preconceived opinions, until all scientific method has been set at nought, and each interpreter became a law unto himself. Hence the necessity of well-defined and self-consistent principles of Script- ure interpretation. Only as exegetes come to adopt common prin- ciples and m,ethods of procedure, Avill the interpretation of the Bible attain the dignity and certainty of an cstal)lished science.
The rank and importance of Biblical PIcrmeneutics among the various studies embraced in Theological Encyclopaedia ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^_ and Methodology is apparent from the fundamental re- portance of
. . IlGrinciiGiitic3
lation which it sustains to them all. For the Scripture jn Theological revelation is itself essentially the centime and substance Science, of all theological science. It contains the clearest and fullest exhi- bition of the person and character of God, and of the spiritual needs and possibilities of man. A sound and trustworthy interpretation of the scripture records, therefore, is the root and basis of all revealed theology. Without it Systematic Theology, or Dogmatics, could not b*e legitimately constructed, and would, in fact, be essentially
22 INTRODUCTION TO
impossible. For the doctrines of revelation can only be learned from a correct understanding of the oracles of God. Historical Theology, also, tracing as it does the thought and life of the Church, must needs take cognizance of the principles and methods of script- ure interpretation which have so largely controlled in the develop- ment of that thought and life. The creeds of Christendom assume to rest upon the teachings of the inspired Scriptures. Apologetics, polemics, ethics, and all that is embraced in Practical Theology, are ever making appeal to the authoritative records of the Christian faith. The great work of the Christian ministry is to preach the word ; and that most important labour cannot be effectually done without a thorough knowledge of the Scriptures and skill in the interpretation and application of the same. Personal piety and practical godliness are nourished by the study of this written word. The psalmist sings (Psa. cxix, 105, 111) :
A lamp to my foot is thy word,
And a light to my pathway.
I Iiave taken possession of thy testimonies forever,
For the joy of my heart are they.'
The Apostle Paul admonished Timothy that the Holy Scriptures were able to make him wise unto salvation through faith in Jesus Christ (2 Tim. iii, 15). And Jesus himself, interceding for his own chosen followers, prayed, " Sanctify them in the truth ; thy word is truth" (John xvii, IV). Accordingly, the Lord's ambassador must not adulterate (2 Cor. ii, 17), but rightly divide, the word of the truth (2 Tim. ii, 15). For if ever the divinely appointed ministry of reconciliation accomplish the perfecting of the saints, and the building up of the body of Christ, so as to bring all to the attain- ment of the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God (Eph. iv, 12, 13), it must be done by a coi'rect interpreta- tion and efficient use of the word of God. The interpretation and application of that word miist rest upon a sound and self -evi- dencing science of hermeneutics.
' All scripture quotations in the present work have been made by translating direct- ly from the Hebrew, Ciialdee, iind Greek originals. To have followed the Authorized Version would have necessitated a large amount of circumlocution. In many instances the citation of a text is designed to illustrate a process as well as a principle of her- meneutics. It is often desirable to bring out, either incidentally or prominently, some noticeable emphasis, and this can be done best by giving the exact order of tlie words of the original. The observance of such order in translation may sometimes violate the usage and idiom of the best English, but, in many cases, it yields the best possible translation.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 23
CHAPTER II.
THE BIBLE AND OTHER SACRED BOOKS.
It is no inconsiderable preparation for the hermeneutical study of the Bible to be able to appreciate its rank and value as compared with other sacred books. During the last half century ^^^^^ religious the learned research and diligent labour of scholars have literatures aval- made accessible to us whole literatures of nations that tlon for^heTme- were comparatively unknown before. It is discovered ^euticai study. that the ancient Egyptians, the Persians, the Hindus, the Chinese, and other nations, have had their sacred writings, some of which claim an antiquity greater than the books of Moses. There are not wanting, in Christian lands, men disposed to argue that these sacred books of the nations possess a value as great as the scriptures of the Christian faith, and are entitled to the same veneration. Such claims are not to be ignored or treated with contempt. There have been, doubtless, savage islanders who imagined that the sun rose and set for their sole benefit, and who never dreamed that the sound- ing waters about their island home were at the same time washing beautiful corals and precious pearls on other shores. Among civil- ized peoples, also, there are those who have no appreciation of lands, nations, literatures, and religions which differ from their own. This, however, is a narrowness unworthy of the Christian scholar. The truly catholic Christian will not refuse to acknowledge the manifest excellences of races or religions that differ from his own. lie will be governed in his judgments by the precept of the apostle (Phil, iv, 8) : " Whatever things are true, whatever things are worthy of honour (oeixva), whatever things are just, whatever things are pure, whatever things are lovely, whatever things are of good report, if there be any virtue and if there be any praise, think upon (Xoyl^eods, exercise reason upon) these things." The study and comparison of other scriptures will serve, among other things, to show how i^re- eminently the Christian's Bible is adapted to the spiritual nature and religious culture of all mankind.*
' " This volume," says Professor Phelps, " has never yet numbered among its re- ligious believers a fourth part of the human race, yet it has swayed a greater amount of miud than any other volume the world has known. It has the singular faculty of attracting to itself the thinkers of the world, either as friends or as foes, always and everywhere." Men and Books, p. 239. New York, 1882.
24 INTRODUCTION TO
LiTERATUKE OF THE CHRISTIAN" CaNON.
The scri^otures of the Old and New Testaments are the gradual accretion of a literature that covers about sixteen centuries. The Outline of Bib- <^ifferent parts were contributed at different times, and licai Literature \,j many different hands. According to the order of the"°christiaD books in the Christian Canon, we have, first, the five Canon. Books of Moses, Avhich embody the Ten Commandments,
with their various accessory statutes, moral, civil, and ceremonial, all set in a historical background of singular simplicity and gran- deur. Then follow twelve Historical Books, recording the history of the Israelitish nation from the death of Moses to the restoration from Babylonian exile, and covering a period of a thousand years. Next follow five Poetical Books — a drama, a psalter, two books of proverbial philosophy, and a song of love ; and after these are sev- enteen Prophetical Books, among which are some of the most mag- nificent monuments of all literature. In the New Testament we have, first, the four Gospels, which record the life and words of Jesus Christ ; then the Acts of the Apostles, a history of the origin of the Christian Church; then the thirteen Epistles of Paul, fol- lowed by the Epistle to the Hebrews, and the seven General Epis- tles; and, finally, the Apocalypse of John. Hei-e, at a rapid glance, we see an ancient library of history, law, theology, philosophy, poetry, prophecy, epistles, and biography. Most of these books still bear their author's names, some of whom we find to have been kings, some propliets, some shepherds, some fishermen. One was a taxgatherer, another a tentmaker, another a physician, but all were deeply versed in sacred things. There could have been no collusion among them, for they lived and wrote in different ages, centuries apart, and their places of residence were far separate, as Arabia, Palestine, Babylon, Persia, Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome," The antiquities and varying civilizations of these different nations and countries are imaged in these sacred books, and, where the name of an author is not known, it is not difficult to ascertain approximately, from his statements or allusions, the time and circumstances of his writing. The nation with whom these books originated, and the lands that nation occupied first and last, are so well known, and so accurately identified, as to give a living freshness and reality to
' Gelke sn vs : " Scripture proves throughout to he only so miiny notes in a divine har- mony wliicli culminates in the anfrel gonp; over Bethlehem. What less than Divine in- spiration could have evolved such unity of purpose and spirit in the long series of sacred writers, no one of whom could possil)ly ho conscious of the part he was being made to take in the development of God's ways to our race V" Hours with the IJible, vol. i, p. 5.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 35
these records; and the rich and varied contents of the several books are such as to make them of priceless value to all men and all ao-es. "I am of opinion," wrote Sir William Jones — a most competent judge on such a subject — "that this volume, independently of its divine origin, contains more true sublimity, more exquisite beauty, more pure morality, more important history, and finer strains of poetry and eloquence, than can be collected from all other books, in whatever age or language they may have been written.'" Let us now compare and contrast these scriptures with the sacred books of other nations.
The Avesta.
No body of sacred literature except the Christian Canon can be of much greater interest to the student of history than the scrip- tures of the Parsees, which are commonly called the , ,. .,
' . . . *' Antiquity and
Zend-Avesta, They contain the traditions and cere- general char- monies of the old Iranian faith, the religion of Zoro- ^^ ^^' aster, or (more propei'ly) Zarathustra. They have sadly suffered by time and the revolutions of empire, and come to us greatly mutilated and corrupted, but since they were first brought to the knowledge of the western world by the enthusiastic Frenchman, Anquetil-Duperron,^ whose adventures in the East read like a ro- mance from the Arabian Nights, the studies of European scholars have \n\t us in possession of their general scope and subject matter.' They consist of four distinct sections, the Yasna, the Vispered, the Vendidad, and a sort of separate hagiographa, commonly called Khordah-Avesta.
The main principles of the Avesta religion are thus summed up by Darmesteter : " The world, such as it is now, is two- p^p^^j^^.^^ fold, beinff the work of two hostile beings, Ahura- tem oi the Mazda, the good principle, and Angra-Mainyu, the evil principle ; all that is good in the world comes from the former, all
' Written on a blank leaf of his Bible.
^ In his work entitled, Zend-Avesta, ouvrage de Zoroastre, contenant les Idees Theo- logiques, Physiques et Morales de ce Legislateur, S vols.. Par., 1771.
^ Especially deserving of mention are Eugene Burnouf, Cominentaire sur le Yacna, 3 vols., Par., 1S33 ; Westergaard, Zendavesta, Copenh., 1852-54; Spiegel, who has published the original text, with a full critical apparatus, and also a German transla- tion, with a commentary on both the text and translation, Lpz., 1853-1 808; Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Religion of the Parsees, Bombay, 1802 ; also Die Gathas des Zarathustra, Lpz., 1858; Windischmann, Zoroastrische Studien, Berl., 1803. An English version of the Avesta from Spiegel's German version, by A. H. Bleek, was published in London, in 1804, and a better one from the original text, by J. Darmesteter, (Part I, The Vendidad, Oxf., 1880), as Vol. IV, of The Sacred Books of the East, edited by Max Miiller.
26 INTRODUCTION TO
that is bad in it comes from the latter. The history of the "world is the history of their conflict, how Angra-Mainyu invaded the world of Ahura-Mazda and marred it, and how he shall be expelled from it at last. Man is active in the conflict, his duty in it being laid before him in the law revealed by Ahura-Mazda to Zarathustra. When the appointed time is come, a son of the lawgiver, still un- born, named Saoshyant, will appear, Angra-Mainyu and Hell will be destroyed, men will rise from the dead, and everlasting happiness will reign over the world." ^ The oldest portion of the Avesta is called the Yasna, which, along with the Vispered, constitutes the Parsee Lit- urgy, and consists of praises of Ahura-Mazda, and all the lords of purity, and of invocations for them to be present at the ceremonial worship. Many of these prayers contain little more than the names and attributes of the several objects or patrons of the Zoroastrian worship, and the perusal of them soon becomes tedious. The following constitutes the whole of the twelfth chapter, and is one of the finest passages, and a favourite :
I praise the well-thought, well-spoken, well-performed thoughts, words, and works. I lay hold on all good thoughts, words, and works. I aban- don all evil thoughts, words, and works. I bring to you, O Amesha- Sjjentas," praise and adoration, with thoughts, words, and works, with heavenly mind, the vital strength of my own body.
The following, from the beginning of the thirteenth chapter, is another favourite :
I drive away the dsevas (demons), I j^rofess myself a Zarathustrian, an expeller of daevas, a follower of i\.hura, a hymn-singer of the Ameslia- Spentas, a praiser of the Amesha-Spentas. To Ahura-Mazda, the Good, endued with good wisdom, I offer all good. To the Pure, Rich, Majestic; whatever are the best goods to him, to Avhom the cow, to whom purity belongs; from whom arises the light, the brightness which is inseparable from the lights. Spenta-Armaiti, the good, choose I; may she belong to me ! By my praise will I save the cattle from theft and robbery.
The latter part of the Yasna contains the religious hymns known _ as the Gathas. They are believed to be the oldest por-
The G a. thus
tion of the Avesta, and are written in a more ancient dialect. But a considerable part of them is scarcely intelligible, all the learning and labour of scholars having thus far failed to clear up
' Darmesteter, Translation of the Avesta, Introduction, p. Ivi.
" The Amesha-Spentas, six in number, were at first mere personifications of virtues and moral or liturgical powers ; but as Ahura-Mazda, their lord and father, ruled over the whole of the world, they took by and by each a part of the world under their care. Comp, Darmesteter, p. Ixxi.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 27
the difficulties of the ancient text. The general drift of thought, however, is apparent. Praises are continually addressed to the holy powers, especially to the Holy Spirit Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd), the Creator, the Rejoicer, the Pure, the Fair, the Heavenly, the Ruler over all, the Most Profitable, the Friend for both worlds. Many a noble sentiment is uttered in these ancient hymns, but, at the same time, a much larger amount of frivolous matter.
The Vispered is but a liturgical addition to the Yasna, and of sim- ilar character. It contains twenty-seven chapters, of The vispered. which the following, from the eighth chapter, is a specimen:
The right-spoken words praise we.
The holy Sraosha praise we.
The good purity praise we.
Nairo-Sanlia praise we.
The victorious i^eaces praise we.
The undaunted, who do not come to shame, praise we.
The Fravashis (souls) of the pure praise we.
The bridge Chinvat' praise we.
The dwelling of Ahura-Mazda praise we.
The best place of the pure praise we,
Tlie shining, wholly brilliant. The best-arriving at Paradise praise we.
The Vendidad, consisting of twenty-two chapters, or fargards, is of a different character. It is a minute code of Zoro- astrian laws, most of which, how^ever, refer to matters ^" ^ '
of purification. The first fargard enumerates the countries which were created by Ahura-Mazda, and afterward corrupted by the evil principle, Angra-Mainyu, who is full of death and opposition to the good. The second introduces us to Yima, the fair, who refused to be the teacher, recorder, or bearer of the law, but became the protector and overseer of the world. Chapter third enumerates things which are most acceptable and most displeasing to the world ; and chapter fourth describes breaches of contracts and other sins, and prescribes the different degrees of punishment for each, declar- ing, among other things, that a man's nearest relatives may become involved in his 2)unishment, even to a thousandfold. Chapters fifth to twelfth treat uncleanness occasioned by contact with dead bod- ies, and the means of purification. Chapters thirteenth and four- teenth praise the dog, and heavy punishments are enjoined for those who injure the animal so important and valuable to a pastoral peo- ple. Fargards fifteenth and sixteenth give laws for the treatment of
' Over which the good are supposed to pass into Paradise.
28 INTRODUCTION TO
women, and condemn seduction and attempts to procure abortion. Fargard seventeenth gives directions concerning paring the nails and cutting the hair. The remaining five chapters contain numer- ous conversations between Ahura-Mazda and Zoroaster, and appear to be fragmentary additions to the original Vendidad.
The rest of the Parsee scriptures are comprehended under -what The Khordah- ^s commonly called the Khordah-Avesta, that is, the Avesta. small Avesta. This part contains the Yashts and Nya-
yis, prayers and praises addressed to the various deities of the Zoroastrian faith ; also the Af erin and Afrigan, praises and thanks- givings ; the Sirozah, praises to the deities of the thirty days of the month; the Gahs, prayers to the different subdivisions of the day; and the Patets, or formulai'ies of confession.
These praises and prayers of the small Avesta are intended for the use of the people, as those of the Yasna and Vispered are prin- cipally for the priests. Taken altogether, these Parsee scriptures are a prayer-book, or ritual, rather than a bible. But though they are associated with the venerable name of Zoroaster, and tradition has it that he composed two million verses, yet nothing in this vol- ume can with certainty be ascribed to him, and he himself is a dim and mythical personage. In all these writings there is a vagueness and uncertainty about subject matter, date, and authorship. Dar- mesteter says: "As the Parsees are the ruins of a j^eople, so are their sacred books the ruins of a religion. There has been no other great belief in the world that ever left such poor and meagre monu- ments of its past splendor." '
Assyrian- Sacred Records.
The cuneiform inscriptions on the monuments of the Assyrian, Vast range of Babylonian, and Persian empires have been found to cmSrm in^ embody a vast literature, embracing history, law, sci- scriptioas. encc, poctry, and religion. To the interpretation of these monumental records a number of eminent orientalists,' chiefly English and French, have been, within the last half century, devot- ing unwearied study, and many of the most interesting inscriptions have been deciphered and translated into the languages of modern Europe. At the date of the earliest monumental records, two dif- ferent races appear to have settled upon the plains of the Euphrates and Tigris, one using a Semitic, the other a Scythian or Turanian
. * Translation of the Zond.Avc?ta ; Introduction, p. xii.
" Amonj^ the most distinguished Assyriologists are Rawlinson, Ilincks, Norris, George Smith, Talbot, Saycc, Botta, Dc Saulcy, Oppert, Lenorinant, Menant, and Schrader.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 29
language. They are designated by the names Sumir and Akkad, but what particular sections of the country each inhabited, or which particular language -each spoke, does not appear.' They were, probably, much intermixed, as many of their cities bear both Sem- itic and Scythian names. " The Accadians," says Sayce, " were the inventors of the cuneiform system of writing, and the earliest pop- ulation of Babylonia of whom we know. They spoke an aggluti- native language, allied to Finnic or Tartar, and had originally come from the mountainous country to the southwest of the Caspian. The name Accada signifies ' highlander,' and the name of Accad is met with in the tenth chapter of Genesis."' The successive Assyr- ian, Babylonian, and Persian conquerors adopted the Accadian sys- tem of writing, and it became variously modified by each.
The inscriptions thus far deciphered are mostly fragmentary, and the study of them has not yet been carried far enough
. Inscriptions dG*
to furnish a full account of all the tribes and languages ciphered most- they represent. But enough has already been placed lyfi^affmentary. within the reach of English readers to show that those ancient peo- ples had an extensive sacred literature. Their prayers and hymns and laws were graven on monumental tablets, often on the high rocks, and they are worthy to be compared "with the sacred books of other lands and nations.'
The royal inscriptions on these monuments are noticeable for their religious character. Thousrh full of most pompous self ,. .
^ . ° ^ ^ Religious tone
assertion they abound with devout acknowledgments, of «ie myai in- showinsT that those ancient monarchs never hesitated to ^'''"'P^'^"^- confess their dependence on the jDOwers above. Witness the fol- lowing inscription of Khammurabi, who ruled in Babylonia some centuries before the time of Moses :
Khammurabi the exalted king, the king of Babylon, the king renowned throughout the world; conqueror of the enemies of Marduk; the king be- loved l)y his heart am T.
' " The Turanian people," says George Smith, " who appear to have been the origi- nal inhabitants of the country, invented the cuneiform mode of writing ; all the earli- est inscriptions are in that language, but the proper names of most of the kings and principal persons are written in Semitic, in direct contrast to the body of the inscrip- tions. The Semites appear to have conquered the Turanians, although they had not yet imposed their language on the country." Records of the Past, vol. iii, p. 3.
'^ Preface to his translation of a Tablet of Ancient Accadian Laws, Records of the Past, vol. iii, p. 21.
* A very convenient and valuable collection of these inscriptions, translated into English by leading oriental scholars, is published by Bagster & Sons, of Loudon, un- der the title of Records of the Past (12 volumes, 18v5-1881). Every alternate volume of the series contains translations from the Egyptian monuments.
30 INTRODUCTION TO
The favour of god and Bel the people of Sumir and Accad gave unto my government. Their celestial weapons unto my hand they gave.
The canal Khammurabi, the joy of men, a stream of abundant waters, for the people of Sumir and Accad, I excavated. Its banks, all of tliem, I restored to newness; new supporting walls I heaped up; perennial waters for the people of Sumir and Accad I provided.
The people of Sumir and Accad, all of them, in general assemblies I as- semljled. A review and inspection of them I ordained every year. In joy and abundance I watched over them, and in peaceful dwellings I caused them to dwell.
By the divine favour I am Khammurabi the exalted king, the worshipper of the Supreme deity.
Witli the prosperous power which Marduk gave me I built a lofty cita- del, on a high mound of earth, whose summits rose up like mountains, on tlie banks of Khammurabi river, the joy of men.
To that citadel I gave the name of the mother who bore me and the father who begat me. In the holy name of Ri, the mother who bore me, and of the father who begat me, during long ages may it last I '
Similar devout acknowledgments are found in nearly all the royal annals. Sargon's great inscription on the palace of Khorsabad declares :
The gods Assur, Nebo, and Merodach have conferred on me the royalty of the nations, and they have propagated the memory of my fortunate name to the ends of the earth. . . . The great gods have made me happy by tlie constancy of their affection, they have granted me the exercise of my sovereignty over all kings. ^
Other tablets contain a great variety of compositions. There are SDecimens of ^mythological stories, fables, proverbs, laws, contracts, psalms and deeds of sale, lists of omens and charms, legends of prajers. deities and spirits, and speculations in astrology. Not
the least interesting among these records are the old Accadian and Assyrian hymns. Some of these remind us of the hymns of the Rig-Yeda. Some have the tone of penitential psalms. The fol- lowing is one of the best examples :
0 my Lord I my sins are many, my trespasses are great; And the wrath of the gods has plagued me with disease, And with sickness and sorrow.
1 fainted, but no one stretched forth his hand; I groaned, but no one drew nigh ;
I cried aloud, but no one heard.
' Translation by H. F. Talbot, Records of the Past, vol. i, pp. 7, 8. "^ Records of the Past, vol. ix, p. 3.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 31
O Lord ! do not abandon thy servant.
In the waters of the great stoi'm seize his hand.
The sins which he has committed, turn thou to righteousness.*
The following prayer for a king is interesting both as an ex- ample of Assyrian sacred poetry, and as evidence of a belief in immortality :
Length of days,
Long- lasting years,
A strong sword,
A long life,
Extended years of glory,
Pre-eminence among kings.
Grant ye to the king, my lord,
"Who has given such gifts to his gods I
The bounds vast and wide
Of his empire and of his rule
May he enlarge and may he complete.
Holding over all kings supremacy.
And royalty and empire,
May he attain to gray hairs and old age ;
And after the life of these days,
In the feasts of the silver mountain,''
The heavenly courts.
The abode of blessedness,
And in the light of the Happy Fields,
May he dwell a life eternal, holy,
lu the presence of the gods
Who inhabit Assyria.^
The following Chaldean account of the Creation is a translation, by H. F. Talbot, of the first and fifth Creation Tablets, chaWean ac- vfhich are preserved, though in a mutilated condition, ^0^° g,^^ ^^^^' in the British Museum :
From the First Tablet. When the upper region was not yet called heaven, And the lower region was not yet called earth, And the abyss of Hades had not yet opened its arms, Then the chaos of waters gave birth to all of them. And the waters were gathered into one place. No men yet dwelt together; no animals yet wandered about;
' Records of the Past, vol. ill, p. 136.
' The Assyrian Olympus. The epithet silver was doubtless suggested by some snowy inaccessible peak, the supposed dwelling-place of the gods. ^ Translated by Talbot, Records of the Past, vol. iii, pp. 133, 134.
32 ' INTRODUCTION TO
None of the gods had yet been born,
Their names were not spoken ; their attributes were not known.
Then tlie eldest of the gods,
Lakhmu and Lakhanm were born,
And o-rew up. . . . '
Assur and Kissur were born next,
And lived througli long periods.
Auu. . . . ^
From the Fifth Tablet.
He constructed dwellings for the great gods.
He fixed up constellations, whose figures were like animals.
He made the year. Into four quarters he divided it.
Twelve months he established, with their constellations, three by
three. And for days of the year he appointed festivals. He made dwellings for the planets; for their rising and setting. And that nothing should go amiss, and tliat the course of none should
Ije retarded, He placed with them the dwellings of Bel and Hea. He opened great gates on every side;
He made strong the portals, on the left hand and on the right. In the centre he placed luminaries. The moon he appointed to rule the night. And to wander tlirough the night, until the dawn of day. Every month without fail lie made holy assembly days. In the beginning of the month, at the rising of the uiglit, It shot forth its liorns to illuminate the heavens. On the seventli day he appointed a holy day, And to cease from all business lie commanded. Then arose the sun in the horizon of heaven in (glory).*
The mention here made of the seventh day as a holy day is iin- portant to the biblical theologian. " It has been known for some time," says Talbot, "that the Babylonians observed the Sabbath with considerable strictness. On that day the king was not allowed to take a drive in his chariot ; various meats were forbidden to be eaten, and there were a number of other minute restrictions. But it was not known that they believed the Sabbath to have been or- dained at the Creation. I have found, however, since this transla- tion of the fifth tablet was completed, that Mr. Sayce has recently published a similar ouinion."
' Lacuna;. "■ Tlic rest of this tablet is lost.
'Records of the Past, vol. ix, pp. 117, US. Compare the translation and comments of George Smith, Chalda;an Account of Genesis. New York, 1870. New Edition, revised, 1880.
BIBLICAL HERMETs^EUTICS. 33
The following Accadian poem is supposed to be an ancient tradi- tion of the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah. Mr. .
... Accadian le-
Sayce, whose translation is here given, observes that gend of sodom
"it seems merely a fragment of a legend, in which '^^'^^^o^orrah. the names of the cities were probably given, r.nd an explanation afforded of the mysterious personage, who, like Lot, appears to have escaped destruction. It must not be forgotten that the cam- paign of Chedorlaomer and his allies was directed against Sodom and the other cities of the j^lain, so that the existence of the legend among the Accadians is not so surprising as might ajDpear at first sight."
An overthrow from the midst of the deep there came.
The fated punishment from the midst of heaven descended.
A storm like a plummet the earth (overwhelmed).
To the four winds the destroying flood like fire did burn.
The inhabitants of the cities it had caused to be tormented ; their bodies
it consumed. In city and country it spread death, and the flames as they rose overthrew. Freeman and slave were equal, and the high places it filled. In heaven and earth like a thunder-storm it had rained; a prey it made. A place of refuge the gods hastened to, and in a throng collected. Its mighty (onset) they fled from, and like a garment it concealed (mankind). They (feared), and death (overtook them).
(Their) feet and hands (it embraced). *
Their body it consumed.
... ' the city, its foundation, it defiled.
... Mn breath, his mouth he filled. As for this man, a loud voice was raised; the mighty lightning flash de- scended. During the day it flashed ; grievously (it fell).'
«
Similar to the above in general tone and character are the cune- iform accounts of the Deluge and the Tower of Babel. They are especially valuable in showing how the traditions of most ancient events were preserved among the scattered nations, and became modified in the course of ages. Notably inferior are these poetic legends to the calm and stately narratives of the book of Genesis, but they are, nevertheless, to be greatly prized. Were Assyriolo- gists to gather up, classify, and ai'range in proper order the relig- ious records of ancient Assyria and Babylonia, it would be seen that these hoary annals and hymns of departed nations furnish a sacred literature second in interest and value to none of the bibles of the Gentiles.
•Lacunae. * Records of the Past, vol. xi, pp. 115-118.
34 INTRODUCTION TO
The Veda.
The word Veda means knowledge, and is the Sanskrit equivalent
of the Greek olda, I hnoio. It is often used to denote the entire
body of Hindu sacred literature, which, according to the Brahmans,
contains pre-eminently the knowledge which is important and wor-
, ^ thv to be known. But the Vedas proper exist chiefly
General char- •' . . .
acter of the in the form ot lyrical poetrj^ and consist of four dis- Vedas. tinct Collections known as the Rig- Veda, the Sama-
Veda, the Yajur-Veda, and the Atharva-Veda. These hymns are called Mantras, as distinguished from the prose annotations and disquisitions (Brahmanas), which were subsequently added to them. They are written in a dialect much older than the classical San- skrit, and are allowed on all hands to be among the most ancient and important monuments of literature extant in any nation or language. The four collections differ much, however, in age and value. The Rig- Veda is the oldest and most important, and con- sists of one thousand and twenty-eight hymns. Nearly half the hymns are addressed to either Indra, the god of light, or Agni, the god of fire. According to Professor Whitney, it " is doubtless a historical collection, prompted by a desire to treasure up comj)lete, and preserve from further corruption, those ancient and insj^ired songs which the Indian nation had brought with them, as their most precious possession, from the earlier seats of the race." ' The Sama-Veda is a liturgical collection, consisting largely of hj'nins from the Ilig-Veda, but arranged for ritual purposes. The Yajur- Veda is of a similar character, and consists of various formulas in prose and verse arranged for use at sacrificial services. The Atharva-Veda is the work o-f a later period, and never attained in India a rank equal to that of the other Vedas. In fact, says JMax -,..,, , Milller, "for tracing the earliest growth of religious
Max Muller s . . . * . '^ ^
views of the ideas ill India, the only important, the only real Veda, Rig-Veda. .g ^i^g Rig- Veda. The other so-called Vedas, which deserve the name of Veda no more than the Talmud deserves the name of Bible, contain chiefly extracts from the Rig-Veda, together with sacrificial formulas, charms, and incantations, many of them, no doubt, extremely curious, but never likely to interest any one except the Sanskrit scholar by profession," *
The same distinguished scholar elsewhere obser\'es: "The Veda has a twofold interest ; it belongs to the history of the world and
' Oriental ami Linguistic Studios, p. 13. New York, 1873. ' Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i, p. 8.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 36
to the history of India, In the history of the world the Veda fills a gap which no literary work in any other language could fill. It carries us back to times of which we have no records anywhere, and gives us the very words of a generation of men of whom other- wise we could form but the vaguest estimate by means of conjec- tures and inferences. As long as man continues to take an interest in the history of his race, and as long as we collect in libraries and museums the relics of former ages, the first place in that long row of books which contains the records of the Aryan branch of man- kind will belong forever to the Rig- Veda." '
Confining our observations, therefore, to the Rig- Veda, we note
that it is in substance a vast book of psalms. Its one
^1 3 J ^ ^ • 1 1 . / ; ^ . . The RlR-Veda
thousand and twenty-eight lyrics {suktas), of various a vast book of
length, are divided into ten books {mandalas, circles), p^^^I'^^- and together constitute a work about eight times larger than the one hundred and fifty Psalms of the Old Testament. The first book is composed of one hundred and ninety-one hymns, ^vliich are ascribed to some fifteen different authors {rlshis). The second book contains forty-three hymns, all of which are attributed to Gritsamada and his family. The next five books are also ascribed each to a single author or his family, and vary in the number of their hymns from sixty-two to one hundred and four. The eighth book has ninety-two hymns, attributed to a great nura- variety of vm- ber of different authors, a majority of whom are of the *^^^^- race of Kanva. The ninth book is also ascribed to various authors, and has one hundred and fourteen hymns, all of which are addressed to Soma as a god. "The name Soma," says Grassmann, "is derived from a root, su, which originally meant 'to beget,' 'to produce,' but in the Rig- Veda is a2:)plied altogether to the extracting and pressing of the plant used for the preparation of soma, and the soma itself therefore meant originally the juice obtained by this procedure,'"' The tenth book, like the first, contains one hundred and ninety-one hymns ; but they wear a different style, breathe a different spirit, and appear to belong to a much later period. " We find," says Grassmann, " in this, as in the first book, songs belong- ing to the springtime of vedic poesy, but also songs belonging to a time not very remote, as the time of the most recent period of vedic lyrics, such as presents itself to us in the Atharva-Veda." ^
1 History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Second Edition, p. 63. Lond., 18C0.
"^ Grassmann's Rig-Veda. Metrical Version in German, with Critical and Explan- atory Annotations (2 vols. Lpz., 1876, 1877). Preface to Ninth Book, vol. iif p. 183.
3 Rig- Veda. Preface to Tenth Book, vol. ii, p. 288.
36 INTRODUCTION TO
Our limits will allow its to present only a few specimens, but Specimens of these will suffice to show the general character and vedic Hymns, g^-yje of the best Rig-Veda hymns. The following is Max Miiller's translation of the fifty-third hymn of the first book, and is addressed to Indra :
1. Keep silence well! we oflfer praises to the great Indra in the house of the saciificer. Does he find treasure for those who are like sleepers? Mean praise is not valued among the munificent.
2. Thou art the giver of horses, Indra, thou art the giver of cows, the giver of corn, the strong lord of wealth; the old guide of man, disappoint- ing no desires, a friend to friends: — to him we address this song.
3. O powerful Indra, achiever of many works, most brilliant god — all this wealth around here is known to be thine alone : take from it, conqueror, bring it hither 1 do not stint the desire of the worshipper who longs for thee !
4. On these days thou art gracious, and on these nights, keeping off the enemy from our cows and from our stud. Tearing the fiend night after night with the help of Indra, let us rejoice in food, freed from haters.
5. Let us rejoice, Indra, in treasure and food, in wealth of manifold de- light and splendor. Let us rejoice in the blessing of the gods, wliich gives us the strength of offspring, gives us cows first and horses.
6. These draughts inspired thee, O lord of the brave ! these were vigour, these libations, in battles, when for the sake of the poet, the sacrificer, thou struckest down irresistibly ten thousands of enemies.
7. From battle to battle thou advancest bravely, from town to town thou destroyest all this with might, when thou, Indra, with Nami as thy friend, struckest down from afar the deceiver Namuki.
8. Thou hast slain Karnaga and Parnaya with the brightest spear of Atithigva. Without a helper thou didst demolish the hundred cities of Vangrida, which were besieged by Rigisvan.
9. Thou hast felled down with the chariot- wheel these twenty kings of men, who had attacked the friendless Susravas, and gloriously the sixty thousand and ninety-nine forts.
10. Thou, Indra, hast succoured Susravas with thy succours, Turvayana with thy protections. Thou hast made Kutsa, Atithigva, and Ayu subject to tliis mighty youthful king.
11. "We who in future, protected by the gods, wish to be thy most blessed friends, we shall praise thee, blessed by thee with offspring, and enjoying henceforth a longer life.'
The following is a translation, by W. D. Whitney, of the eight- eenth hymn of the tenth book. It furnishes a vivid portraiture of the proceedings of an ancient Hindu burial, and holds even at the present day an important place among the funeral ceremonies of the Hindus. The officiating priest thus speaks :
' Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i, pp. 30-33.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 37
1. Go forth, O Death, upon a distant pathway,
one that's thine own, not that the jifods do travel; I speak to thee who eyes and ears possessest ;
harm not our children, harm thou not our heroes.
2. Ye who death's foot have clogged' ere ye came hither,
your life and vigour longer yet retaining, Sating yourselves with progeny and riches,
clean be ye now, and purified, ye oflFerers !
3. These have come here, not of the dead, but living;
our worship of the gods hath been propitious; We've onward gone to dancing and to laughter,
our life and vigour longer yet retaining.*
4. This fix I as protection for the living; ^
may none of them depart on that same errand ; Long may they live, a hundred numerous autumns,
'twixt death and them a mountain interposing.
5. As day succeeds to day in endless series,
as seasons happily move on with seasons, As each that passes lacks not its successor,
so do thou make their lives move on, Creator I
6. Ascend to life, old age your portion making,
each after each, advancing in due order;* May Twashter, skilful fashioner, propitious,
cause that you here enjoy a long existence.
7. These women here, not widows, blessed with husbands,
may deck themselves with ointment and with perfume; Unstained by tears, adorned, untouched with sorrow, the wives may first ascend unto the altar.
8. Go up unto the world of life, O woman !
thou liest by one whose soul is fled ; come hither 1 To him who grasps thy hand,^ a second husband,
thou art as wife to spouse become related.
' Allusion to the custom of attaching a clog to the foot of the corpse, as if thereby to secure the attendants at the burial from harm.
2 The friends of the deceased seem to have no idea of soon sharing his fate ; they desire to banish the thought of death.
2 The officiating priest drew a circle and set a stone between it and the grave, to symbolize the barrier which he would fain establish between the living and the dead.
* Addressed to the attendants, who hereupon left their places about the bier, and went up into the circle marked off for the living. First the men went up, then the wives, and finally the widow.
' The person who led the widow away was usually a brother-in-law, or a foster child.
38 INTRODUCTION TO
9. The bow from out the dead man's hand now taking/
that ours may be the glory, honour, prowess — Mayest thou there, we liere, rich in retainers,
vanquish our foes and them that plot against us.
10. Approach thou now the lap of earth, tliy mother,
the wide-extending earth, the ever-kindly ; A maiden soft as wool to him who comes with gifts,
she shall protect thee from destruction's bosom.
11. Open thyself, O earth, and press not heavily;
1^ easy of access and of approach to him ; As mother with her robe her child,
so do thou cover him, O earth !
13. May earth maintain herself thus opened v/ide for him;
a thousand props shall give support about him; And may those mansions ever drip with fatness;
may they be there for evermore his refuge.
13. Fortl) from about thee thus I build away the ground;
as I lay down this clod may I receive no harm; This pillar may the Fathers here maintain for thee ;
may Yama there provide for thee a dwelling.
We add a single specimen more, a metrical version of the one handred and twenty-ninth hymn of the tenth book, which is espe- cially interesting as being full of profound speculation. "In judg- ing it," says Max Miiller, " we should bear in mind that it was not written by a gnostic or by a pantheistic philosopher, but by a poet who felt all these doubts and problems as his own, without any wish to convince or to startle, only uttering what had been weigh- ing on his mind, just as later poets would sing the doubts and sor- rows of their heart."
Nor Aught nor Naught existed; yon bright sky
Was not. nor heaven's broad woof outstretched above.
What covered all? what sheltered? what concealed?
Was it the water's fathomless abyss?
Tiiere was not death — yet was there naught immortal,
There was no confine betwixt day and night;
* TJp to the moment of interment a bow was carried in the hand of the deceased. This was at last taken away to signify that his life-work was now done, and to others remained the plory of conquests. Tlie body was then tenderly committed to the earth. Compare Whitney's annotation.s on this hymn, and hi.s essay on the Vedic Doctrine of a Future Life in the Bibliotheca Sacra for April, 1859, and also in his Oriental and Linguistic Studies, pp. 46-63. New York, 1873.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 39
The only One breathed breathless by itself, Other than It there nothing since has been. Darkness there was, and all at first was veiled In gloom profound — an ocean without light — The germ that still lay covered in the husk Burst forth, one nature, from the fervent heat. Then first came love upon it, the new spring Of mind — yea, poets in their hearts discerned, Pondering, this bond between created things And uncreated. Comes this spark from earth Piercing and all-pervading, or from heaven? Then seeds were sown, and mighty powers arose — Nature below, and power and will above — Who knows the secret? who proclaimed it here, Wlience, whence this manifold creation sprang? The gods themselves came later into being — Who knows from whence this great cre;ition sprang? He from whom all this great creation came, Whether his will created or was mute, The Most High Seer that is in highest heaven. He knows it — or perchance even He knows not.'
Every discerning reader must note the polytheistic teachings of the Veda. Mr. Hardwick calls attention to this in the following remarks: "If we lay aside expressions in the vedic hymns which have occasionally transferred the attributes of power ^^ ^^^^^ and omnipresence to some one elemental deity, as In- mainly poiy- dra, for example, and by so doing intimated that, even ^^^i^tic. in the depths of nature- worship, intuitions pointing to one great and all-embracing Spirit could not be extinguished, there are scarcely a dozen 'mantras' in the whole collection where the unity of God is stated with an adequate amount of firmness and consistency. The great mass of those productions either invoke the aid, or deprecate the wrath of multitudinous deities, who elsewhere are regarded as no more than finite emanations from the 'lord of the creatures;' and therefore in the sacred books themselves polytheism was the feature ever prominent, and, what is more remarkable, was never openly repudiated." *
' Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i, pp. '76, 77.
* Christ and other Masters, p. 184. Compare Introduction to the several volumes of Wilson's Translation of the Rig- Veda, and Colebrook's Essay on the Vedas, first published in the Asiatic Researches, and later in his collected works. Lond., 1873. On the translation and interpretation of the Veda, see Muir, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Lond., 1866), and Whitney, in the North American Review (1868); also in his Oriental and Linguistic Studies, pp. 100-132.
40 INTRODUCTION TO
The Buddhist CANOif.
Buddhism in India was a revolt from Brahmanism. Its founder Life and influ- Avas Sakya-muni, sometimes called Gautama, being of
ence of sakya- ^j^g family of the Sakyas, and the clan of the Gautamas,
auni, or Bud- •' , . "^ .
dha. and belonging by birth to the warrior class (Kshatriya).
Stripping the story of his life of the numerous fables and supersti- tious legends of later times, it would appear that this distinguished child of the Sakyas grew up a beautiful and accomplished youth, but took no interest in the common amusements of the young, and gave himself much to solitude and meditation. The problems of life and death and human suffering absorbed his inmost being. He at length forsook parents and wife and home, and, after years of study, penances, and austere self-denial, attained the conviction that he must go forth among men as an Enlightener and Reformer. Max Miiller says : " After long meditations and ecstatic visions, he at last imagined that he had arrived at that true knowledge which discloses the cause and thereby destroys the fear of all the changes inherent in life. It was from the moment when he arrived at this knowledge that he claimed the name of Buddha, the Enlightened. At that moment we may truly say that the fate of millions of mill- ions of human beings trembled in the balance. Buddha hesitated for a time whether he should keep his knowledge to himself, or communicate it to the world. Compassion for the sufferings of man prevailed, and the young prince became the founder of a religion which, after more than 2000 years, is still professed by 455,000,000 of human beings." '
Sakya-muni's life, according to the best authorities, extended Buddha a Re- over the latter part of the sixth and the first half of the former. fifth century before Christ. He broke with Brahman-
ism from the first, and pronounced himself against the Vedas, the system of caste, and sacrifices. How far Kapila's system of the Sankhya philosophy may have been a preparation for Buddhism is a question,'' but that Buddha became a mighty reformer, and that his system almost succeeded for a time in overthro\Wng Brahmanism in India, are matters of history. " The human mind in Asia," observes J. F. Clarke, "went through the same course of experience after- ward repeated in Europe. It protested, in the interest of humanity, against the oppression of a priestly caste. Brahmanism, like the Church of Rome, established a system of sacramental salvation in
' Essay on Buddhism, in Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i, p. 211. ^ Comp. Hard wick, Christ and other Masters, pp. 147-169 ; and Miillcr's Chips from a German Workshop, vol. i, pp. 222-226,
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 41
the hands of a sacred order. Buddhism, like Protestantism, re- volted, and established a doctrine of individual salvation based on personal character. Brahmanism, like the Church of Rome teaches an exclusive spiritualism, glorifying penances and martyrdom and considers the body the enemy of the soul. But Buddhism and Protestantism accept nature and its laws, and make a relioion of humanity as well as of devotion. To such broad statements numer- ous exceptions may doubtless be always found, but these are the large lines of distinction." '
The sacred . scriptures of Buddhism are commonly called the Tripitaka, which means the " three baskets," or three compilation of collections of religious documents. Buddha, like Jesus, t^e Tripitaka. left no written statement of his teachings ; but very soon after his death, accordmg to tradition, a great council was called (about B. C. 477), at whioh the sayings of the great master were written down with care, A hundi-ed years later another council assembled, to consider and correct certain deviations from the original faith. But it was probably not until a third council, convened by King Asoka about B. C. 242, that the Buddhist canon in its present form was completed.'' At that great council King Asoka, "the Indian Constantino," admonished the members of the assembly "that what had been said by Buddha, that alone was well said;" and at the same time he provided for the projDagation of Buddhism by mis- sionary enterprise. And it is worthy of note that, as Christianity originated among the Jews, but has had its chief triumphs among the Gentiles, so Buddhism ox'iginated among the Hindus, but has won most of its adherents among other tribes and nations.
The Tripitaka, as we now possess it, consists of the Vinaya- Pitaka, devoted to ethics and discipline; the Sutra- ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ Pitaka, containing the Sutras, or discourses of Buddha; magnitude of and the Abhidharma-Pitaka, which treats of dogmatical "'*^ Tripitaka. philosophy and metaphysics.' The entire collection constitutes an immense body of literature, rivaling in magnitude all that was ever included under the title of Yeda. It is said to contain 29,368,000 letters, or more than seven times the number contained in our Eng- lish Bible. The Tibetan edition of the Tripitaka fills about three hundred and twenty-five folio volumes. The mere titles of the divisions, sub-divisions, and chapters of this Buddhist canon would cover several pages. The greater portion of this immense litera-
J Ten Great Religions, pp. 142, 143. Boston, 1871.
* See Oldenberg's Introduction to the Vinaya-Pitaka, and Miiller's Introduction to the Dhammapada, in vol. x, of Sacred Books of the East.
^ Comp. Chapter xviir of Spence Hardy, Eastern Monachism. Lond., 1850.
43 INTRODUCTION TO
ture, in its most ancient texts, exists as yet only in manuscript. But as Buddhism spread and triumphed mightily in southern and eastern Asia, its sacred books have been translated into Pali, Bur- mese, Siamese, Tibetan, Chinese, and other Asiatic tongues. In fact, every important nation or tribe, which has adopted Buddhism, appears to have a more or less complete Buddhist literature of its own, and the names of the different books and treatises vary accord- in ^t to the lanwuaffes in which they are extant.' Amid the multi- plicity of texts and versions it is impossible now to point with con- fidence to any authoritative original ; but the form of the canon as it exists among the Southern Buddhists, and especially in the Pali texts, is esteemed most highly by scholars.
The fundamental doctrines of Buddhism are few and simple, and, ^. . , ^ in substance, may be briefly stated as consisting of the
Principal doe- ' j J ■ /-^
trines of Bud- Four Verities, the Eightfold Path, and the Five Com- dhism. mandments. The Four sublime Verities are, (1) All ex-
istence, being subject to change and decay, is evil. (2) The source of all this evil and consequent sorrow is desire. (3) Desire and the evil which follows it may be made to cease, (i) There is a fixed and certain way by which to attain exemption from all evil. The Eightfold Path consists of (1) Right Belief, (2) Right Judgment, (3) Right Utterance, (4) Right Motives, (5) Right Occupation, (6) Right Obedience, (7) Right Memory, and (8) Right Meditation. The Five Commandments are, (1) Do not kill; (2) Do not steal; (3) Do not lie; (4) Do not become intoxicated; (5) Do not commit adultery. There are also five other well-known precepts, which have not, however, the grade of the commandments, namely, (1) Do not take solid food after noon; (2) Do not visit scenes of amuse- ment; (3) Do not use ornaments or perfumery in dress; (4) Do not use luxurious beds; (5) Do not accept gold or silver.'* Specimens of Bud- T'^© following passage from the first chapter of the dha-s discourses. Maha-Parinibbana-Sutta, one of the subdivisions of the Sutra-Pitaka, is a specimen of the discourses of Buddha :
And tlie Blessed One arose, and went to the Service Hall ; and when he was seated, he addressed the bretliren, and said :
"I will teach you, O mendicants, seven conditions of the welfare of a community. Listen well and attend, and I will speak."
1 Thus the Sanskrit name Tripitaka becomes Tipltaka and Pitakattaya in Pali, and Tun- pitaka in Singhalese. Buddhism itself becomes Foism in China, and Lamaism in Thibet.
- For an extensive presentation of tlie doctrines and usages of Ruddliism, see Spence Uardy, Eastern Monachisni ; also liis Manual of Buddhism, New Edition, Lond., 1880. Edwin Arnold has beautifully expressed in poetical form the leading doctrines of Buddha, in the eiglith book of his Light of Asia. ,
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 43
"Even so, Lord," said the Brethren, in assent, to the Blessed One; and he spake as follows :
" So long, O mendicants, as the brethren meet together in full and fre- quent assemblies — so long as they meet together in concord, and rise in concord, and carry out in concord the duties of the order — so long as the brethren shall establish nothing that has not been already prescribed, and abrogate nothing that has been already established, and act in accordance with the rules of the order us now laid down — so long as the brethren hon- our and esteem and revere and support the elders of experience and long standing, the fathers and leaders of the order, and hold it a point of duty to hearken to their words — so long as the brethren fall not under the influ- ence of that craving which, springing up within them, would give lise to renewed existence— so long as the brethren delight in a life of solitude— so long as the brethren so train their minds that good and holy men shall come to them, and those who have come shall dw^ell at ease — so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper.
"So long as these seven conditions shall continue to exist among the brethren, so long as they are -well instructed in these conditions, so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper."
" Other seven conditions of welfare will I teach you, O brethren. Listen well, and attend, and I will speak."
And on their expressing their assent, he spake as follows:
'' So long as the brethren shall not engage in, or be fond of, or be con- nected with business — so long as the brethren shall not be in the habit of, or be fond of, or be partakers in idle talk — so long as the brethren shall not be addicted to, or be fond of, or indulge in slothf ulness — so long as the brethren shall not frequent, or be fond of, or indulge in society— so long as the brethren shall neither have, nor fall under the influence of, sinful desires — so long as the brethren shall not become the friends, companions, or intimates of sinners — so long as the brethren shall not come to a stop on their way [to Nirvana] because they have attained to any lesser thing— so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper.
'•So long as these conditions shall continue to exist among the brethren, so long as they are instructed in these conditions, so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper."
" Other seven conditions of welfare will I teach you, 0 brethren. Listen w-ell, and attend, and I will speak."
And on their expressing their assent, he spake as follows:
" So long as the brethren shall be full of faith, modest in heart, afraid of sin, full of learning, strong in energy, active in mind, and full of wis- dom, so long may the bretliren be expected not to decline, but to prosper,
" So long as these conditions shall continue to exist among the brethren, so long as they are instructed in these conditions, so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper."
" Other seven conditions of welfare will I teach you, O brethren. Listen well, and attend, and I will speak."
And on their expressing their assent, he spake as follows:
" So long as the brethren shall exercise themselves in the sevenfold higher
44 INTRODUCTION TO
■wisdom, that is to say, in mental activity, search after truth, energy, joy, peace, earnest contemplation, and equanimity of mind, so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper.
" So long as these conditions shall continue to exist among the brethren, so long as they are instructed in these conditions, so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper."
" Other seven conditions of welfare will I teach you, O brethren. Listen well, and attend, and I will speak."
And on their expressing their assent, he spake as follows :
*'So lono- as the brethren shall exercise themselves in the sevenfold per- ception due to earnest thought, that is to say, the perception of iraperma- nency, of non-individuality, of corruption, of the danger of sin, of sanctifica- tion, of purity of heart, of Nirvana, so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper.
" So long as these conditions shall continue to exist among the brethren, so long as they are instructed in these conditions, so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper."
" Six conditions of welfare will I teach you, O brethren. Listen well, and attend, and I will speak."
And on their expressing their assent, he spake as follows:
*' So long as the brethren shall persevere in kindness of action, speech, and thought among the saints, both in public and in private — so long as they shall divide without partiality, and share in common with the up- right and the holy, all such things as they receive in accordance with the just provisions of the order, down even to the mere contents of a begging bowl — so long as the brethren shall live among the saints in the practice, both in public and in private, of those virtues which (unbroken, intact, un- spotted, unblemished) are productive of freedom, and praised by the wise; which are untarnished by the desire of future life, or by the belief in the efficacy of outward acts; and which are conducive to high and holy thoughts — so long as the brethren shall live among the saints, cherishing, botli in public and in private, that noble and saving faith wliich leads to the complete destruction of the sorrow of him who acts according to it — so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to prosper.
"So long as these six conditions shall continue to exist among the brethren, so long as they are instructed in these six conditions, so long may the brethren be expected not to decline, but to jirosper."
And while the Blessed One stayed there at Ragagaha on the Vulture's Peak he held that comprehensive religious talk with tlie brethren on the nature of upright conduct, and of earnest contemplation, and of intelli- gence. "Great is the fruit, great the advantage of earnest contemplation when set round with upright conduct. Great is the fruit, great the advan- tage of intellect wlien set round with earnest contemplation. Tlie mind set round with intelligence is freed from the great evils, that is to say, from sensuality, from individuality, from delusion, and from ignorance."*
' Biuklhist Suttas, translated from Pali, by T. W. Rhys Davids, pp. 6-11, vol. xi, of Sacred Books of the Eiist. Oxford, 1881.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 45
The following is the twentieth chapter of the Dhammapada, an- other subdivision of the Sutra-Pitaka :
The best of ways is the eightfold ; the best of truths the four words ; tho best of virtues passionlessness ; the best of men he who has eyes to see.
This is the way. there is no other that leads to the purifying of intelli- gence. Go on this way I Everything else is the deceit of Mara (the tempter).
If you go on this way, you will make an end of pain! The way was preached by me, when I had understood the removal of the thorns (in the flesh).
You yourself must make an effort. The Tathagatas (Buddhas) are only preachers. The thoughtful who enter the way are freed from the bondage of Mara.
"All created things perish," he who knows and sees this becomes passive in pain ; this is the way to purity.
"All created things are grief and pain," he who knows and sees this be- comes passive in pain ; this is the way that leads to purity.
"All forms are unreal," he who knows and sees this becomes passive in pain; this is the way that leads to purity.
He who does not rouse himself when it is time to rise, who, though young and strong, is full of sloth, whose will and thought are weak, that lazy and idle man will never find the way to knowledge.
Watching his speech, well restrained in mind, let a man never commit any wrong with his body! Let a man keep these three roads of action clear, and he will achieve the way which is taught by the wise.
Through zeal knowledge is gotten, through lack of zeal knowledge is lost; let a man who knows this double path of gain and loss thus place himself that knowledge may grow.
Cut down the whole forest (of lust), not a tree only! Danger comes out of the forest (of lust). When you have cut down both the forest (of lust) and its undergrowth, then, Bhikshus, you will be rid of the forest and free!
So long as the love of man toward women, even the smallest, is not de- stroyed, so long is his mind in bondage, as the calf that drinks milk is to its mother.
Cut out the love of self, like an autumn lotus, with thy hand ! Cherish the road of peace. Nirvana has been shown by Sugata (Buddha).
"Here I shall dwell in the rain, here in winter and summer," thus the fool meditates, and does not think of his death.
Death comes and carries off that man, praised for his children and flocks, his mind distracted, as a flood carries off' a sleeping village.
Sons are no help, nor a father, nor relations; there is no help from kins- folk for one whom death has seized.
A wise and good man who knows the meaning of this, should quickly clear the way that leads to Nirvana.*
' The Dhammapada, translated by F. Max Miiller, pp. 67-69, vol. x, of Sacred Books of the East. Oxford, 1881. Published also along with Rogers' translation of Buddha- ghosha's Parables (Lond., 1870), and Miiller'a Lectures on the Science of Religion. New York, 1872.
46 INTRODUCTION TO
Chinese Sacred Books.
Three diverse religious systems prevail in China — Buddhism, Three reii^ons Taoism, and Confucianism, each of which has a vast of cbina. multitude of adherents. The sacred books of the first
named consist of translations of the Buddhist canon from various languages of India, principally, however, from the Sanskrit, and need no separate notice here.' The great book of Taoism is the Tao-teh-King, a production of the celebrated philosopher Laotsze, who was born about six hundred years before the Christian era. The sacred books of Confucianism are commonly known as the five King and the four Shu.
The Tao-teh-King is scarcely entitled to the name of a sacred The Tao-teh- book. It is rather a philosophical treatise, by an acute King. speculative mind, and resembles some of the subtle por-
tions of Plato's dialogues. It is about the length of the book of Ecclesiastes, to which it also bears some resemblance. But it is de- nied, on high authority, that there is any real connexion between Taoism as a religion now prevalent in China and this book of Laotsze.'' The Tao-teh-King has been divided into eighty-one short chapters, and is devoted to the inculcation and praise of Avhat the author calls his Tao. What all this word is designed to rep- resent is very difficult, if not impossible, to determine. In the In- troduction to his translation of the work, Chalmers says : " I have thought it better to leave the word Tao untranslated, both because The meaning it lias given the name to the sect (the Taoists), and be- of Tao. cause no English word is its exact equivalent. Three
terms suggest themselves — the Waj^, Reason, and the Word ; but they are all liable to objection. Were we guided by etymology, 'the Way,' would come nearest to the original, and in one or two passages the idea of a loay seems to be in the term; but this is too materialistic to serve the purpose of a translation. ' Reason,' again, seems to be more like a quality or attribute of some conscious being than Tao is. I would translate it by 'the Word,' in the sense of the Logos, but this would be like settling the question which I wish to leave open, viz., what amount of resemblance there is between the Logos of the New Testament and this Tao, Avhich is its nearest representative in Chinese. In our version of the New Testament
' Tlie extent of this literatiire may be seen*in Beal's Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese. Lond., 1871.
' See Legge, Lectures on the Religions of China. Lecture 3d, on Taoism as a Re- ligion and a Philosophy. New York, 1881.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 47
in Chinese vre have in the first chapter of John, ' In the beginning was Tao,^ etc." *
Others have sought by other terms to express the idea of Tao. It has been called the Supreme Reason, the Universal Soul, tlie Eternal Idea, the Nameless Void, Mother of being, and Laotsze's ac- Essence of things. The following is from Laotsze him- count of xao. self, and one of the best specimens of his book, being the whole of chapter twenty-fifth, as translated by Chalmers :
There was something chaotic in nature which existed before heaven and eartli. It was still. It was void. It stood alone and was not changed. It pervaded everywhere and was not endangered. It may be regarded as the mother of the universe. I know not its name, but give it the title of Tao. If I am forced to make a name for it, I say it is Great; being great, I say that it passes away; passing away, I say that it is far ofi; being far off, I say that it returns. Now Tao is great; heaven is great; earth is great; a king is great. In the universe there are four greatnesses, and a king is one of them. Man talces his law from the earth; the earth takes its law from heaven ; heaven takes its law from Tao ; and Tao takes its law from what it is in itself.
The moral teachings of the book may be seen in chapters sixty- third and sixty-seventh, which are thus translated by Legge :
(It is the way of Tao) not to act from any personal motive; to conduct affairs witliout feeling the trouble of them; to taste wdthout being aware of tlie flavour: to account the great as small and the small as great; to recompense injury with kindness.
(The follower of Tao) anticipates things that would 1)ecome difficult while they are easy, and does things that would become great while they are little. The difficult things in the world arise from what are easy, and the great things from what are small. Thus it is that the sage never does what is great, and therefore can accomplish the greatest thingSL
He who assents lightly will be found to keej) but little faith. He who takes many things easily is sure to meet with many difficulties. Hence the sage sees difficulty in (what seem) easy things, and therefore never has any difficulties.
All in the world say that my Tao is great, but that I seem to be inferior to others. Now it is just this greatness which makes me seem inferior to others. Those who are deemed equal to others have long been — small men.
But there are three precious things which I prize and hold fast. The first is gentle compassion; the second is economy; the third is (humility), not presuming to take precedence in the world. With gentle compassion I can be brave. With economy I can be liberal. Not presuming to claim
' The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality, of " the Old Philosopher," Laotsze ; translated from the Chinese, with an Introduction by John Chalmers, A.M., pp. xi, xii. Lond., 1868.
43 INTRODUCTION TO
precedence in the workl, I can make myself a vessel fit for the most distin- guished services. Now-a-days they give up gentle compassion, and culti- vate (mere physical) courage ; they give up economy, and (try to be) lavish (without it); they give up being last, and seek to be first: — of all wliich tlie end is deatli. Gentle compassion is sure to overcome in fight, and to be firm in maintaining its own. Heaven will save its possessor, protecting bim by his gentleness.*
It has been disputed whether the Tao-teh-King acknowledges Leaves the per- the existence of a personal God. Professor Douglas of^GoTdoubt! tleclares that Laotsze knew nothing of such a being, fui. and that the whole tenor of his philosophy antagonizes
such a belief. Legge, on the other hand, affirms that the Tao-teh- King does recognize the existence of God, but contains no direct religious teaching. Laotsze's Taoism, he observes, is the exhibition of a way or method of living which men should cultivate as the highest and purest development of their nature. It has served as a discipline of mind and life for multitudes, leading some to with- draw entirely from the busy world, and others to struggle earnestly to keep themselves from the follies and passions of reckless and ambitio;is men. The highest moral teaching of Laotsze is found in the chapter sixty-third, quoted above, in which he says that Tao prompts " to recompense injury with kindness." In this particular he surpassed Confucius, whose great glory it was to enunciate, in negative form, the golden rule, " What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others." Confucius confessed that he did not always keep his own rule, much less could he adopt the loftier precept of Laotsze, but said rather, "Recompense injury with jus- tice, and return good for good." *
Far more extensive and important, however, taken as a whole, Confucius and are the sacred books of Confucianism, which is par ex- cifineseTcrip"- ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ religion of the Chinese Empire. But Con- ures. fucius was not the founder of the religion which has
become attached to his name. He claimed merely to have studied deeply into antiquity, and to be a transmitter and teacher of the records and worship of the past. " It is an error," says Legge, " to suppose that he compiled the historical documents, poems, and other ancient books from various works existing in his time. Por- tions of the oldest works had already perished. His study of those that remained, and his exhortations to his disciples also to study them, contributed to their preservation. What he wrote or said about their meaning should be received by us with reverence ; but
' Lectures on the Relig-lons of China, ]ip. 222-224. ' Comp. Legge, Ibid., pp. 143 and passim.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 49
if all the works which he handled had come down to us entire, we should have been, so far as it is possible for foreigners to be, in the same position as he was for learning the ancient religion of his country. Our text-books would be the same as his. Unfortunate- ly most of the ancient books suffered loss and injury after Confu- cius had passed from the stage of life. We have reason, however to be thankful that we possess so many and so much of them. No other literature, comparable to them for antiquity, has come down to us in such a state of preservation." '
The five King are known respectively as the Shu, the Shih, the Yi, the Li Ki, and the Khun Khiu.^ The name King, Names of the which means a web of cloth, or the warp which keeps ^^'^ King. the threads in place, came into use in the time of the Han dynasty, about B. C. 200, and was applied by the scholars of this period to the most valuable ancient books, which were regarded as having a sort of canonical authority.
The Shu King is a book of historical documents, somewhat re- sembling the various historical portions of the Old Testament, and is believed to be the oldest of all the '^^^ ^^" ^'''^^ Chinese books. Its contents relate to a period extending over sev- enteen centuries, from about B. C. 2357 to B. C. G27. It commences with an account of Yao, the most venerable of the ancient kings, of whom it is written : " He was reverential, intelligent, accomplished, and thoughtful, — naturally and without effort. He was sincerely coxarteous, and capable of all complaisance. The bright influence of these qualities was felt through the four quarters of the land, and reached to heaven above and earth beneath. He made the able and virtuous distinguished, and thence proceeded to the love of all in the nine classes of his kindred, who thus became harmoni- ous. He also regulated and polished the people of his domain, who all became brightly intelligent. Finally, he united and harmonized the myriad states; and so the black-haired people were transformed. Tl*e result was universal concord."
The Shu King is about equal in extent to the two books of Chronicles, and is divided into five parts, which are designated re- spectively, the books of Thang, Yu. Hsia, Shang, and Kau. These are the names of so many different ancient dynasties which ruled in China, and the several books consist of the annals, speeches, counsels, and proclamations of the great kings and ministers of the ancients.
' Preface to his translation of the Shu King in vol. iii of the Sacred Books of the East, as edited by Max Miiller.
"^ We here adopt the orthography followed by Legge in his translations for the Sa- cred Books of the East. 4
50 INTRODUCTION TO
The following passage is one of the most favourable specimens, and illustrates the tone and character of Chinese morality, and their most popular conceptions of virtue. It is from the third book of Part II, which is entitled " The Counsels of Kao-yao." Kao- yao was the minister of crime iinder the reign of the great Emperor Shun (about 2300 B. C), and is celebrated as a model administrator of justice •
Kao-yao said, "O! there are in all nine virtues to be discovered in con- duct, and when we say that a man possesses (any) virtue, that is as much as to say he does such and such things." Yu asked, "What (are the nine virtues)?" Kao-yao replied, "Affability combined with dignity ; mildness combined with firmness; bluntness combined with respectfulness; aptness for government combined with reverent caution ; docility combined with boldness; straightforwardness combined with gentleness; an easy negli- gence combined with discrimination; boldness combined with sincerity; and valour comlMned with righteousness. (Wlien these qualities are) dis- played, and that continuously, have we not the good (officer)? When there is a daily display of three (of these) virtues, their possessor could early and late regulate and brighten the clan (of which he was made chief). When there is a daily severe and reverent cultivation of six of them, their pos- sessor could brilliantly conduct the affairs of the state (with which he was invested). Wlien (such men) are all received and advanced, the possessors of those nine virtues will be employed in (the public) service. The men of a thousand and men of a hundred will be in their offices ; the various ministers will emulate one another; all the officers will accomplish their duties at the proper times, observant of the five seasons (as the several elements predominate in them), — and thus their various duties will be fully accomplished. Let not (the Son of Heaven) set to the holders of states the example of indolence or dissoluteness. Let him be wnry and fearful (re- membering that) in one day or two days there may occur ten thousand springs of things. Let him not have his various officers cumberers of their places. The work is Heaven's ; men must act for it ! "
A passage in Part V, Book 4, thus enumerates the five sources of haj)piness, and the six extreme evils : •
The first is long life; the second, riches; the third, soundness of body and serenity of mind ; the fourth, the love of virtue; and the fifth, fulfilling to the end the will of Heaven. Of the six extreme evils, the first is mis- fortune sliortening life; tlie second, sickness; tlie third, distress of mind; the fourth, poverty; the fifth, wickedness; the sixth, weakness.
The Shih King is a book of poetry, and contains three hundred and five pieces, commonly called odes. It is the ]>salter
TheShlhKlng. „. ^l. , ., , , • . r i n i w' +^
of the Chmese bible, and consists ot ballads relating to customs and events of Chinese antiquity, and songs and hymns to
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 51
be sung on great state occasions and in connexion with sacrificial services.' The following is a fair examj^le of the odes used in con- nexion with the worship of ancestors. A young king, feeling his responsibilities, would fain follow the example of his father, and prays to him for help :
I take counsel, at tlie beginning of my rule, How I can follow the example of my shrined father. All ! far-reaching were his plans, And I am not yet able to carry them out. However, I endeavour to reach to them, My continuation of them will still be all-deflected. I am a little cliild.
Unequal to the many difficulties of the state. Having taken bis place, I will look for him to go up
and come down in the court. To ascend and descend in the house. Admirable ait thou, O great Father; Condescend to preserve and enlighten me."
The Yi King is commonly called "the Book of Changes," from its supposed illustrations of the onward course of nature
TIT • n ^ iTTT • The Yi King.
and the changing customs of the world. It contams eight trigrams, ascribed to Fuhsi, the mythical founder of the Chinese nation, and hence some have believed it to be the oldest of all the Chinese scriptures. But according to Legge, " not a single character in the Yi is older than the twelfth century B. C. The text of it, not taking in the appendices of Confucius, consists of two portions — from king Wan, and from his son, the duke of Chan. The composition of Wan's portion is referred to the year B. C. 1143. As an authority for the ancient religion of China, therefore, the Yi is by no means equal to the Shu and the Shih. It is based on diagrams, or lineal figures, ascribed to Fuhsi, and
made up of whole and divided lines ( and ). What their
framer intended by these figures we do not know. No doubt there was a tradition about it, and I am willing to believe that it found a home in the existing Yi. . . . The character called Yi is the Bvmbol for the idea of chansje. The fashion of the world is con- tinually being altered. We have action and re-action, flux and reflux — now one condition, and immediately its opposite. The
' See The Shih King ; or the Book of Ancient Poetry, translated into English Verse, with Essays and Notes, by James Legge. Lend., IS'TG.
2 Decade III, Ode 2, p. 829, Sacred Books of the East, vol. iii. Oxford, 1879.
^ The Yi King is translated and annotated by Legge in vol. xvi of the Sacred Books of the East. Oxford, 1882.
53 INTRODUCTION TO
vicissitudes in the worlds of sense and society have their correspon- .dencies in the changes that take place in the lines of the diagrams. Again, certain relations and conditions of men and things lead to good, are fortunate; and certain others lead to evil, are unfortunate; and these results are indicated by the relative position of the lines* Those lines were systematically changed by manipulating with a fixed number of the stalks of a certain plant. In this way the Yi served the purpose of divination; and since such is the nature of the book, a reader must be prepared for much in it that is tantaliz- ing, fantastic, and perplexing.'"
The two remaining classics are of less interest and imjiortance. The Li Ki and The Li Ki King is a record of rites, consisting of three theKhunKWu. collections, called "the Three Rituals," and is the most bulky of the Five King. It contains regulations for the administra- tion of the government, describes the various officers and their duties, and the rules of etiquette by which scholars and officers should order their conduct on social and state occasions. The Khun Khiu King is of the nature of a supplement to the historical annals of the Shu King. It was compiled by Confucius from the annals of his native state of Lu, and extends from the year B. C. 722 to B. C. 481.
The Chinese classics known as "the Four Shu" have not the rank and autliority of the Five King. They are the works of dis- ciples of Confucius, and consist (1) of the Lun Yu, or Discourses of Confucius and conversations between him and his followers ; (2) the works of Mencius, next to Confucius the greatest sage and teacher of Confucianism; (3) the Ta Ilsio, or Great Learning, ascribed to Tszang-tsze, a disciple of Confucius ; and (4) the Kung Yung, or Doctrine of the Mean, a production of Tszesze, the grand- son of Confucius.'^ There is also the Hsiao King, or Classic of Filial Piety, ^vhich holds a high place in Chinese literature.'
In the preface to his translation of the Sacred Books of China, Legge observes, "that the ancient books of China do not profess to have been inspired, or to contain what we should call a Revelation. Historians, poets, and others wrote them as they were moved in their own minds. An old poem may occasionally contain what it says was spoken by God, but we can only understand that language as calling attention emphatically to the statement to which it is
1 The Religions of China, pp. 37, 38.
' See The Chinese Classics, with a Translation, Critical and Exegetical Notes, Pro- legomena, and copious Indexes. Hong Kong, 1861-1865.
' The Hsiao King is translated and annotated by Legge in vol. iii of Sacred Books of the East.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 53
prefixed. "We also read of Heaven's raising up the great ancient sovereigns and teachers, and variously assisting them to accomplish their undertakings; but all this need not be more than what a relig- ious man of any country might affirm at the present day of direc- tion, help, and guidance given to himself and others from above."
Whatever the true solution of the questions may be, the facts that distinguished Chinese scholars dispute as to whether the Con- fucian Sacred Books recognize the existence of a personal God, and that missionaries, in translating the Christian Scriptures into Chi- nese, scruple over a word that will properly represent the Christian idea of God, show the comparative vagueness and obscurity of the religion of the Chinese scriptures.
The Egyptian Book of the Dead.
A most mysterious and interesting work is the Sacred Book of the ancient Egyptians, commonly known as the Book of the Dead. Some Egyptologists prefer the title "Funeral Ritual," inasmuch as it contains many prescriptions and prayers to be used j^s different in funeral services, and the vignettes which appear on names. many copies represent funeral processions, and priests reading the formularies out of a book. But as the prayers are, for the most part, the language to be used by the departed in their progress through the under world, the title " Book of the Dead " has been generally adopted.
The Egyptian title of the work is, Book of the Peri em km, three simple words, but by no means easy of explanation when taken to- gether without a context.^ Peri signifies " coming forth," hrii is " day," and em is the preposition signifying " from," susceptible, like the same preposition in other languages, of a variety of uses. The probable meaning of Peri em hru is " coming forth by day," and is to be understood mainly of the immortality and resurrection of the dead. The book exists in a great number of manuscripts recovered from Egy^^tian tombs, and the text is very corrupt; for as the writing was not intended for mortal eyes, but to be buried with the dead, copyists Avould not be likely to be very scrupulous in their work. But the book exists not only on papyrus rolls that were deposited in the tombs, but many of the chaj^ters are inscribed upon coftins, mummies, sepulchral wrappings, statues, and the walls of tombs. Some tombs may be said to contain entire recensions of
' The Religion of Ancient Egypt, by P. Le Page Renouf. Hibbert Lectures for 1879, p. 181. New York, 1880. Our account of the Book of the Dead is condensed mainly from Renouf's fifth Lecture.
54 INTRODUCTION TO
the book. But no two copies contain exactly the same chapters, or Corrupt and follow the same arrangement. The pa2:)yrus of Turin, diUrm '^of *^the P^l^lished by Lepsius, contains one hundred and sixty- text, five chapters, and is the longest known. But a consider- able number of chapters found in other manuscripts are not included in it. None of the copies contain the entire collection of chapters, but the more ancient manuscripts have fewer chapters than the more recent. There is a great uniformity of style and of grammat- ical forms, as compared with other productions of Egyptian litera- ture, and nothing can exceed the simplicity and brevity of the sentences. A critical collation of a sufficient number of copies of each chapter will, in time, restore the text to as accurate a standard as could be attained in the most flourishing days of the old Egyp- tian monarchy.
The book is mythological throughout/ and assumes the reader's Its obscurity fs-^^ilia-i'lty with its myths and legends. The difficulty In the subject of its exposition is not in literally translating the text, but in understanding the meaning concealed beneath familiar words. The English translation by Samuel Birch, pub- lished in the fifth volume of Bunsen's Egypt's Place in Universal History, is an exact rendering of the text of the Turin manuscript, and to an Englishman gives nearly as correct an impression of the original as the text itself would do to an Egyptian who had not been carefully taught the mysteries of his religion.
The foundation of Egyptian mythology is the legend of Osiris.' The Osiris le- Having long ruled in Egypt, he was at last slain by the oT Egyptian ®^'^^ Typhon, enclosed in a mummy case, and cast into mr^hoiogy. the river Nile. Isis, his sister and spouse, sought long for his body, and at length found it at Byblus, on the Phoenician coast, where it had been tossed by the waves. She brought it back to Egypt, and buried it; and when Horus, their son, grew up, he slew the evil Typhon, and so avenged his father. Osiris, however, was not dead. He had, in fact, descended to the under world, and established his dominion there, and at the same time revived in the person of his son Horus, and renewed his dominion over the living,
'"The Ritual," says Biroh, "is, according to Egyptian notions, essentially an in- spired work ; and the term Uermetie, so often applied by profane writers to these books, in reality means inspired. It is Thoth himself who speaks and reveals the will of the gods and the mysterious nature of divine things to man. . . . Portions of them are expressly stated to liave been written by the very finger of Thoth himself, and to have been the composition of a great God." Introduction to his translation of the Funeral Ritual, in Bunsen's Egypt's Place in Universal History, vol. v, p. 133.
' On this Egyptian legend comp. Bunsen, Egypt's Place in Universal History, vol. i^ pp. 423-439, and George Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, vol. i, pp. 366-371.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 55
The usual <;xplanation of this legend makes it a mythical por- traiture of the annual dying and reviving of the powers ^^ of nature under the peculiar conditions of the valley of meaning of the the Nile. Osiris represents the fertilizing river ; Isis ™^'' ' the fruit-bearing land; Typhon the evil spirit of the parched des- erts and the salt sea, the demon of drought and barrenness. Horus is the sun, appearing in the vernal equinox, and heralding the rising of the Nile. Accordingly, when the Nile sinks before the scorch- ing winds of the Libyan desert, Osiris is slain by Typhon. Isis, th3 land, then sighs and yearns for her lost brother and spouse. But when the Nile again overflows, it is a resurrection of Osiris, and the vernal sun destroys the demon of drought and renews the face of nature. Other slightly varying explanations of the legend have been given, but whatever particular view we adopt, it will be easy to see how the drapery of these legends might, in course of time, come to be used of the death and resurrection of man. Hence we find that the names of mythical personages are constantly re- curring in the Book of the Dead.
The beatification of the dead is the main subject of the book. The blessed dead are represented as enjoying an exis- ^ ^ tence similar to that which they had led on earth. They the dead the have the use of all their limbs, eat and drink, and satisfy ^^^^ eu^jec . all their physical wants as in their earthly life. But they are not confined to any one locality, or to any one form or mode of exis- tence. They have the range of the entire universe, in every shape and form which they desire. Twelve chapters of the Book of the Dead consist of formulas to be used in effecting certain transforma- tions. The forms assumed, according to these chapters, are the tui-tledove, the serpent Sata, the bird Bennu, the crocodile Sebek, the god Ptah, a golden hawk, the chief of the principal gods, a soul, a lotusflower, and a heron. The transformations to which these chapters refer, however, are far from exhausting the list of possible ones. No limit is imposed on the will of the departed, and in this respect the Egyptian doctrine of transmigration differs wide- ly from the Pythagorean.
Throughout the Book of the Dead, the identification of the de- ceased with Osiris, or assimilation to him, is taken for identification granted, and all the deities of the family of Osiris are "^^^^ Osiris, supposed to perform for the deceased whatever the legend records as having been done for Osiris himself. Thus, in the eighteenth chapter, the deceased is brought before a series of divinities in succession, the gods of Heliopolis, Abydos, and other localities, and at each station the litany begins :
56 INTRODUCTION TO
O Tehuti [or Thoth], who causest Osiris to triumph against his oppo- nents, cause tlie Osiris (such a one) to triumph against his opponents, even as thou hast made Osiris to triumph against his opj)onents.
In the next chapter, which is another recension of the eighteenth, and is entitled the "Crown of Triumph," the deceased is declared triumphant forever, and all the gods in heaven and earth repeat this, and the chapter ends with the following :
Horus lias repeated this dechiration four times, and all his enemies fall prostrate before him annihilated. Horus, the son of Isis, repeats it millions of times, and all his enemies fall annihilated. They are carried off to the place of execution in the East; their heads are cut off, their necks are brok- en; their thighs are severed, and delivered up to the great destroyer who dwells in Aati; they shall not come forth from the custody of Seb forever.
But not to Osiris only is the deceased assimilated. In the forty- other assimi- second chapter every limb is assimilated to a different latious. deity; the hair to Nu, the face to Ra, the eyes to
Hathor, the ears to Apuat, the nose to the god of Sechem, the lips to Anubis, the teeth to Selket, and so on, the catalogue ending with the words : " There is not a limb in him without a god, and Tehuti is a safeguard to all his members." Further on it is said :
Not men, nor gods, nor the ghosts of tlie departed, nor the damned, past, present, or future, whoever they be, can do him hurt. He it is who Cometh forth in safety. "Whom men know not" is his name. The "Yes- terday which sees endless years" is his name, passing in triumph by the roads of heaven. The deceased is the Lord of eternity ; he is reckoned even as Chepera; he is the master of the kingly crown.
The one hundred and forty-ninth chapter gives an account of the Dangers of the terrible nature of certain divinities and localities which deceased. the deceased must encounter — gigantic and venomous
serpents, gods with names significant of death and destruction, waters and atmospheres of flames. But none of these prevail over the Osiris ; he passes through all things without hai'm, and lives in peace with the fearful gods who preside over these abodes. Some of these gods remind one of the demons in Dante's Infei-no. But though ministers of divine justice, their nature is not evil. The following are invocations, from the seventeenth chapter, to be used of one passing through these dangers :
O Ra, in thine egg, radiant in thy disk shining forth from the horizon, swimming over the steel firmament, sailing over the pillars of Shu; thou who hast no second among the gods, who producest tlie winds by the flames of thy mouth, and who enlightenest the worlds with thy splendours,
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 57
save the departed from that god whose nature is a mystery, and whose eyebrows are as the arms of the l)alance on the night when Aauit was weighed, . . . O Scarabaeiis god in thy bark, whose substance is self-orig- inated, save the Osiris from those watchers to whom the Lord of spirits has entrusted the observation of his enemies, and from whose observations none can escape. Let me not fall under their swords, nor go to tiieir blocks of execution ; let me not remain in their abodes ; let me not rest upon their beds [of torment] ; let me not fall into their nets. Let naught befall me which the gods abhor.
We have not space for further illustrations of this most interest- ing w^ork. It will be seen how this Funeral Ritual, or Book of the Dead, embodies the Egyptian doctrines of a future state, and the rewards and punishments of that after life.^ But it will also be observed how thoroughly its theology is blended with all that is superstitious and degrading in a polytbeistic mythology.
The Koran.
The Mohammedan Bible is a comparatively modern book, and easily accessible to English readers.'' It is about half the size of the Old Testament, and contains one hundred and four- General char- teen chapters, called Suras. It is doubtful whether ^.cter. Mohammed ever learned to read or wadte. He dictated his revela- tions to his disciples, and they wrote them on date leaves, bits of parchment, tablets of white stone, and shoulder-blades of sheep. These were written during the last twenty years of the prophet's life, and a year after his death the different fragments were col- lected by his followers, and arranged according to the length of the chapters, beginning with the longest and ending with the shortest. So the book, as regards its contents, presents a strange medley, having no real beginning, middle, or end. And yet it is probably a faithful transcript of Mohammed's mind and heart as exhibited during the latter portion of his life. In some passages he seems to have been inspired with a holy zeal, and eloquently proclaims the glory of Almighty God, the merciful and compassionate. Other
' See J. P. Thompson's Article on the Egyptian Doctrine of a Future State, in the Bibliotheca Sacra, January, 1868, in which a fair analysis of the teachings of the Book of the Dead is given.
' Sale's English version of the Koran has been published in many forms, and his Preliminary Discourse is invaluable for the study of Islam. The translation of Rev. I. M. Piodwell (Lend., 18G1) has the Suras arranged in chronological order. But the recent translation by E. H. Palmer (vols, vi and ix of Miiller's Sacred Books of the East) is undoubtedly the best English version.
58 INTRODUCTION TO
passages have the form and spirit of a bulletin of -war.' In another he seems to make an apology for taking to himself an additional wife.* Another suggests a political manoeuvre. But, on the whole, the Koran is a most tedious book to read. It is full of repetitions, and seems incapable of happy translation into any other language. Its crowning glory is its glowing Arabic diction. "Regarding it," says Palmer, "from a perfectly impartial and unbiassed standpoint, we iind that it expresses the thoughts and ideas of a Bedawi Arab in Bedawi language and metaphor. The language is noble and forcible, but it is not elegant in the sense of literary refinement. To Mohammed's hearers it must have been startling from the manner in which it brought great truths home to them in the lan- guage of their everyday life.'" Mohammed was wont to urge that the marvellous excellence of his book was a standing proof of its divine and superhuman origin. " If men and genii," says he, "united themselves together to bring the like of this Koran, they could not bring the like, though they should back each other up ! " "
The founder of Islam appears to have been from early life a Life and claims Contemplative soul. In the course of his travels as a of Mohammed, merchant he probably often met and talked with Jews and Christians. The Koran contains on almost every page some allusion to Jewish history or Christian doctrine; but Mohammed's acquaintance with both Judaism and Christianity appears to have been formed from oral sources, and was confused with many vague and silly traditions. It should be observed, too, that at that period an earnest seeker after truth, under circumstances like those which tended chiefly to fashion Mohammed's mind and character, might very easily have become bewildered by the various traditions of the Jews and the foolish controversies of the Christians. The Church was then distracted with controversy over the Trinity and the use of images in worship. To Mohammed, a religion which filled its churches with images of saints was no better than a gross idolatry. His knowledge of Jesus Avas gathered largely from the apocryphal gospels and through Jewish channels. Hence we may understand the reason of the perverted form in which so many Christian ideas are treated in the Koran.
Mohammed claimed to be the last of six great apostles who had been sent upon divine missions into the world. Those six are
* Sura iii, 135-145 ; viii, xl. Coinp. Muir, Life of Mahomet, vol. iii, p. 224. 'Sura xxxiii, 35^0; Ixvi.
' The Qur'an. Translated by E. H. Palmer. Introduction, p. Ixxvii.
* Koran, Sura xvii, 90.
BIBLICAL HERMEXEUTICS. 59
Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed. Nothing specially new or original is to be found in the Moslem bible. It has been maintained that "Islam was little else than a republica- tion of Judaism, with such modifications as suited it to Arabian soil, plus the important addition of the prophetic mission of Moham- med." ^ The following passage from the fifth Sura well illustrates the- general style of the Koran:
[20] God's is the kingdom of the heavens and the earth and what is between the two; he created what he will, for God is mighty over all!
But the Jews and the Christians say, " We are the sons of God and his beloved." Say, "Why then does he punish you for your sins?" nay, ye are mortals of those whom he has created! He pardons whom he pleases, and punishes whom he pleases; for God's is the kingdom of tlie heavens and the earth, and what is between the two, and unto him the journey is.
O people of the book ! our apostle has come to you, explaining to you the interval of apostles ; lest ye say, " There came not to us a herald of glad tidings nor a waruer." But there has come to you now a herald of glad tidings and a warner, and God is mighty over all!
When Moses said to his people, "O my people! remember the favour of God toward you when he made among you prophets, and made for you kings, and brought you what never was brought to any body in the worlds. O my people! enter the holy laud which God has prescribed for you; and be ye not thrust back upon your hinder parts and retreat losers." [25] They said, "O Moses! verily, therein is a people, giants; and we will surely not enter therein until they go out from thence; but if they go out then we will enter in." Then said two men of those who fear, — God had been gracious to them both, — "Enter ye upon them by the door, and when ye have entered it, verily, ye shall be victorious; and upon God do ye rely if ye be believers." They said, "O Moses! we shall never enter it so long as they are therein; so, go thou and thy Lord and fight ye twain; verily, we will sit down here." Said he, "My Lord, verily, I can control only myself and my brother ; therefore part us from these sinful people." He said, "Then, verily, it is forbidden them; for forty years sluiU they wander about in the earth; so vex not thyself for the sinful people."
[30] Recite to them the story of the two sons of Adam; truly wlien they oft'ered an offering and it was accepted from one of tliem, and was not accepted from the other, that one said, "I will surely kill thee;" he said, "God only accepts from those who fear. If thou dost stretch forth to me thine hand to kill me, I will not stretcli forth mine hand to kill thee; verily, I fear God the Lord of the worlds; verily, I wish that thou mayest draw upon thee my sin and thy sin, and be of the fellows of the fire, for tliiit is the reward of the unjust." But his soul allowed him to slay his brother, and he slew him, and in the morning he was of those who lose. And God sent a crow to scratch in the earth and show him how he might
' Mohammed and Mohammedanism. Lectures by E. Bosworth Smith, p. 143. New York, 1875.
60 INTRODUCTION TO
hide his brother's shame, he said, "Alas, for me! Am I too helpless to become like this crow and hide my brother's shame?" and in the morning he was of those who did repent.
[35] For this cause have we prescribed to the children of Israel that whoso kills a soul, unless it be for another soul or for violence in the land, it is as though he had killed men altogether; but whoso saves one, it is as though he saved men altogether.'
The one hundred and twelfth Sura is held in special veneration
among the Mohammedans, and is popularly accounted equal in
value to a third part of the entire Koran. It is said to have been
revealed in answer to one who wished to know the distinguishing
attributes of Mohammed's God, The following is Palmer's
version:
In the name of the merciful and compassionate God
Say, He is God alone!
God the Eternal !
He begets not, and is not begotten !
Nor is there like unto him any one!
The following passage, from the beginnmg of the second Sura, is to be understood as the words of the Angel Gabriel to Moham- med, and showing him the character and importance of the Koran:
That is the book! there is no d()ul)t therein; a guide to the pious, who believe in the unseen, and are steadfast in prayer, and of what we have given tliem expend in alms; wlio believe in what is revealed to thee, and what was revealed before thee, and of the hereafter they are sure. These are in guidance from their Lord, and these are the prosperous. Verily, those who misljclieve, it is the same to them if ye warn them or if ye warn them not, tliey will not believe. God has set a seal upon their hearts and on their hearing; and on tlieir eyes is dimness, and for them is grievous woe. And there are those among men who say, "We believe in God and in the last day;" but they do not believe. They would deceive God and tliose who do believe ; but they deceive only themselves and they do not perceive. In their hearts is a sickness, and God has made them still more sick, and for them is grievous woe because they lied. And when it is said to them, "Do not evil in the earth," they say, "We do but what is right." Are not they the evil doers ? and yet they do not perceive. And when it is said to them, ''Believe as other men believe," tliey say, "Shall we believe as fools believe ? " Are not they themselves the fools? and yet they do not know. And when they meet those who believe, they say, ''AVe do believe;" but when tliey go aside with their devils, they say, "We are with you; we were but mocking! " God shall mock at them and let them go on in their rebellion, blindly wandering on.«
-Palmer's translation, Part I., pp. 100-102. "Ibid., pp. 2, 3.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 61
The following, from the same Sura, is a specimen of the manner in which Mohammed garbles and presents incidents of Israelitish history :
Dost thou not look at the crowd of the children of Israel after Moses' time, when they said to a prophet of theirs, " Raise up for us a king, and we will fight iu God's way? " He said, '' Will ye perhaps, if it be written down for you to fight, refuse to fight ? " They said, " And why should we not fight in God's way, now that we are dispossessed of our homes and sons?" But when it was written down for them to fight they turned back, save a few of them, and God knows who are evil doers. Then their prophet said to them, "Verily, God has raised up for you Taiut as a king;" they said, "How can the kingdom be his over us; we have more right to the kingdom than he, for he has not an amplitude of wealth?" He said, "Verily, God has chosen him over you, and has provided him ■with an extent of knowledge and of form. God gives the kingdom unto whom he will; God comprehends and knows."
Then said to them their prophet, " The sign of his kingdom is that tliere shall come to you the ark with the shechinah iu it from your Lord, and the relics of what the family of Moses and the family of Aaron left ; the angels shall bear it." In that is surely a sign to you if ye believe.
Whatever opinion we may form of the Koran, or of Islam, it must be conceded that the man, who, like Mohammed, in one generation organized a race of savage tribes into a united people, founded an empire which for more than a thousand years has covered a territory as extensive as that of Rome in her proudest days, and established a religion which to-day numbers over a hundred million adherents, must have been an extraordinary char- acter, and his life and works must be worthy of careful philosophic study. But it will also be conceded, by all competent to judge, that, as a volume of sacred literature, the Koran is very deficient in those elements of independence and originality which are notice- able in the sacred books of the other great religions of the world. The strict Mohammedans regard every syllable of the Koran as of a directly divine origin. "The divine revelation," observes Muir, " was the cornerstone of Islam. The recital of a passage formed an essential part of every celebration of public worship; and its private perusal and repetition was enforced as a duty and a privi- lege, fraught with the richest religious merit. This is the uni- versal voice of early tradition, and may be gathered from the revelation itself. The Koran was accordingly committed to memory more or less by every adherent of Islam, and the extent to which it could be recited was reckoned one of the chief dis- tinctions of nobility in the early Moslem empire. The custom of
63 INTRODUCTION TO
Arabia favoured the task. Passionately fond of poetry, yet pos- sessed of but limited means and skill in committing to writing the effusions of their bards, the Arabs had long been habituated to imprint them on the living tablets of their hearts. The recol- lective faculty was thus cultivated to the highest pitch; and it was applied with all the ardour of an awakened Arab spirit to the Koran. Several of Mohammed's followers, according to early tra- dition, could, during his lifetime, repeat with scrupulous accuracy the entire revelation." '
TuE Eddas.
Two ancient collections of Scandinavian poems and legends, known as the Elder and the Younger Edda, embody the acter of the mythology of the Teutonic tribes which settled in early ^' times in the sea-girt lands of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. From these tribes migrated also the ancient colonists of Iceland. To these old Norsemen the Eddas hold a position corre- sponding to that of the Vedas among the ancient Hindus, and the Avesta among the Persians.
In the old Norse language the word Edda means ancestress, or great-grandmother. Probably the poems and traditions so named were long perpetuated orally by the venerable mothers, Avho repeated them to their children and children's children at the blazing fire- sides of those northern homes. The Elder Edda, often called the Poetic Edda, consists of thirty-nine poems, and would nearly equal in size the books of Psalms and Proverbs combined. The Younger or Prose Edda is a collection of the myths of the Scandinavian deities, and furnishes to some extent a commentary on the older Edda, from the songs of which it quotes frequently. These inter- esting works were quite unknown to the learned world until the latter part of the seventeenth century. But it appears that the poems of the older Edda were collected about the beginning of the twelfth century by Saemund Sigfusson, an Icelandic priest, who, after pursuing classical and theological studies in the universities of France and Germany, returned to Iceland and settled in a village at the foot of Mount Ilecla. Whether he collected these poems from oral tradition, or from runic manuscripts or inscriptions, is uncertain. A copy of this Edda on vellum, believed to date from the fourteenth century, was found in Iceland by Bishop Sveinsson in 1G43, and was subsequently published under the title of The Edda of Saemund the Learned.' The prose Edda is ascribed to the celebrated Ice-
' The Life of Mahomet, vol. i. Introduction, p. 5. London, 18C1. ' Edda Sucmundar hind Froda, Copenhagen. 3 vols. 1787-1828. The third volume contains the Lexicon Mythologicum of Finn Magnusson.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 63
landic historian, Snorri Sturlason (born 1178), who probably collect- ed its several parts from oral tradition and other sources. The first copy known to Europeans was found by Jonsson in 1628, and the first complete edition was published by Rask, at Stockholm, in 1818.' The fii'st, and perhaps oldest, poem of the Elder Edda is entitled
the Voluspa, that is, the Sonsr of the Prophetess. It
. ... 1 • r ^ . The Voluspa.
narrates m poetic form the creation ot tne universe
and of man, the origin of evil, and how death entered into the
world. It speaks of a future destruction and renovation of the
universe, and of the abodes of bliss and woe. The prophetess
thus begins her song:
1. All noble souls, yield me devout cattention, Ye high and low of Heimdall's race,"
I will All-Father's works make known, The oldest sayings which I call to mind.
2. Of giants eight was I first born, They reared me up from ancient times; Nine worlds I know, nine limbs I know Of that strong trunk within the earth.'
3. In that far age when Ymir* lived, There was no sand, nor sea, nor saline wave; Earth there was not, nor lofty heaven,
A yawning deep, but verdure none,
4. Until Bor's sons the spheres upheaved, And they the mighty Midgard^ formed.
' An English translation of the Poetic Edda was published by Benjamin Thorpe (Two parts, London, 1866), but is now out of print. Comp. Icelandic Poetry, or the Edda of Saemund translated into English verse by A. S. Cottle (Bristol, 1797). Many fragments of the lays are given in Anderson's Norse Mythology (Chicago, 1880). An English translation of the Prose Edda is given in Blackwell's edition of Mallet's Northern Antiquities (Bohn's Antiquarian Library). A new translation by R. B. Anderson has been published at Chicago (1880). A very complete and convenient German translation of both Eddas, with explanations by Karl Simrock, has passed through many editions (seventh improved edition, Stuttgart, 1878).
* Heimdall, according to the old Norse mythology, was the father and founder of the different classes of men, nobles, churls, and thralls.
^ Referring to the great mundane ash-tree where the gods assemble every day in
council. This tree strikes its roots through all worlds, and is thus described in the
nineteenth verse of the Voluspa :
An ash I know named Yggdrasil,
A lofty tree wet with white mist,
Tlience comes the dew which in the valleys falls ;
Ever green it stands o'er the Urdar-fount.
* Ymir was the progenitor of the giants, and out of his body the world was created. ® The Prose Edda explains that the earth is round without, and encircled by the
ocean, the outward shores of which were assigned to the race of "iants. But around
04 INTRODUCTION TO
The southern sun shone on the cliffs
And green the ground became with plants.
5. The southern sun, the moon's companion, Held with right hand the steeds of heaven. The sun knew not where she' might set, The moon knew not what power he * had, The stars knew not where they might dwell.
6. Then went the Powers to judgment seats, The gods most holy lield a council,
To night and new moon gave they names, They named the morning and the midday, And evening, to arrange the times."
Another very interesting poem is the Grimnis-mal, or Lay of Grimner, in which we find a description of the twelve habitations of heavenly deities, by which some scholars understand the twelve signs of the zodiac. The sixth poem is called the Hava-mal, or Sublime Lay. It is an ethical poem, embodying a considerable col- lection of ancient Norse proverbs. The following passages, from Bishop Percy's prose translation, are specimens :
1. Consider and examine Avell all your doors before you venture to stir abroad ; for he is exposed to continual danger, whose enemies lie in am- bush concealed in his court.
3. To the guest, who enters your dwelling with frozen knees, give the warmth of your fire: he who hath travelled over the mountains hath need of food, and well-dried garments.
4. Offer water to him who sits down at your table ; for he hath occasion to cleanse his hands: and entertain him honourably and kindly, if you would win from him friendly words and a grateful return.
5. He wl'.o travelleth hath need of wisdom. One may do at home what- soever one will: but he wlio is isrnorant of good manners will onlv draw contempt upon himself, when he comes to sit down with men well instructed.
7. He who goes to a feast, where he is not expected, either speaks with a lowly voice, or is silent; he listens with his ears, and is attentive with his eyes; by this he acquires knowledge and wisdom.
8. Happy he, who draws upon himself the applause and benevolence of men! for whatever depends upon the will of others, is hazardous and un- certain.
a portion of the inland Odin, Vile, and Ve, the sons of Bor, raised a bulwark against turbulent giants, and to the portion of the earth wliich it encircled they gave the name of Midgard. For this structure, it is said, they used the eyebrows of Ymir, of his flesh they formed the land, of his sweat and blood the seas, of his bones the mountains, of his hair the trees, of his brains the clouds, and of his skull the vault of lieaven. See Mallet, Northern Antiquities, pp. 98, 405. Anderson, Norse Mythology, p. 176.
' In the Norse language, sun is feminine and moon is masculine.
* Translated from Simrock's German version of the Voluspa.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 65
10. A man can carry with him no better provision for his journey than the strength of understanding. In a foreign country this will be of more use to him than treasures; and will introduce liim to the table of strangers.
12-13. A man cannot carry a worse custom with him to a banquet than that of drinking too much ; the more the drunkard swallows, the less is his wisdom, till he loses his reason. Tlie bird of oblivion sings before those who inebriate themselves, and steals away their souls.'
We add a single extract from the Prose Edda, the account of the formation of the first human pair :
One day, as the sons of Bor were walking along the sea-beach they found two stems of wood, out of which they shaped a man and a woman. The first (Odin) infused into them life and spirit; the second (Vile) endowed them with reason and the power of motion; the third (Ve) gare^ them speech and features, hearing and vision. The man they called Ask, and the woman, Embla. From these two descend the whole human race, whose assigned dwelling was within Midgard. Then the sons of Bor built in the middle of the universe the city called Asgard, where dwell th&gods and their kindred, and from that abode work out so many wondrous things, both on the earth and in tlie heavens above it. There is in that city a place called Hlidskjalf, and when Odin is seated there on his lofty throne he sees over the whole world, discerns all the actions of men, jind comprehends whatever he contemplates. His wife is FiiLrga, the daughter of Fjorgyn, and tliey and their offspring form the race that we call the jEsir, a race that dwells in Asgard the old, and the regions around it, and that we know to be entirely divine. Wherefore Odin may justly be called All-Father, for he is verily the father of all, of gods as well as of men, and to his power all things owe their existence. Earth is his daughter and his wife, and with her he had his first-born son, Asa-Thor, who is endowed with strength and valour, and therefore quelleth he everything that hath life.*
In all the voluminous literature of the Greeks and the Romans we find no single work or collection of writings analogous to the above-named sacred books.^ It would not be difficult to comj^ile from Greek and Roman poets and philosophers a body of sacred literature which would compare favourably with that of any of the Gentile nations. But such a compilation woiild have, as a volume, no recognized authority or national significance. The books we have described, like our own Bible, have had a historical develop- ment, and a distinct i>lace in the religious culture of great nations.
' See the whole poem as translated by Tliorpe in Anderson's Norse Mythology, pp. 130-15.5, and the mysterious Runic section on pp. 254-259.
* Blackwell's translation, in Mallet, Xorthern Antiquities, pp. 405, 406.
' Whatever may have been the nature and contents of the old Sibylline Books, which were kept in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome, they perished long ago, and their real character and use are now purely matters of conjecture. 5
66 INTRODUCTION TO
The Koran, the Avesta, the Pitakas, and the Chinese classics em- body the precepts and laws which have been a rule of faith to mill- ions. The vedic hymns and the Egyptian ritual have directed the devotions of countless generations of earnest worshippers. They are, therefore, to be accounted sacred books, and are invaluable for the study of history and of comparative theology.'
In forming a proper estimate of these bibles of the nations, we
^ , must take each one as a whole. In the brief citations
These books
must be studied we have given above, the reader can only learn the as a whole. general tone and spirit of the best portions of the sev- eral books. The larger part of all of them is filled with either un- trustworthy legends, or grotesque fancies and vague speculations. They abound in polytheistic superstitions, incomprehensible meta- physics, and mythological tales. But, doubtless, back of all this mass of accumulated song and superstition and legend, there Avas once a foundation of comparatively pure worship and belief. Even Mohammed, whose life and works stand out in the light of reliable history, appears to have been, at the beginning of his career, an earnest seeker after truth and a zealous reformer. But afterward the pride of power and numerous victories warped his moral integ- rity, and later portions of the Koran are apologies for his crimes. It is difficult to see what logical connexion the superstitions of modern Taoism have with the teachings of Laotzse. In fact, the original documents and ideas of most of the great religions of the East appear to have become lost in the midst of the accretions of later times. Especially is this true of Brahmanism and Buddhism. Who can now certainly declare what were the very words of Bud- dha? The Tripitaka is an uncertain guide. It is much as if the apocryphal gospels, the legends of anchorites and monks and mys- tics, and the dreams of the schoolmen, were all strung together, and intermingled with the words and works of Jesus. Roman Catholicism is itself a gross corruption and caricature of the religion of Jesus Christ; and were it the sole representative of the Gospel in the world to-day it would be a striking analogue of Buddhism. Could we go back to the true historical starting point of the great religions, we would, perhaps, find them all, in one form and another,
' The Holy Scriptures of the Sikhs, a politico-religious sect of India, constitute a volume full of interest, and equal in size to the Old Testament. It is commonly known as the Granth. But it is a late work, compiled about A. D. 1500, and has no national or historical value to entitle it to a ])lace among the bibles of the uittioiis. It has been translated into English, and published at the expense of the Biitish (iovern- ment for India. See The Adi Granth, or the Holy Scriptures of the Sikhs, translated from the original Gurmukhi, with Introductory Essays, by Dr. Ernest Tiirumpp. Lond., 18Y7.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 67
connected with some great patriarchal Jethro, or Melchizedek, whose name and genealogy are now alike lost to mankind.
It will not do to take up the various bibles of the world, and, having selected choice extracts from them all, compare such selec- tions alone with similar extracts from the Christian and Jewish Scriptures. These latter, we doubt not, can furnish more exquisite passages than all the others combined. But such comparison of choice excerpts is no real test. Each bible must be taken as an organic whole, and viewed in its historical and national Notable snperi- relations. Then will it be seen, as one ci'owning glory ority of the oid
and New Tes-
of the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, that tament scrip- they are the carefully preserved productions of some *"'''^^' sixteen centuries, self-verifying in their historical relations, and completed and divinely sanctioned by the Founder of Christian- ity and his apostles in the most critical and cultivated age of the Roman Empire. All attempts to resolve these sacred books into myths and legends have proved signal failures. The Hebrew people were notably a peculiar people, and their national history stands out in the clear light of trustworthy testimony. They were placed, geographically, in the very center of the great historic empires of Egypt, Asia, and Europe; and the accuracy of their sacred records is confirmed by the records of these empires. Most notable is the fact, moreover, that the languages in which the several parts of the sacred canon were written ceased to be living tongues about the time when those several parts obtained canonical authority; and thereby these sacred books were crystallized into imperishable form, and have become historical and linguistic mon- uments of their own genuineness. We are, furthermore, confident in the assertion that the Holy Scriptures are not only singularly free from the superstitions and follies that abound in the sacred books of other nations, but also that they contain in substance the inculcation of every excellence and virtue to be found in all the others. Thus in their entirety they are incomparably superior to all other sacred books.'
But, taken in parts, the Bible will still maintain a marvellous superiority. Where, in all other literature, wdll be found a moral code comparable, for substance and historical presentation, with the Sinaitic decalogue? Whei-e else is there such a golden sum-
' " It cannot be too strongly stated," saj'S Max Muller, " that the chief, and in many cases the only, interest of the Sacred Books of the East is historical ; that much in them is extremely childish, tedious, if not repulsive ; and that no one but the historian •will be able to understand the important lessons which they teach." Sacred Books of the East, vol. i, p. xliii.
68 INTRODUCTION TO
raary of all law and revelation as the first and second command- ments of the Saviour? The religions lessons of the Bible are set in a historical background of national life and personal experi- ence; and largely in biographical sketches true to all the phases of human character.' Let the diligent student go patiently and care- fully through all rival scriptures; let him memorize the noblest vedic hymns, and study the Tripitaka with all the enthusiasm of an Edwin Arnold; let him search the Confucian classics, and the Tau- teh-king of Laotsze, and the sacred books of Persia, Assyria, and Babylon; let him devoutly peruse Egyptian ritual, Moslem Koran, and Scandinavian Eddas; he yet will find in the Psalms of David a beauty and purity infinitely superior to any thing in the Vedas; in the gospels of Jesus a glory and splendour eclipsing the boasted "Light of Asia;" and in the laws of Moses and the Proverbs of Solomon lessons of moral and political wisdom far in advance of any thing that Laotsze and Confucius offer. By such study and comparisons it will be seen, as not before, how, as a body of laws, history, poetry, prophecy, and religious records, the Bible is most emphatically the Book of books, and, above all other books combined, "profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness." Such study will dissipate the notion that Christianity is equivalent to general goodness, and that the Bible is an accident of human history; for it Avill bo seen that the Gospel system essentially excludes all other religions, and evinces a divine right to supersede them all. The written records of other faiths are of the earth and earthy; the Bible is a heavenly gift, in language and history wonderfully prepared, and accompanied by manifold evidences of being the revelation of God. To devotees of other religions the Christian may truly say, in the words of the Lord Jesus (John iv, 22): "Ye worship what ye know not, we wor- ship what we know, for the salvation is from the Jews."
' Tayler Lewis observes : " Every other assumed revelation has been addressed to but one pliase of humanity. They have been adapted to one age, to one people, or one peculiar style of human thought. Their books have never assumed a cosmical character, or been capable of any catholic expansion. They could never be ac- commodated to other ages, or acclimated to other parts of the world. They are indig- enous plants that can never grow out of the zone that gave them birth. Zoroaster never made a disciple beyond Persia, or its inunediate neighborhood ; Confucius is wholly Chinese, as Socrates is wholly Greek." The Divine Human in the Scripture, p. 133. New York, 1859.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 69
CHAPTER III.
LANGUAGES OF THE BIBLE.
A THOROUGH acquaintance with the genius and grammatical struc- ture of the original languages of the Bible is essen- Acquaintance tially the basis of all sound interpretation. A transla- J^'^j^ *^^^^ ^'"•s- tion, however faithful, is itself an interpretation, and of scripture the cannot be safely made a substitute for original and in- ggu^^ ''mter- dependent investigation. As an introduction, there- pretation. fore, to Biblical Hermeneutics, it is of the first importance that we have a knowledge of those ancient tongues in which the sacred oracles were written. It is important, also, that we make our- selves familiar with the general principles of linguistic science, the growth of families of languages, and the historical position, as well as the most marked characteristics, of the sacred tongues.
Origin and Growth of Languages.
The origin of human speech has been a fruitful theme of specu- lation and controversy. One's theory on the subject is origin of lan- likely to be governed by his theory of the origin of suage. man. If we adopt the theory of evolution, according to which man has been gradually developed, by some process of natural selection, from lower forms of animal life, we will very naturally conclude that language is a human invention, constructed by slow degrees to meet the necessities and conditions of life. If, on the other hand, we hold that man was first introduced on earth by a miraculous creation, and was made at the beginning a perfect specimen of his kind, we will very naturally conclude that the beginnings of human language were of supernatural origin.
Several theories have been advanced to show that language may have had a human origin. According to one theory, various theo- maintained by several eminent philologists, such as ^^• K. W. L. Heyse, H. Steinthal, and Max Miiller, man was originally endowed with a creative faculty which spontaneously gave a name to each distinct conception as it first thrilled through his brain. There was originally such a sympathy between soul and body, and such a dependence of the one upon the other, that every object,
•
70 INTRODUCTION TO
which in any way affected the senses, produced a corresponding The Automatic echo in the soul, and found automatic expression Theory. through the vocal organs. As gold, tin, wood, and
stone have each a different ring or sound when struck, so the different sensations and perceptions of man's soul rang out articu- late sounds whenever they were impressed by objects from without or intuitions from Avithiu. This may properly be called the auto- matic theory of the origin of speech. Others adopt a theory The onomato- which may be called onomatopoetic. It traces the poetic Theory, origin of words to an imitation of natural sounds. Animals, according to this theory, would receive names corre- sponding to their natural utterances. The noises caused by the winds and waters would suggest names for these objects of nature. The interjec- ^^d in this way a few simple words would come to tionai Theory, form the germs of the first language. Then, again, there is the interjectional theory, Avhich seeks for the radical ele- ments of language in the sudden ejaculations of excited passion or desire.
Against all these theories strong arguments may be urged. In- Objections to terjections and onomatopoetic words are in every lan- these theories, guage comparatively few, and can in no proper sense be regarded as the radical elements of speech. " Language begins where interjections end." The two theories last named will ac- count for the origin of many words in all languages, but not for the origin of language itself. The automatic theory assumes too materialistic and mechanical a notion of lanffuatre-makinsf to com- mand general acceptance. It has been nicknamed the ding-dong theory, for it resolves the first men into bells, mechanically ringing forth vocal sounds, and, as Whitney has humorously added, like other bells they rang by the tongue. But Miiller, on the o^her hand, rejects both the other theories, and stigmatizes the onomato- poetic as the boto-ioow theory, and the interjectional as the pooh- pooh theory. Thus the most eminent philologists reject and spurn each other's theories.
Whitney has argued that, since nineteen-twentieths of our speech is manifestly of human origin, it is but reasonable to suppose that the other twentieth originated in the same way.' But such an argument cannot be allowed, for it is precisely with this unknown twentieth that all the difficulty lies. Nor is it really so much the twentieth as the one thousandth part. We can readily trace the causes and methods by which languages have been multiplied and changed, but how the first man began to speak — not merely utter ' Language and the Study of Language, p. 400.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 71
articulate sounds, but frame sentences and communicate ideas — is quite another question. Necessity may have compelled him to make clothing, build houses, and fabricate implements of art ; but in all such cases he somewhere found the raw material at hand. He did not originate the clay and the trees and the stones. But the origin of human language seems, from the nature of the case, to involve the creation of the material as well as the putting it in form.
If we believe that man was originally created upright, with all his natural faculties complete, a most obvious corollary origin probably is, that language was directly imparted to him by his supernatural. Creator. He learned his first mode of speech from God, or from angelic beings, whom God commissioned to instruct him. Perhaps the original creation involved with it a power in the first man to speak spontaneously. He named whatever he would name as in- tuitively as the bird builds its nest, and as naturally as the first bud put forth its inflorescence; but, unlike bird and bud, his original power for speaking was a conscious capability of the soul, and not, as the automatic theory assumes, a peculiarity of the vocal organs. Language is not an accident of human nature ; else might it utterly perish like other arts and inventions of man. It is an essential ele- ment of man's being, and one which ever distinguishes him from the brute. Nor is it ingenuous or honourable in linguists to ignore the statements of Scripture on this subject. The account of Adam naming the creatures brought to him (Gen. ii, 19) is manifestly one illustration of his first use of language. Perfect and vigorous from the start, his faculty of language, as a native law, sponta- neously gave names to the objects presented to his gaze. This exercise seems not to have taken place until after he had held in- tercourse with God (verses 16, 17), but the whole account of his creation and primitive state implies that his power of speech, and its first exercise, were among the mysterious facts of his supernat- ural origin.
The confusion of tongues, narrated in the eleventh chapter of Genesis, may be an important factor in accounting for ^^^ confusion the great multitude and diversity of human languages, of tongues at The plain import of that narrative is, that, by a direct judgment-stroke of the Almighty, the consciousness of men became confused, and their speech discordant. And this confusion of speech is set forth as the occasion, not the result, of their being scattered abroad over all the earth. Whatever language had been used before that event, it probably went out of existence then or became greatly modified, and any attempt now to determine abso-
73 INTRODUCTION TO
lutely the original language of mankind, would be as great a folly as the building of the tower of Babel.'
But modern philological research has contributed greatly to our knowledge of the changes, growth, and classification of growth of new the languages of men. We, who read and speak the laiiKuages. English language of to-day, know that it is very differ- ent from the English language of three hundred years ago. We go back to the time of Chaucer, and find what seems almost another language. Go back to the Norman Conquest, and it requires as much study to understand the Anglo-Saxon of that period as to understand German or French. The reason of these changes is traceable to the introduction of new words, new customs, and new ideas by the Noi-man Conquest and the stern measures of William the Conqueror. A new civilization was introduced by him into England, and, since his day, constant changes have been going on by reason of commerce with other peoples and the manifold re- searches and pursuits of men. New inventions have, within one hundred years, introduced more than a thousand new words into our language.
Then, also, local changes occur, and the common people of one section of a country acquire a different dialect from those of another section. In Great Britain different dialects distinguish the people of different localities, and yet they all speak English, and can read- ily understand one another. In the United States we have modes of speech peculiar to New England, others peculiar to the South, and others to the West. But think of a community or colony mi- grating to a distant region and becoming utterly shut off from their fathei'land. New scenes and pursuits in course of time obliterate much of the language of their former life. Their children know little or nothing of the old country. Each new generation adds new words and customs, until they come to use virtually a different language. Many old words will be retained, but thoy are pro- nounced differently, and are combined in new forms of expression, until we can scarcely trace their etymology. Under such circum- stances it would require but a few generations to bring into exis- tence a new language. The English language has more than eighty thousand words; but Shakspeare uses only fifteen thousand, and Milton less than ten thousand. How small a part of the language, then, would be necessary to a band of unlearned emigrants settling in a new country. The American Indians have a language for
' A prevalent opinion among Jews and Christians has been that the original lan- guage was Hebrew. This opinion is due mainly to a feeling of reverence for that sa- cred tongue.
BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 73
every tribe, and with no literature, or schools, or